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PROJECT GUIDE
Mr. Deepak Kumar Singh
PROJECT COORDINATOR
Mr. Satendra Sharma
HOD
Mr. Subhash Chandra Dhul
SUBMITTED BY
NAME
Ankit Rawat
Abhishek Kumar
Atul Singh
Abhishek Tiwari
ROLL NO.
1213231037
1213231005
1213231057
1213231010
History
Discussion of a potential successor system for GSM started in ETSI and other standard
developing organizations already in the late 1980, even before any second-generation system
was in commercial operation. The ETSI-term for the future system was Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System (UMTS). Simultaneously, the International Telecommunication
(ITU) also started discussions on a potential future mobile system initially referred to as Future
Public Land Mobile System (FPLMTS) and started to specify a set of system requirements.
Due to the huge world-wide success of GSM, the interest among European network operators
and manufacturers to consider a completely new system was rather low until to the mid-1990s.
Only after the ITU has taken the initiative to formulate a concrete roadmap towards a new
mobile system to be deployed in the early 2000s, the specification activities for UMTS in ETSI
were ramped up in 1995. The ITU term for the future 3G system was later changed to IMT2000, International Telecommunications System for the 2000s. As part of the roadmap, a
deadline for submission of proposals for IMT-2000 by the regional standardization
development organizations was agreed to be in July 1998.In January 1998 ETSI selected two
radio transmission technologies (from originally 4 different proposals) for UMTS terrestrial
radio access (UTRA), referred to as UTRA FDD and UTRA TDD, which were submitted to
ITU as candidates for IMT-2000.
The proposals included a number of different Wideband CDMA (WCDMA) based
Radio access technologies, from ETSI, TTC/ARIB (Japan), TTA (Korea), ANSI T1 (USA) and
TIA (USA), which can be grouped into two types. The one type of proposals requires
synchronized base stations and is building up on the IS-95 2G radio transmission technology.
The other group of concepts does not rely on base station synchronization.
Evolutionary Algorithms
Evolutionary computation uses the computational model of evolutionary processes as key
elements in the design and implementation of computer-based systems and problem solving
applications. There are a variety of evolutionary computational models that have been
proposed and studied which we will refer to as evolutionary algorithms. They share a
common conceptual base of simulating the evolution of individual structures via processes of
selection and reproduction. They depend on the performance (fitness) of the individual
structures. More precisely, evolutionary algorithms maintain a population of structures that
evolve according to rules of selection and other operators, such as recombination and
mutation.
Each individual in the population receives a measure of its fitness in the environment.
Selection focuses attention on high fitness individuals, thus exploiting the available fitness
information. Recombination and mutation perturb those individuals, providing general
heuristics for exploration.
Although simplistic from a biologist's viewpoint, these algorithms are sufficiently complex to
provide robust and powerful adaptive search mechanisms.
A population of individual structures is initialized and then evolved from generation to
generation by repeated applications of evaluation, selection, recombination, and mutation.
The population size N is generally constant in an evolutionary algorithm.
An evolutionary algorithm typically initializes its population randomly, although domain
specific knowledge can also be used to bias the search.
Evaluation measures the fitness of each individual according to its worth in some
environment.
Evaluation may be as simple as computing a fitness function or as complex as running an
elaborate simulation.
Selection is often performed in two steps, parent selection and survival.
Parent selection decides who becomes parents and how many children the parents have.
Children are created via recombination, which exchanges information between parents, and
mutation, which further perturbs the children.
The children are then evaluated. Finally, the survival step decides who survives in the
population.
The origins of evolutionary algorithms can be traced to at least the 1950's.
three methodologies that have emerged in the last few decades:
"evolutionary programming" (Fogel et al., 1966)
"evolution strategies" (Rechenberg, 1973)
"genetic algorithms and genetic programming (Holland, 1975).
Although similar at the highest level, each of these varieties implements an evolutionary
algorithm in a different manner.
The differences include almost all aspects of evolutionary algorithms, including the choices
of representation for the individual structures, types of selection mechanism used, forms of
genetic operators, and measures of performance.
Selection
Recombination
Mutation
Fitness Function
Survivor Decision
procedure EP
{
t = 0;
initialize population P(t);
evaluate P(t);
until (done) {
t = t + 1;
parent_selection P(t);
mutate P(t);
evaluate P(t);
survive P(t);
}
}
After initialization, all N individuals are selected to be parents, and then are mutated,
producing N children.
These children are evaluated and N survivors are chosen from the 2N individuals, using a
probabilistic function based on fitness.
In other words, individuals with a greater fitness have a higher chance of survival.
The form of mutation is based on the representation used.
For example, when using a real-valued vector, each variable within an individual may have
an adaptive mutation rate that is normally distributed with a zero expectation.
Recombination is not generally performed since the forms of mutation used are quite flexible
and can produce perturbations similar to recombination, if desired.
Genetic Algorithms
Genetic algorithms are considered wide range numerical optimisation methods which use the
natural processes of evolution and genetic recombination. Thanks to their versatility, they
can be used in different application fields.
The algorithms encode each parameters of the problem to be optimised into a proper sequence
(where the alphabet used is generally binary) called a gene, and combine the different
genes to constitute a chromosome. A proper set of chromosomes, called population, undergoes the Darwinian processes of natural selection, mating and mutation, creating new
generations, until it reaches the final optimal solution under the selective pressure of
the desired fitness function.
GA optimisers, therefore, operate according to the following nine points:
1) encoding the solution parameters as genes;
2) creation of chromosomes as strings of genes;
3) initialisation of a starting population;
4) evaluation and assignment of fitness values to the individuals of the population;
5) reproduction by means of fitness weighted selection of individuals belonging to the
populations;
6) recombination to produce recombined members;
7) mutation on the recombined members to produce the members of the next generation.
8) evaluation and assignment of fitness values to the individuals of the next generation;
9) convergence check
The coding is a mapping from the parameter space to the chromosome space and it
transforms the set of parameters, which is generally composed by real numbers, in a string
characterized by a finite length. The parameters are coded into genes of the chromosomes
that allow the GA to evolve independently of the parameters themselves and therefore of the
solution space.
Once created the chromosomes it is necessary choose the number of them which composes the
initial population. This number strongly influences the efficiency of the algorithm in finding
the optimal solution: a high number provides a better sampling of the solution space but
slows the convergence.
Fitness function, or cost function, or object function provides a measure of the goodness of a
given chromosome and therefore the goodness of an individual within a population.
Since the fitness function acts on the parameters themselves, it is necessary to decode
the genes composing a given chromosome to calculate the fitness function of a certain
individual of the population.
Pr
Iin Iout
where SF is the Spreading Factor, Pr is the received power, Iin is the intra-cells interference,
Iout is the inter-cells interference, is the thermal noise.
(3)
Case 2
In real situations, the traffic inside a territory is not distributed in a homogeneous way. The
concentration users zones are named hotspots. It is evident that, to guarantee a certain QoS
level, it is necessary to reduce, as more as possible, the intra-cells and inter-cells interference.
As a consequence, placing a BS in a hot spot represents a first significant step in net
optimization.
Given a non homogeneous traffic distribution and aninitial numbers of BSs,
calculated according to (2), the algorithm is capable of maximizing coverage and capacity and
of minimizing cost.
Case 3
In real situation, for environmental reasons, it is not possible to place BSs anywhere.
In this case, only a limited number of zones is available and it is necessary to find a function
that accepts, as inputs, not only information concerning traffic but also information optimize
concerning the available installation zones (in particular their coordinates). The function must
the net considering these limitations that is a cost vinculum. Its structure is therefore equal to
the one of less the cost factor.
Case 4
Another crucial factor in UMTS system is represented by the radiated power (environmental
restrictions), with particular respect to the QoS. Therefore the net needs, sometimes, to
place the BSs on the territory to reduce, as more as possible, the emitted power, guaranteeing an
acceptable level of QoS.
In this case the power of each BS is considered as input parameter (which can be properly
changed), that influences not only the coverage area but also the transmission capacity.
Future Scope
A genetic algorithm based technique to optimize the design of UMTS cellular nets has been
presented.
The proposed method considers most of the limits imposed by the installation of the BSs
necessary to guarantee an optimal service, also including environmental restrictions.
Even if some simplifications were made, the considered technique is capable of ensuring good
results from any point of view, representing a useful tool for UMTS initial optimization.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
L. Nagi and L. Farkas, Indoor Base Station Location Optimization Using Genetic
Algorithms, IEEE International Symposium on Personal, Indoor and Mobile
Communications, Vol. 2, London, 2000, pp. 843-846.
[6]
[7]
[8]