Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Contents
Transport routes
CONDITIONING/TRANSPORT
PROCESSING
MARKETS
LNG
ENERGY
GAS
CNG
-Residential
-Industrial
-Transport (NGV)
LIQUEFACTION
COMPRESSION
PIPE
Raw gas
GTL / FT
PROCESSING
LIQUIDS
CHEMICAL
CONVERSION
DME
METHANOL
Olefins/PP/PE
COMPRESSION
Reinjection
(EOR)
LPG CONDENSATES
CO2 Hg
N2
O2
H2O
To market /
Discharged into natural environment
or stored
20444_a_A_ppt_07 - END USES OF NATURAL GAS
H2S
Source: Total
3
Non-Associated Gas
Gas
Water
Associated Gas
Petroleum
Petroleum
Water
Dome gas
Associated Gas
Petroleum
Gas
Saturated oil field
Petroleum
Water
Liquids
LPG
Liquefied
Petroleum Gas
METHANE
C1
ETHANE
C2
PROPANE
BUTANE
C3
C4
Nitrogen
C5+
NGL
Natural Gas
Liquids
Helium
Impurities
CO2
H2S
Mercury
...
Why the gas is processed: the natural gas emerging from the ground is not the
clean gas delivered to consumers. Oil fields contain dissolved gas or gas in
the form of a pocket separate from the liquid. Gas deposits generally contain
hydrocarbons heavier than methane, and those that are liquid at ambient
temperature are known as natural gas liquids.
To be eligible for consumption, and partly for transport purposes, the gas must
have certain essential characteristics:
it must be DRY: containing no WATER or HYDROCARBONS in liquid state
its acidic components and toxic bodies must be eliminated
it must have constant heating value and specific gravity, Wobbe index
2013 - IFP Training
Sweet Gas
Low Cal Gas
Comments
Gases with high NGL content are generally gases associated with a liquid hydrocarbon deposit.
Raw gas from a natural or associated gas deposit may contain acidic impurities: H2S and/or CO2, in greater or lesser quantities.
If the treated gas still contains large quantities of CO2 or nitrogen, it has a low heating value.
Sweetening these sour raw gases produces a treated or sweet gas and separated acid gases (H2S and CO2 present in the raw gas). This separated
acid gas is generally sent to a sulphur production unit (Claus unit) but can also be reinjected.
Natural gas can also be used as a fuel in vehicles internal combustion engines. This
requires a suitable infrastructure (network of service stations with gas compression),
and vehicles equipped with compressed gas tanks.
The gas consumer markets are industrialised countries. Natural gas deposits are
generally located a long way from these markets, which means that the gas must be
transported. Gas is more expensive to transport than oil: where petroleum can be
transported at atmospheric pressure in liquid state, gas must be at high pressure or low
temperature to have sufficient specific gravity to make the transport economic.
2013 - IFP Training
10
COMMENTS
Another way to look at the international gas trade, presently donimated by the import to Europe for pipeline gas, and by Japan/Korea for LNG.
EP - 20500_b_A_ppt_06 - FUNDAMENTALS OF LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS (LNG)
11
12
Gas can be converted into liquid hydrocarbons, gas oil or lubricants, via Fischer-Tropsch
conversion.
It can also be converted into DimethylEther. DME is used as a fuel for vehicles, instead
of LPG. This requires a suitable infrastructure, which certain emerging countries are
putting in place.
Gas can also be chemically converted into methanol, and then possibly into olefins.
Liquid hydrocarbons generally fetch a higher price than natural gas. So the FischerTropsch conversion can also ensure greater profitability of the gas.
On the other hand, chemical conversion facilities are very large and expensive. They are
also highly energy-consuming.
13
14
Domestic gas
CONVERSION
TRANSPORT
Gas pipeline
GTL/FT
Fuel oils /
Lubricants
&
Chemicals /
Petrochemicals
markets
DME
Natural
or associated gas
LNG
Onshore
Offshore
CNG
Energy gas
market
NGH
METHANOL
GTW
Used by the
hydrocarbons producer
15
Gas is a low concentration energy (a volume of gas under ambient conditions has approximately
1000 times less energy than the same volume of petroleum), and commercial exploitation of gas
resources when there is no nearby domestic market is always confronted with the problem of
transporting or converting the gas for sale for end use on a distant market.
The choice of technology to be adopted must be examined on an individual basis, but the main
means for transport remain: gas pipeline, LNG (including mini-LNG), GTW (Gas to Wire) i.e.
converting the gas into electricity, CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) and NGH (Natural Gas Hydrates).
The target end markets are the gas and/or electricity markets.
As regards conversion, with petrochemicals and fuels as the end markets, the currently feasible
means are: methanol and GTL, and DME (DiMethyl Ether).
Historically, the first target market was gas and energy, via pipelines and LNG, but the attraction of
the liquid markets - bigger, more flexible and with higher added value has driven the
development of these new technologies.
2013 - IFP Training
16
Contents
Transport routes
Gas pipeline
Liquefied gas (LNG)
Compressed gas (CNG)
Transport in the form of hydrates (NGH)
Gas to wire (GTW)
17
Gas pipelines
Recompression
stations
Collection
Processing
Terminal - storage
18
Gas pipelines were the first equipment used for transporting gas over long distances from the
production site to the consumption site. A gas pipeline essentially comprises a gas transport line
and compression stations designed to compensate for pressure losses due to gas friction as it
flows.
This mature and simple technology poses the following drawbacks: incompressible investment,
geopolitical risks associated with the countries crossed, difficulty in installing new pipelines in
highly urbanised areas and technical feasibilities (trenches, seismic hazard zones)
19
Flowrate (MSm3/h)
20
This graph suffices to determine an initial sizing estimate for transporting gas via
pipelines.
Based on the chart on the right and the pre-determined hypotheses, for lengths without
recompression between 100 and 1000 km, and pipe diameters of between 24 and 56,
a gas pipeline can transport up to 6-7 MSm3/h, i.e. approximately 5500 MMscfd.
Note that beyond 48, pipelines must adhere to local legislation. Currently, only Russia
permits pipeline diameters of 56.
21
Advantages
Drawbacks
Location constraints highly case dependent
Long-term fixed transport installation
Sensitivity to geopolitical risk
Not economical over long distances
22
23
Liquefaction is a technology used for condensing natural gas, with a high volume reduction factor:
580 m3 of natural gas per m3 of LNG. The gas is transported in liquid form at atmospheric pressure
and at a temperature close to - 160
C. The quantities used by an LNG project are always large (> 3
3
MTPA, i.e. 4.5 billion m /year), and generally supply regasification terminals serving national
distribution networks, except for Japan, where certain terminals only supply power stations.
This mature technology has the following advantages: greater flexibility than pipelines, high
efficiency. On the drawbacks side, it is highly capital-intensive, and requires long-term contracts.
24
LNG: liquefaction
25
$/MMBtu
High-cost
gas pipeline
4
Low-cost
gas pipeline
3
LNG
Oil tankers
Oil
pipeline
km
160
0
320
0
400
0
Production: 0. 2.5
Processing: 0.1 0.25 * 3 offshore
Transport: 0.5 4.5
Distribution: 1.2 2.8
TOTAL: 2.1 10.5
640
0
800
0
80
0
Comments
26
Advantages
kT
Drawbacks
High investment required
Tough location and installation constraints
CO2 specifications
High internal consumption and CO2 emissions
Uneconomical over short distances
Economical for large gas reserves
27
CNG: principle
Pressure (bar.a)
m3 gas/m3 transported
Vapour
Liquid
2013 - IFP Training
Temperature (C)
20444_a_A_ppt_07 - END USES OF NATURAL GAS
28
CNG: principle
Comments on the previous slide
This graph positions the various CNG technologies in pressure and temperature terms in relation to
one another and to LNG. As a reminder, LNG - Liquefied Natural Gas - is a gas condensed at a
temperature of 160C and at ambient pressure.
8 different CNG technologies - of varying maturity , as we will see later - are currently available on
the market. They function in two fairly distinct pressure and temperature ranges. The first,
qualified as High Pressure, is associated with ambient temperature, which gives operating
pressures for CNG cylinders of approximately 200 to 250 b. The second is a medium pressure
region (around 120/130 b) associated with a lower temperature of around 30C.
At low temperatures, the behaviour of the gas increasingly diverges from the ideal gas law, the
compressibility factor expressed in the formula (PV = nZRT) drops steeply, which results in a steep increase
in the compression ratios. Conversely, employing low temperatures makes the whole export chain more
complex
These combinations can achieve ratios of gas volume under standard conditions to volume transported of
230 to 290 m3/m3. This is to be compared with the ratio of 580/600 obtained for LNG.
29
CNG: principle
CNG fleet
Unloading system
Loading system
30
CNG: principle
Comments on the previous slide
The principle of gas transport as CNG is based on obtaining a gas in dense phase state through
compression at ambient temperature or low temperature (approx. 30
C). The fluid obtained
3
reaches densities of around 150 to 250 kg/m , as compared with 500 kg/m3 for LNG.
The gas is processed upstream in order to achieve the transport and, where relevant, commercial
specifications and is then transported (by ship or truck) to the downstream processing site, where
it will be transferred to a local market.
This technology seems to be a valid alternative to LNG and pipelines for certain cases (small
quantities of gas and short distances) but, as at 2012, there are not yet any operational references
for sea transport, although there are land transport references by truck in Argentina, for example.
31
Advantages
No very restrictive
specifications
Makes short distances
economical
Offshore production
Drawbacks
No commercial application with
transport by ship in 2012
Inefficient for transport
High costs
2013 - IFP Training
32
After CNG, now lets look at methane hydrates as a gas transport solution. With CNG, the gas is compressed to concentrate it; with liquefaction
we turn it into a liquid through condensation; and with hydrates we turn it into a solid by trapping gas molecules in crystalline water structures.
The diagram positions the hydrate formation region in pressure regions of around 40/50 bar and at positive temperatures. Then the hydrates
are cooled and the pressure returned practically to ambient pressure. A metastability phenomenon revealed by the Norwegians enables
hydrates to be kept stable for transportation.
20444_a_A_ppt_07 - END USES OF NATURAL GAS
Comments
33
34
Natural gas hydrates offer a means of storing large quantities of gas with a volume reduction
factor of around 180 (less advantageous than LNG 600 - and CNG 300 on average). They are
also stable under normal conditions. NGH consists in using gas hydrates to transport the gas in
solid form at atmospheric pressure and at a temperature of approximately 20
C. It is defined by
the following stages:
Production: the gas from a field is injected into a reactor at a temperature of approx. 10
C and a pressure
of 60 bar where, in contact with water, it will be trapped in the form of hydrates.
Transport: the hydrates are transferred to a ship and transported from the production site to the
distribution site.
Regasification: close to the distribution market, the hydrates are dissociated and the gas is distributed.
NGH is immature and does not seem to have great potential, in the short term at least.
35
Advantages
Transport
pressure
at
atmospheric
Drawbacks
36
37
One of the solutions for transferring medium quantities of gas to the markets is to convert it into
electricity. This technology, dubbed GTW (Gas to Wire), has numerous advantages:
electricity is the energy source most easily usable by the consumer and also offers significant growth
prospects
deregulation of the electricity market in many countries offers the opportunity to become a producer
the cycles used are efficient compared to other means of electricity production.
a power station requires a stable supply chain over a period of at least 20 years. A gas production profile
associated with oil production often peaks before rapidly falling. So GTW will be more suitable for natural
gas deposits.
38
39
The combined cycle uses the heat from the gas turbine exhaust gases to generate steam, which
expands in a turbine until it condenses. Hence the power of the gas turbine is increased by one
third and the net overall ISO efficiency may reach 58%. The main parts in a combined cycle are the
gas turbine, the recovery boiler, the steam turbine, the condenser and electricity generator.
The condenser uses ambient air or water to condense the steam; the choice of condenser type
depends on the local water resource, and directly influences the combined cycle performance.
40
41
DC (direct current) transport has numerous advantages over AC (alternating current) transport:
Conversely, the major drawback of DC transport is the obligation to install at each line-end an
AC/DC conversion station, which is expensive (approx. $175 million (in 2000) for 1000 MW in +/500 kV). However, beyond a certain transport distance, the savings generated by the lower
installation cost of a DC line compensate for the expense of building conversion stations.
2013 - IFP Training
42
Cooling tower
Water treatment
Discharge water
Heat recovery steam generator
Gas compressor
Gas inlet
Fuel storage
Clean water tank
HV zone
Turbine buildings
43
Advantages
Mature technology
Attractive thermal efficiency and costs
Open electricity market
Rapid implementation (construction 2
years)
Operating flexibility
No special constraints
Drawbacks
44
Contents
Gas chain
Transport routes
45
Chemical conversions
46
Chemical conversions
Comments on the previous slide
Another way of commercialising natural gas is to chemically convert it into liquid products, more
easily transportable under ambient conditions. There are various methods, but the first stage
common to every case is conversion of natural gas into synthesis gas with catalysts (SMR, ATR,
catalytic POx) or without catalysts (gas POx), a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen
(H2). The H2/CO ratio of the synthesis gas produced must differ according to the target end product.
These differ widely in terms of target markets and their size. The technical constraints (process,
location, etc.) vary.
For information, the optimum stoichiometric ratios at the synthesis gas production outlet are as
follows:
GTL/FT: H2/CO = 1.7 for iron-based catalysts and H2/CO = 2 for cobalt-based catalysts
Direct DME: H2/CO = 1
Methanol H2-CO2 / CO + CO2 = 2
47
1920
1940
1924
German discovery
Conversion of CO & H2
into hydrocarbon
1935
WWII
1960
1955
1980
1980-82
2000
1990-2000
2006 2007
1993
1st Industrial FT
Atmospheric fixed bed
reactor - Rhurchemie
SASOL I
Iron Medium Pressure
Synthesis commercialized by
Rhurchemie and Lurgi
(8,000 BPD)
9 FT Plants
built in Germany
Support German petroleum
independency during WWII
(~16,000BPD)
ORYX (QP+SASOLChevron)
34,000 BPD plant in Qatar Co Cat. Slurry Reactors.
ARGE
Fixed Bed Reactor
SHELL BINTULU
12,500 BPD plant in
Malaysia, Co catalyst Fixed
Bed Reactor
PEARL
(QP+SHELL)
2x70,000 BPD plant in Qatar
- Co Cat. Fixed bed Reactors.
SASOL
Dev. of Advanced Synthol
Process
SASOL II & III Reactors
Replacement
Source: Total
20444_a_A_ppt_07 - END USES OF NATURAL GAS
48
GTL/FT: principle
Fields
Pretreatment
Synthesis gas
generation
Steam
FischerTropsch
synthesis
Waxes and
Hydro-treatment
condensates Hydro-cracking
Water
(+ lube bases)
Local or
transport
Diesel
+
Paraffin naphtha
MARKETS:
Local or
transport
Petrochemicals
49
GTL/FT: principle
Comments on the previous slide
Chemical conversion of natural gas via Fischer Tropsch synthesis, often known as GTL/FT, produces
liquid hydrocarbons such as gas oil or kerosene. It follows the three main stages below:
conversion into synthesis gas (syngas), a mix of carbon monoxide and hydrogen
Fischer Tropsch synthesis: primarily paraffin-like, very long carbon chain compounds, known as waxes
upgrading into lighter hydrocarbons by means of hydro-treatment units, to obtain primarily diesel (75%)
and naphtha (25 %).
A successful GTL chain necessarily means integrating the three units, and this demands highly
specialised know-how.
This highly capital-intensive technology has few operational references, low efficiency and high
CO2 emissions, but it opens up access to the huge fuels market.
50
1.
SMR
Boiler zone
Prerefor
mer
Radiant zone
(naked flames /
tubes filled with catalyst)
steam
Desulphurised
natural gas
(ppbs S)
air
synthesis gas
to process
fuel gas
51
2.
POX
Constraints:
High conversion
High CO/CO2 selectivity
H2/CO ratio close to optimum for F-T
Need for additional SMR
High outlet T
Air separation plant
52
3.
ATR
S/C ~ 1.2
T ~ 1050C
P ~ 20-50 bar
H2/CO ~2.6
Constraints:
53
Technological options
54
Advantages
Usable over a wide range of
capacities
Efficient to transport
No market constraint
Drawbacks
H2S specifications
High energy consumption and
high CO2 emissions
High
technical
cost
(compared to other types of
conversion)
Complexity due to various
types of product
55
DME: principle
Two processes:
56
DME: principle
Comments on the previous slide
Todays global DiMethylEther (DME) market represents 150,000 tonnes per year, and encompasses
aerosol applications, particularly in the field of cosmetics. Since this application is already mature
and the market very small, DME could be used as diesel fuel in appropriate engines (clean gas fuel),
as fuel in energy production turbines or in domestic applications. With the chemical formula CH3O-CH3, DME is gaseous under normal conditions and its physical characteristics are very similar to
those of LPG.
There are two types of process for synthesising DME, either directly, or via methanol as the
intermediary.
The direct process optimises energy efficiency: the potential maximum efficiency (65-70%) appears
to be the best of the conversion processes.
There are a host of technology licensors for the indirect process: TOPSOE, LURGI, TEC and MGC. At
present, only JFE fully masters the direct process.
2013 - IFP Training
57
Advantages
Lower CO2 emissions than
GTL/FT
Single product
Possibility of mixing with LPG
Drawbacks
H2S specifications
Immature: no commercial
installation in 2011 (one in
project)
Markets to be developed
58
Methanol: principle
3 stages:
Synthesis gas generation
Methanol synthesis
Distillation
59
Methanol: principle
Comments on the previous slide
Methanol is the simplest alcohol, with chemical composition CH3-OH, and is used primarily as a
base compound in the chemicals industry. Methanol fuel is very little used at present. The main
outlet today (approx. of worldwide production) is in the manufacture of chemicals, primarily
formaldehyde. Then comes manufacture of MTBE (approx. 1/4 of the market), an additive added
to petrol to increase its octane rating. It is synthesised in three stages, as in the case of Fischer
Tropsch synthesis:
For the moment the methanol route is essentially limited by the market size.
The first cases of a methanol production rate exceeding 1000 t/d date back to the 1980s. The
plants are located chiefly in gas-producing countries.
2013 - IFP Training
60
4 stages:
Natural gas
Coal
Methanol
Plant
MTO
Syngas
Plant
indirect
direct
DME
Plant
+ OCP
Plant
Polyethylene
Plant
Polypropylene
Plant
61
Advantages
Mature
More efficient and lower CO2
emissions than GTL/FT
The cheapest of the conversion
routes
Single product
Drawbacks
H2S specifications
Market constraint: economy
of scale required, but
difficult due to the tight
market
62
Contents
Transport
Chemical conversion
63
10 TCF
5 TCF
GAS PIPELINE
LNG
CNG
DME
MeOH
Distances to 500
market
GTL
1000
10 000 km
GAS PIPELINE
LNG
CNG
GTL / MeOH / DME: distance to market: no real impact
Energy Eff.
50 %
60 %
70 %
90 %
80 %
LNG
CNG
GTL
20444_a_A_ppt_07 - END USES OF NATURAL GAS
MeOH
DME
GAS PIPELINE
64
Gas pipelines transport medium-to-high volumes of gas over distances of thousands of km. They
remain a rigid solution, sensitive to geopolitical risks. They are also limited by geographical
constraints (e.g. ocean trenches).
To transport gas over very long distances, LNG is the most economical solution but as it is
expensive, the economy requires high volumes of gas.
CNG is more suitable for small volumes of gas and short distances (up to 1,000 km).
The conversion processes all have lower energy efficiencies than the transport alternatives. The
market for the Fischer-Tropsch method products is not limited, unlike the DME and methanol
method markets which are very limited.
65
IW =
PCS
dgaz
dair
Asian
Countries
RICH GASES
European
countries: future
EASEE-gas standard
Nitrogen
66
Interchangeability characterises the composition thresholds and properties of the gases, to ensure
satisfactory operation of devices running on gas, and is measured by the Wobbe index. It is
important this should remain as constant as possible. We therefore give an upper and lower
threshold value for this index, and combustion emissions can be controlled, burner efficiency is
improved and the operating conditions of this equipment are secured.
This positioning enables us to determine the type of composition possible for an H type gas (high
heating value): so lean gases will contain little C3+ and may have relatively large proportions of
nitrogen. Gases for Japan, on the other hand, must be low in N2 and rich in ethane and propane.
Certain gases, known as L gases (low heating value), contain more inert gas and have Wobbe index
values below 47 MJ/Nm3, and so are not interchangeable with any current specifications. This is
the case for certain fields in Thailand and the Groningen gas reserves in the Netherlands, for
example. So with very little or no pre-treatment, these gases must be distributed in a different
network.
67
Technological specifications
2
H2S, total S or
H2S+COS
specifications
68
Technological specifications
Comments on the previous slide
It is important to stress that the EASEE-gas H2S specification is more precisely a specification
limiting H2S + COS to 3 ppm.
LNG, for which the constraints are both technological (CO2 which must be removed to prevent it from
crystallising and clogging the equipment in cryogenic zones) and commercial
the conversion routes, where there is no reason for commercial gas specifications, leaving only H2S content,
which is highly restrictive (H2S is poisonous to the catalysts used, even at low concentration)
gas pipelines, CNG and methane hydrates: only commercial specifications (H2S, CO2) are genuinely
restrictive.
69
Quiz
True
The gas chain includes a gas treatment stage, followed by transport to the consumer markets.
False
...
It also includes a gas conditioning stage (compression, liquefaction) for transport to the energy gas markets, or a chemical conversion
stage for conversion before the transport stage.
All technologies involving chemical conversion of the gas start with a synthesis gas generation stage
Yes. The synthesis gas is then converted into liquid hydrocarbons (GTL-FT), methanol or DME.
...
LNG is more economic than gas pipeline transport over distances of more than 3,000 km.
True, insofar as it is possible to transport the gas by sea; otherwise land transport of large quantities of LNG is impossible.
...
..
...
Liquefied
gas is effectively transported over long distances in methane tankers. If the gas deposit is far from the coast, it is preferable
to transport gas in a pipeline as far as the coast, and liquefy it at the methane tanker loading site.
Conversion of gas into DME has good energy efficiency, better than GTL-FT and equivalent to that of LNG
.....
DME is more energy-efficient than GTL-FT (70% vs. 60%), but less efficient than LNG (80-85% efficiency)
CNG can be used to exploit very large gas reserves (more than 5 Tcf), but over relatively short distances
(< 1000 km)
..
...
False. The specific gravity of LNG is 580 times denser than gas under standard conditions; the specific gravity of CNG is between 295
..and
320 times that of gas under standard conditions, depending on the CNG process used.
No, CNG is suitable for medium-sized gas reserves (less than 2 Tcf), over relatively short distances.
...
70
The gas markets are generally a long distance away from the production sites.
Chemical conversion enables us to reach the fuel oils and lubricants markets
(GTL/FT, DME) or the chemicals market, while facilitating transport but at the
cost of major investment.
71
Chaleur
/ Energie
Heat / Energy
Million Btu (MMBtu)
GJ
1
Mcal
250
kWh
300
Flow rate
Dbit
Volume
cubic meter (cm)
Heating
Value
Valeur
Calorifique
Btu/cf
1000
Mcal/m3
9
Btu/m3
35 000
Mj/m3
35
Billion cubic
meter per year
(Bcm/y)
1
kWh/m3
10
Equivalences
1 bep
1 t1charbon
t coal
t (LNG)
t (GNL)
m3m3
(LNG)
(GNL)
2,5
m3 (gas)
m3
(gaz)
1500
MMBtu
53
kWh
15 000
m3
m3(gas)
gaz
180
750
2013 - IFP Training
Gaz
naturel
liqufi
Liquefied
natural
gas
MMBtu gaz
6
25
72