Protection System

Power System Protection
Ananyo Sengupta
Subject Name: Switch Gear and Protective Devices

Subject Code: EE312
Department of Electrical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Rourkela
1 / 77
Outline
Introduction
Overcurrent Relay
Distance Protection of Transmission Lines
Differential Protection
Busbar Protection
Transformer Protection
Circuit Breakers
2 / 77
Power System Faults
A fault is a condition that causes

abnormal stoppage of current in the desired path, or
makes the current to flow towards an undesired path
Faults include
short or low impedance circuits
open circuits
power swings
overvoltages
elevated temperature
off-nominal frequency operations
Occurrence of a fault can cause the following problems:

1
2
3
4
5
Interruption in the power supply to the consumers

Substantial loss of revenue due to interruption of service
Loss of synchronism
Extensive damage to equipment
Serious hazard to personnel
3 / 77
ground faults. Faults involving two or more phase conductors, with or without g
called
phasefaults.
faults.
areare
called
phase
Power systems have been in operation for over a hundred years now. Accumul
Power
systems have been in operation for over a hundred years now. Accum
is a fall in voltage throughout the power system. If the fault is a metallic fault, the voltageexperience
shows that all faults are not equally likely. Single line to ground faults (
experience shows that all faults are not equally likely. Single line to ground faults
at the fault location is zero. The voltage at the terminals of the generator will also drop,are the most likely whereas the fault due to simultaneous short circuit between all
the most
the fault due
to simultaneous
circuitThis
between
though not drastically. If the source is ideal, there will be no drop in voltage atare
thethree
lines, likely
knownwhereas
as the three-phase
fault
(L-L-L), is the short
least likely.
is depi
seen
generator terminals. Normally the relay is away from the fault location. Thus, as three
lines, known as the three-phase fault (L-L-L), is the least likely. This is de
from the relay location, a fault is characterized by a build-up of current, and to a certainin Table 1.1
1.1
in
Table
extent, collapse of voltage.
Table 1.1 Fault statistics with reference to type of fault
Figure 1.3 depicts various ground faults a s well as phase faults.
Table 1.1 Fault statistics with reference to type of fault
of Power Systen~Protectio~l
6 Fu~~da~,rentaLs
Classification of Short Circuit Faults
Fault
Severity
Probability of occurrence (%)

Severity
85%
Least severe
85%
Least severe
8%
5%
8%
2%
Most severe
5%
100%
2%
Most severe
Total
100%
Further, the probability of faults on different elements of the power system
different.
which on
are different
exposed toelements
the vagaries
thepower
atmosphere
Further,The
thetransmission
probability lines
of faults
of of
the
syste
the most likely to be subjected to faults. Indoor equipment is least likely to be subje
different. The transmission lines which are exposed to the vagaries of the atmosphe
to faults. The fault statistics is shown in Table 1.2.
the most likely to be subjected to faults. Indoor equipment is least likely to be sub
to faults. The
fault1.2statistics
is shownwith
in Table
1.2.to power system elements
Table
Fault statistics
reference
(b) L-L fault
(a) L-Gfault
Probability of occurrence (%)
Fault
L-G
L-G
L-L
L-L-G
L-L
L-L-L
L-L-G
Total
L-L-L
Table
1.2 system
Faultelement
statistics with reference toProbabiliw
power system
Power
of faultselements
(9%)
Overhead
lines
50 of faults (9%)
Power
system
element
Probabiliw
9
Underground cables
iI Overhead
lines
Transformers
1050
i
Underground
cables
Generators
79
Transformers
Switchgem
1210
127
CT, PT relays, control equipment, etc
Generators
Total
100%
12
I,; Switchgem
12
CT, PT relays, control equipment, etc
magnitude of the f
The 1severity
Totalof the fault can be expressed in terms of the
100%
current and hence its potential for causing damage. In the power system, the three-ph
fault is the most severe whereas the single line-to-ground fault is the least severe.
The severity of the fault can be expressed in terms of the magnitude of the
current and hence its potential for causing damage. In the power system, the three
1.3.2
Diagram
of Voltages
and Currentsfault
During
Various
Fa
fault is thePhasor
most severe
whereas
the single line-to-ground
is the
least sever
( d ) L-L-L fault
(c) L-L-G fault
(e) L-L-L-G fault
1.3
Various ground faults and phase faults.
Figure: Various ground faults and phase faults
A fault is accompanied by a build-up of current, which is obvious. At the same time th
.-..
1.3.2 Phasor Diagram of Voltages and Currents During Various F

,~
, ,
,, .
. ,.
A fault is accompanied by a build-up of current, which is obvious. At the same time

4 / 77
Relay Connection
~.!~~~ia~~o
l fe nPower
r o l s Sysrrnl Prvieclior~
Step-up
transformer
Breaker
contact
I
CT
HV
line
DT
Current
Trip battely
Trip coil
Relay
I 2
Relay t r i r
contact
Voltage
Trip
1 output
I
1
Figure 1.13 Trip circuit of a circuit breaker.
5 / 77
the relay designer from the actual value of primary current. Secondly, it isolates the relay
circuitry from the high voltage of the EHV system. A conventional electromagnetic
current transformer is shown in Figure 1.10. Ideally, the current transformer should
faithfully transform the current without any errors. I n practice, there is always some
error. The error creeps in, both in magnitude and in phase angle. These errors are known
I,i
as raho error and phase angle error.
16 F ~ ~ n c i a ~ ~ ~ eof
i l t Power
ols
Svsre~nProrection
Current Transformer
A
-
Transformer
CT Ratio = 1000/5
CT
&t
l000A
Source -
-- .
Bus
i/
Pr~mary
"E
*i
Secondary
Measurement CT
operating point
m
5
-5
51
.---------.-----.---..---Fault
Jt
Protective CT
operating point
5A
--f
Excitation, H(AT/m)
5A"
Relay
Output
Protective CT
output
s
Slope =
..
14
I
Figure 1.10 Current transformer.
Cm
Metering CT output
I l l l i l I ' 1 '
Full- I
7
load 4i-
; current
Prirnaw current (rms)
Max~mumfaultcurrent
Steps
downs
the
to the relay
level
I t may
be pointed
out here,
that current
current transformers
are used circuit
for metering
purposes
= 20 to 30 times
as well. However, there is a very important difference between a metering CT and a
full-load current
(1A
or
5A)
protection CT. A metering CT is so designecl (proportioned) that in case of faults, it will
Figure 1.11 Protective CT vs measurement CT.
saturate and thus save the instrument connected to its secondary from damage due to
excessive
current Onthe
the other
hand,
a protective
CT actual
is designedHV
to faithfully
reproduce
Isolates
relay
circuit
from
system
1.7.2
Voltage Transformer
the largest fault current. The operating po~nts,on the excitation charactenstics,
for the
given
in transformer steps down the high voltage of the line to a level safe eno
two types of CTs are shown in Figure 1.11. Further treatment of CT errors is
The
voltage
Should
operate in the linear zone during faultthe relaying
Appendix
1
system (pressure coil of relay) and personnel to handle. The s
current
secondary voltage on line-to-line basis is 110 V. This helps in standardizing the pr

relaying equipment irrespective of the value of the primary EHV adopted.
6 / 77
Operative States of a Protection System
The system operates in the normal state when

all equipments are working and operating within
design limits
Normal State
Abnormal
State
Action
State
Restorative
State
Outage
State
To trip the device

1
Violate the inequality

constraints, x > Xm , and
Violate the time constraints,

t > Tm
When the normal operating limits exceed, the

system enters into an abnormal state
Abnormality can be transient or permanent in
nature. Depending upon the type of abnormality,
an action is taken in the action state either
immediately or after some time
Following this action, the system moves to the
outage state, where faulted device is removed
from service
Finally in the restorative state, required
inspections or other repair actions are taken in
order to again reach the normal state
7 / 77
Operative States of a Protection System
Threshold
Quantity
Normal State
Abnormal
State
Restorative
State
Metered
Quantity
Comparison
Element
Decision
Element
Action
Element
Figure: Functional elements of protective device

Action
State
Outage
State
To trip the device

1
Violate the inequality

constraints, x > Xm , and
Violate the time constraints,

t > Tm
Figure: Electromechanical and Digital relays
8 / 77
Evolution of Relays
Electromechanical Relay
First generation relays
Operates on the regulation force generated through the flow of current in windings on a
magnetic core
Advantages
1
Reliable
Withstands voltage spike due to surges and carries substantial currents
Disadvantages
1
Consists of moving parts and suffers from the problem of friction
Produces low torque
Provides high burden and high power consumption
9 / 77
Evolution of Relays
Static Relay
Second generation relays (came into operation in 1950s)
Made by semiconductors devices such as diode, transistors, ICs
No moving part
Advantages
Disadvantages
Does not contain moving parts. Free

from friction, contact bouncing, arcing,
erosion
Electronic components are more

sensitive to voltage spike and other
transients
High operating torque
Requires auxiliary DC supply
Less burden
Compact in size
Quick response and quick reset action
Characteristics of electronic devices are

affected by variation in temperature and
aging
4
6
Greater sensitivity
Low short time overload capacity
Costlier
10 / 77
Evolution of Relays
Digital Relay
Third generation relays (came into operation in 1980s)
Microprocessor based relays. Consists of hybrid analog and digital circuits.
Advantages
1
Provides many functions such as

multiple settings, programmable logic,
adaptive logic, sequence-of-events
recording, and oscillography
Has the ability of self-monitoring and

self-testing
Has the ability to communicate with

other relays and control computers
Multiple functions (can work as

overcurrent relay, impedance relay,
voltage relays, frequency relay etc.)
Less burden
Disadvantages
1
Short life cycles
Sensitive to transients
Requires highly trained persons for use
11 / 77
Zones of Protection
Chapter 1
nce
tly,
ect
lity
on-
na
of
is
sly
h a
ber
ual,
if
12 / 77
Design Criteria
Sensitivity
It is the ability to operate correctly to the faults or abnormal conditions inside the zone
of protection
It refers to the minimum level of fault current at which the relay operates
Selectivity
Ability to isolate the faulty element causing minimum disruption to the system
Speed
Ability to detect and remove the faulty part as faster as possible
Reliability
1
Dependibility
degree of certainty of correct operation in response to system trouble
Security
degree of certainty that a relay will not operate incorrectly
13 / 77
of the hack-up protection should be equal to the operating time of primary protection plus
the operating time of the primary circuit breaker.
Primary
and the
Backup
Protection
Consider
radial system
shown in Figure 1.16. Relay B, in conjunction with circuit
breaker CBB, provides primary protection to the line section B-C. Relay A with circuit
breaker CBA provides back-up protection to the section B-C. Consider a fault in section
B-C as shown in Figure 1.16.
14 / 77
breakers. In other words, the operating time of the back-up protection must be delayed
disruption
to theprotection.
loads also
longer.
by an appropriate amount over
that of the primary
Thus, lasts
the operating
time
Fault
Consider the radial system shown in Figure
1.16. Relay B, in conjunction with circuit
instant
Primary and Backup Protection
Primary relay RB
operates
When a fault takes place, both the primary relay RB and the back-up relay ItA, szart
ting simultaneously. i n case the primary protection (provided by RB + CBB) operates
ssfully, the line B-C gets de-energized but the loads on buses A and B remain
ected. Therefore, the back-up protectior 'provided by RA + CBAj resets without
g a trip command. The sequence of events in such a case is depicted in Figure 1.17.
ver, in case the primary protection fails to operate, the back-up which is already
oring the fault, waits for the time in which the primary would have cleared the fault
hen issues the trip command to its allied circuit breakers.
hen the back-up operates, the time for which the fault persists is longer and
ption to the loads also lasts longer.
P-
Fault
instant
Primary relay CBB

interrupts
the fault current
I)
Primary
Primary CB
operating time
Pr~maryfault clearing time
Back-up relaying time > Primary fault clearing time

T A > TB + CBB
Primary protection provided by RB starts operating
Primary relay RB
operates
P-
Primary
Primary relay CBB

interrupts
the fault current
Primary CB
operating time
Back-up protection prov~dedby RA starts operating
Primary protection issues trip command to primary circuit breaker CBB
'
Primary circuit breaker starts operating
Pr~maryfault clearing time

Back-up relaying time > Primary fault clearing time
T A > TB + CBB
Back-up protection prov~dedby RA starts operating
Primary circuit breaker CBB trips. Current returns to normal value
'
Back-up protection provided by RA resets,
Figure 1.17 Primary and back-up protection: sequence o f events: normal op

15 / 77
by an appropriate amount over that of the primary protection. Thus, the operating time
Consider the radial system shown in Figure 1.16. Relay B, in conjunction with circuit
Maloperation
Primary CB
operating time?
Primary
relaying time
22
F~~ncla~nenrals
of Power Sysrem Prorection
1.7.8 Maloperations
Back-up relaying operating time
There should be proper coordination between the operating time of primary and back-up
protection. Figure 1.18 shows an instance of loss of selectivity between the primary and .
back-up protection. It can be seen that the back-up protection in this case issues trip
command to its breaker without waiting for the primary protection to do its job. This
results in operation of both the primary and the back-up, resulting in a longer and
unnecessary disruption to the system. It is said that with every additional relay used,
there is an increase in the probability of maloperation.
4+
Primary fault clearing time
Back-up relaying operating time c Primary fault clearing time

TA-= TB+CBB
Fault instant
Time
Primary CB
operating time?
Primary
relaying time
Back-up relaying operating time
4+
Back-up CB
operating timeJ
t.
Primary fault clearing time
Back-up relaying operating time c Primary fault clearing time

TA-= TB+CBB
Fault instant
Back-up protection provided by RA starts operating
/ Primary protection issues command to primary CB(RB + CBB)
'
Primary CB, CBs, starts operating
Back-up protection issues command to back-up CB(RA + CBA)
'

Back-up protection provided by RA starts operating
/ Primary protection issues command to primary CB(RB + CBB)
'
Primary CB, CBs, starts operating
Back-up protection issues command to back-up CB(RA + CBA)
'
Back-up CB. CBA, starts operating
Primary CB, CBB, trips

Back-up CB, CBA, trips
Back-up CB. CBA, starts operating
16 / 77
Overcurrent Relay
Trips if the relay current exceeds a predefined current limit.

The minimum current for which the relay trips is referred to as the pickup current
It has two settings
1
2
Plug Setting (PS) - it is the pickup current of the relay

Time Setting Multiplier (TMS) - it decides the operating time of the relay
The term Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM) is defined as

PSM =
Irelay
PS
Relay trips is
PSM > 1
PS can be of the order of 50-200% of the relay rated current, and the time setting
ranges form 0.1-1s, 1-10s, 6-60s etc.
Widely used foor the protection of radial (distribution) lines
17 / 77
Types of Overcurrent Relay
F ~ ~ ~ r c l r ~ r r ~o ef ~Po~ver
~ t a l s Sj~sreti7P,vr?crior~
Instantaneous
Overcurrent Relay
-
Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay
F ~ ~ ~ r c l r ~ r r ~o ef ~Po~ver
~ t:
a:
l s Sj~sreti7P,vr?crior~
4.2
-E::
0
a,
.-
-Ed.--E
.-E0
.-Eam,
.m..-CE
0
Operating lime
Operating lime
Current (amperes)
Pick-up value
Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) Overcurrent

Relay
0.14(TMS )
top =
Inverse definite minimum
time (IDi)IT)0.oaer-current
relay
(
PSM
) 02 1
This is possibly the most widely used characteristic. The characteristic is inverse in the
service, certain i f i v r s e time characteristics, described in the nesz sectior., have beer,
standardized.
- Instantaneous over-current relay characteristic.

f
Figure 2.4
Current (amperes)
t
Pick-up value
Definite
Time
Relay relay characteristic.
Instantaneous over-current
Figure
2.4 Over-current
Definite Time Overcurrent Relay
A
m
Current
-m
.-E
Plug setting
C
.t.-mE
@'
@'
Time setting
Trip output
Current Plug setting Trip output
d-
Plug setting
0m
C
.-
Time settingPlug setting

Operating time
Time setting
-----f
-Pick-upr -value
Current
Operating time
f
+
+
Very Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay
-.
..
.-.
t =
a
(PSM ) 1
aExtremely Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay
I
80(TMS )
(PSM ) 1
where PSM is the plug-setting multiplier and TMS is the time-multiplier setting of the
relay. Thus, the operating timeopis directly proportional to the TMS and inversely
2
proportional to the PSM. The characteristics of the IDMT relay are shown in
Figure 2.6.
j.
j.1
t
.-
(, 1
?
J.
0----- r - - -
initial part, which tends to a definite minimum operating time as the current becomes
very high. The reason for the operating time becoming definite minimum, a t high values
of current, is that in the electromechanical relays the flux saturates at high values of
I the relay operating torque, which is proportional to the square of the flux,
current and
does not increase substantially after the saturation sets in. Such a characteristic came
about because of the limitation of the electromechanical technology Ideally, we may
op
demand Ithat the operating time be inverse in nature throughout the operating range. The
mathematical relation between the current and the operating time of IDMT characteristic
can be written as
13.5(TMS )
efinite time over-current relay can be adjusted to issue a trip output at a definite (and
ustable)
amount ofTime
time, after
it picks up. Thus,
it has a time-setting adjustment and
4.2 Definite
Over-current
Relay
pick-up adjustment. The characteristic and the block diagram are shown in
definite
2.9. time over-current relay can be adjusted to issue a trip output at a definite (and
ure
justable) amount of time,
after
it
picks
up.
Thus,
it has a time-setting adjustment and
A
pick-up adjustment. The characteristic and the block diagram are shown in
..
gure 2.9.
Time setting
4.3
Normal Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay
.-m
J.
Figure 2.5 Definite

time over-current
relay characteristic.
f
Current
Pick-up value
Figure 2.5 Definite time over-current relay characteristic.
Inverse
Time Over-current Relay
1i
i
(, 1
Plug-setting rnult~pller(relay current as a rnultlpie of plug setting)
18 / 77
mplementation of Over-current Relay Using Induction
skOvercurrent
-Relay using Induction

Disk
understand the working of an induction disk type relay; let u s first see how
be produced by two alternating fluxes acting on a common metallic but nonotor. Figure 2.7 shows two alternating fluxes
and @2 having a phase
of 0 between them.
Induced flux
f
hernating fluxes
Ed<-. -
aluminiurn disc
F i g u'e 2.7 Operating principle of induction disc type relay.
Figure: Operating principle of induction disc

type relay
Let two alternating fluxes 1 and 2 having a

phase difference of be cutting a metallic
disc. The torque generated by these two
fluxes can be determined as follows:
m1 sin t
m2 sin(t + )
Induced eddy current currents generated by these

fluxes:
d 1
dt
d 2
dt
i 1
m1 cos t
i 2
m2 cos(t + )
Since an alternating flux cutting alternating current, it will

produce a force.
F1 = 1 i2
m1 m2 sin t cos(t + )
F2 = 2 i1
m1 m2 sin(t + ) cos t
Net force (F2 F1 )

F2 F1
m1 m2 (sin(t + ) cos t cos(t + ) sin t )
m1 m2 sin
19 / 77
Overcurrent
Relay
using
Disk
of Power
S y s t eInduction
~ Protr.crioll
f~
34 F~rrirln~ne~~tals
ThlS adjustment dial
Movable contact
..
---------,------ 5
,
20 / 77
Directional Overcurrent Relay: Case Study
Consider the network shown above. Let x be the fault distance (in percent) from bus 2.
Input to Relay R1 : V2 and I23 , to Relay R2 : V3 and I32
x = -100%
x = -50%
x = 50%
x = 200%
0.315
-1.246
0.187
-1.478
0.273
-4.218
0.597
-2.361
1.17
110.56
1.389
110.32
-72.474
1.109
-70.56
0.63
-1.245
0.561
-1.478
0.298
-2.36
0.298
-2.361
1.17
-69.443
1.389
-69.676
2.219
-70.56
1.109
109.44
Torque (K = 1)
x = - 100%
x = - 50%
x = 50%
-0.3683524 -0.2596041 0.5457469
x =200%
0.6617457
0.7367352 0.7788433 0.6609354 -0.3303052
M: Magnitude in p.u., A : Angle in degree

21 / 77

25
If
If1
If2
Fault Current (in p.u.)
20
15
10
0
100
50
50
100
Distance (in percent)
150
200
22 / 77
Directional Overcurrent Relay: Case Study - Relay 1

Voltage
Current
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
2.5
1.5
1
-100
0
100
200
Theta (angle in degree)
0.6
0
-100
Angle between voltage and current

100
3
Voltage (magnitude in p.u.)
0.7
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-100
0
100
200
0
100
200
Torque (for K = 1)
150
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-100
0
100
200
1
0.8
100
0.6
50
Torque
Voltage (angle in degree)
0.4
0.2
0
-50
-100
-100
-0.2
0
100
200
-0.4
-100
0
100
200
23 / 77
Directional Overcurrent Relay: Case Study - Relay 2

Voltage
Current
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
-100
0
100
200
Theta (angle in degree)
0.6
0
-100
Angle between voltage and current

100
3.5
0.7
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-100
0
100
200
0
100
200
Torque (for K = 1)
150
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
-3.5
-100
0
100
200
1
0.8
100
0.6
50
Torque
-0.5
0.4
0.2
0
-50
-100
-100
-0.2
0
100
200
-0.4
-100
0
100
200
24 / 77
m positive torque when the current and voltage supplied to the current coil and
sure coil are in phase. If we define the maximum torque angle (MTA) as the angle
the voltage and current at which the relay develops maximum torque, then a
er can be called a directional relay with MTA of zero degree.
phasor diagram for a directional relay is depicted in Figure 2.23.
Directional OC Relay
Operating Principle
!
From CT
Toperating
PC CC sin( + PC )
VPC ICC sin( + 90o )
VPC ICC sin( + 90o )

VPC ICC cos( )
KVPC ICC cos( )
. .~
i
,.Position of lCc for

,,' maximum torque
'
I.
1 ;
..
Reverse fault
cos ( 8 - 7)
= K2 \ipc ICc cos ( 9 - T)
@pC @CC
Relay trips ifj ( ) [90o , +90o ]
ki
ng
oc
Bl
el
ay
igure 2.23 Phasor diagram for a directional relay based on induction principle.
, ,
For a reverse fault ( ) > 90o

i
zo
ne
Operating torque = K ,
Forward fault
is the voltage applied to the pressure coil. The current drawn by the pressure coil
the voltage by a large angle BPc
he fault moves from the forward to the reverse direction, the current undergoes
change in its phase whereas the phase of the voltage does not change substantially.
'1
I'.
' b
I
i
i1
:/ .,
-11 ,
,i
,I
25 / 77

Torque (for K = 1)
1
T1
T2
0.8
0.6
Torque
0.4
Restraining torque
(spring torque)
Operating torque
0.2
0.2
Dead zone of relay 1
Dead zone of relay 2
0.4
100
50
50
100
150
200
26 / 77
OC protection of a three-phase feeder
Figure 2.17
Ovrr-cxrrenr Proreerio~~
of Transmission L111rs 43
Fault
<----------- ,jne*-B ------------>

Phase a
CT ratio n : 1
OC protection of a three-phase feeder.
Table 2.2 Protection of a three-phase feeder
a-R
b-g
c-g
a-b
b-c
c-a
a-6-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-6-c
a-6-c-g
Relays which will operate

Three-phase fault
Two-phase fault + one ground
relays of ~ i ~ u2.17
re
fa& relay of Figure 2.18
R,
R,, RE
scheme shown in Figure 2.17. A little thought will show that if we connect an OC
In the residual current path a s shown in Figure 2.18, it will be blind to the load cu
(which is balanced three-phase current) and see only the ground fault currents
current in this path will be zero or near zero during normal balanced load conditio
Figure 2.17

Fault

Three-phase fault
re
27 / 77
OC protection of a three-phase feeder
4 Fl~?zdnn~entals
of Power Systen~Protection
well as during a three-phase fault. Thus, the setting of this relay, which is in the residual
urrent path, can be made independent of load current and can indeed be much smaller
han the load current.
Further, as illustrated in Figure 2.18, it is not necessary to use all the three relays
or detection and protection against phase faults. We can get rid of any one phase fault
elay without affecting the performance of the scheme. In Figure 2.18, the relay in the
hase b has been removed.
.
-
Figure 2.17

Fault
a-R
b-g
c-g
a-b
b-c
c-a
a-6-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-6-c
a-6-c-g

Three-phase fault
re
R,
R,, RE
scheme shown in Figure 2.17. A little thought will show that if we connect an OC
In the residual current path a s shown in Figure 2.18, it will be blind to the load cu
(which is balanced three-phase current) and see only the ground fault currents
current in this path will be zero or near zero during normal balanced load conditio
T r ~ pcolt
Trlp
battery
R, Rg R'
Ground fault
OC relay R,
contacts
Figure 2.18 Two-phase fault relays and one ground fault relay for OC protection
of a three-phase feeder.
Table 2.2 shows the operation of relays for all the 11 shunt faults for OC schemes of
Figure 2.17 and Figure 2.18, which shows that all the 11 shunt faults are catered for by
hese schemes.
@ i
:i
.i
t
2
.I
. !I
28 / 77
Directional OC protection of a three-phase feeder
Ground fault OC
29 / 77
continuity of supply to the consumers. However, in EHV systems maloperations cannot

lines are part of an interconnected grid. Any
be tolerated. of
This
is because EHV
Drawbacks
Overcurrent
Relay
maloperation on these systems jeopardizes the stability of the electric grid.

The reach of over-current relay depends on the type of fault as well as on the source
impedance as shown in Figures 6.1 and 6.2.
PlPU
pick
/
relav!
ZS = constant
Fault current
of OC
UP
T
w
Reach for L-L-G faults

Reach for three-phase faults1
r----------------------------------------
; Distance from
relay location
r------------_---------------
Figure 6.1 Effect of type of fault on reach of over-current relay.

118
30 / 77

be tolerated. of
This
is because EHV
Drawbacks
Overcurrent
Relay

PlPU
pick
/
relav!
ZS = constant
Fault current
of OC
UP
T
w

r----------------------------------------
; Distance from
relay location
r------------_---------------

118
31 / 77

be tolerated. of
This
is because EHV
Drawbacks
Overcurrent
Relay

PlPU
pick
/
relav!
ZS = constant
Fault current
of OC
UP
T
w

r----------------------------------------
; Distance from
relay location
r------------_---------------

118
32 / 77
impedance increases to Zsl, and over-reaches to point Bz if the source impedance

decreases
to Zsz of
(assuming
that theRelay
fault type is the same in all the three cases). This,
Drawbacks
Overcurrent
again, is not a desirable feature.
61
!
IpU
pick-up
of OC relay;
I
Three-phase
fault
62
!
!
Fault of I
same type I
I
I
I
Reach for Zs3

4
Reach for Zs2
C---------------------------i
L----------------
..
Reach for Zs,

?----------------------------------------I
I Distance from
I relay location
21
33 / 77
are available through a CT and a PT, whose ratios have been assumed as 1: 1 for the sake
of simplicity. The reach of the distance relay is thus made equal to Z,,,. The line is
Introduction
Distance
Relay
modelled as a to
series
R-L circuit
for the purpose of relaying without much loss of accuracy,
as shown in Figure 6.3(b).
A
Reach point fault
Reach = Z,,,) Internal fault
1 External fault
.l
PT
Trip;
'R 4
E rv
nm
't
VR
RL
XL
i
(b)
Figure 6.3 Introduction to distance relaying.
34 / 77
B. Assume that the proposed relay is located at end A, where the local current and voltage
are available through a CT and a PT, whose ratios have been assumed as 1: 1 for the sake
Introduction
to Distance Relay
of simplicity. The reach of the distance relay is thus made equal to Z,,,. The line is
modelled as a series R-L circuit for the purpose of relaying without much loss of accuracy,
as shown in Figure 6.3(b).
'R 4
A
Reach point fault
Reach = RL
Z,,,) - XL
Internal fault
1 External fault
.l rv PT
E
't
VR
Trip;
nm
i
(b)
Consider three faults: an internal fault Fl, an external fault F3, and a fault at reach
point fault F2. Now, let us compare the relay voltage VR with the product of relay current
IRand Z, as shown in Table 6.1 for all the three faults.
Table 6.1 Introduction to distance relays

Fault
r,
F3, External
F,, Reach point
E
F,, Internal
Current
at relay
location,' IR
183
IRZ
rv IRI
'R 4 Compare
Voltage
1v ~ l: ~
at relay
location, V R
't
VR,
VRZ
v ~ VR
l
RL >
IV831
'
XLIZsetI
lI~31
I VRZ1 = I I*, I I Zoet1

1 V~~1 < IIRI I lZset1
Thus, we can see from Table 6.1 that the trip law that emerges is;
nm
(b)
'
Desired
response
~ ~ ~ o fL
relay
Restrain
Verge of operation
Trip
1
iI
1
i
1
35 / 77
Fl117dfl1nenmls
of Power Systrn~Prorectrorr
Trip
Simple Impedance Relay
F3
Assume that the proposed relay is located at end A, where the local current and voltage
: 1 for thethe
sakearc .resistance, the fault characteristic of the transmissi
e available through a CT and a PT, whose ratios have been assumed
When as
we1consider
simplicity. The reach of the distance relay is thus made
to Z,,,.from
Thethe
line
is
getsequal
modified
straight
lineI. with a slope of tan-'(AIR) to an area as sh
odelled as a series R-L circuit for the purpose of relaying without
much loss of accuracy,
Figure 6.6.
shown in Figure 6.3(b).
t
A
Reach point fault
Reach = Z,,,) Internal fault
1 External fault
.l
PT
-
Fault characteristic of the

line with arc resistance
Trip;
-R
Model of the faulted transmission line

'R 4
't
X = lm(VI1)
E rv
nm
VR
Fault characteristic
RL
of XL
the line
Figure 6.6 Fault characteristic of transmission line with fault resistance.
Restrain
6.3
(b)

6.3.1 Trip Law for Simple Impedance Relay Using Univ
-R
R = Re(VI1)
Trip
Torque Equation
Consider three faults: an internal fault Fl, an external fault F3, and a fault at reach
oint fault F2. Now, let us compare the relay voltage VR with
product to
of relay
currentmany types of relays using the electromechanical stru
It the
is possible
synthesize
Rand Z, as shown in Table 6.1 for all the three faults. We can write a generic torque equation for such a structure where there are t
Operating characteristic
Restram
produced within t h e relay structure by

the relay
Table 6.1 Introduction toofdistance
relays
current at relay location
1 wL
=
tanCurrent
Voltage
Compare R
Desired
1 v ~ l : ~ ' ~ R ~voltage
' ~ response
~ at~ relay
~ o fL location
~
Fault
at relay
at relay
location,'
IR
location,
relaybetween the above volCage and current (directional unit).
interaction
racteristics of simple
impedance
relayV Ron R-X plane with fault
characteristic
F3, External
183
VR,
IV831
> lI~31IZsetI
Restrain
36 / 77
on the soft iron armature in 3uch a way that it :ends to close the rip
voltage coil, on the other hand, tends to keep the trip contacts open, thus
restraining torque. The controI spring keeps the contacts open when t
unenergized condition.

Universal Torque Equation
T = k1 |IR |2 + k2 |VR |2 + k3 |VR ||IR | cos( )+ k4
simple
impedance
relay
Taking k1 > 0, k2 < 0, k3 = 0, k4 0

For
or,
IR
T > 0,
r
|VR |
k1
<
|IR |
k2
aa
Trip output
|Zseen | < |Zset |
Restraining
torque
Restraining
quantity
VR
IR
Zseen
VL
PTR
IL
CTR
!
!
VL CTR
IL
PTR
0--1
Impedance seen from relay side
VR
Soft iron
armature
Spring
Voltage
coil
Operating
torque
r-+--o
coil
quantity
Figure 6.7 Balanced beam construction of simple impedance relay
Figure: Construction - Balanced Beam Structure

The operating torque is proportional to
tional to VR1 '. Thus, the relay operates if
( 1 ~ 1 and
~ the restraining torq
h l lIR1 > kz 1 VRI', where k1 and kz are proportionality constan
VR , IR : Line voltage and line current

PTR , CTR: PT and CT ratio
37 / 77
6.4.2 lmplernenta?ionof Reactance Relay Using the inducti
Reactance Relay
Structure
The implementation of the reactance relay using the four-pole induction cup str
shown in Figure 6.13.
of Power Sysren~Prorecriorr
130 Frrrida~~re~~tals
--
and can be simplified as:
Trio
Restra~ning
T = k1 |IR | + k2 |VR | + k3 |VR ||IR | cos( )+ k4

Pressure mil phase
Operating
I Principle
I
k1 > 0, k3 < 0, k2IZ,=
0, k 0,
h = 90o
,nJ ce -4 T) < -
However, 1 VR//(IR= Z,,,,I, the apparent impedance seen by the relay.

Therefore,
COS
Polarizing
K3
current coil
k1 |IR | > k3 |VR ||IR | cos( 90 )
o = X,,, we get
If we set the MTA of the2directional element to be 90, and let (kl/k,)
IZ,,,/ cos
(6'-
. ,
,,
90") < Xn
Since JZ,,,, cos|V( 9 90") = JZ,,,, sin 0 = JX,,,, k1, which is the reactive part of the
o
R|
1
impedance seen by the relay, we finally get the trip law as:
|IR |
k3
If X
1 < X 1 thenotrip; elsek1restrain
or,
cos( 90 ) <
or, |Zseen | cos( 90 ) < k
3 impedance seen, and trips if
The relay is thus sensitive only to the reactive part of the
the reactive part is less than a particular
X,,.Hence, such a relay is called a
or, |Z operating
| sincharacteristic
< kk13setofvalue
reactance relay. Theseen
the relay on the R-X plane is a:~traight
line with intercept of X, on the reactance axis. The entire area below this straight line
or, the X
< Thus,
Xsetthe area occupied is too large. This is shown in
represents
trip
region.
seen
Figure 6.12.
~~
."
41
i
r;
:.'4
"
,i
,
t
1I
1
-4
characteristic
Figure 6.13 Implementation of reactance relay using the four-pole induction cup st
Figure: Construction - Four Pole Induction Cup

Restrain
/,,/,
/////////,///////
X"
<
t R
Trip
Trip
The current
through one of the coils is shifted in phase so that th
Structure
proportional to I2 is produced by the interaction of the fluxes created by the two
The current through the pressure coiI is made to flow nearly in phase with the
coil voltage by connecting a resistance whose value is much large compare
pressure coil inductance. This makes the phase angle of pressure coil nearly equa
making the maximum torque angle r equal to 90" (since MTA = 90" - phase
pressure coil).
38 / 77
relay
his is clearly unacceptable. Therefore, the reactance relay cannot be used
byoccupies areas in both these quadrants, it does not exhibit any directional property
Thus a reactance relay which is set to protect the line section AB, a s shown in
tection of the transmission line but needs to be supewised from another relay
Figure
ts operation on load. A question may arise in the readers' mind at this stage. 6.16, in the forward direction also responds in the reverse direction for a n
unlimited distance. This again, is not a desirable feature. Therefore, we should use the
her about a relay which cannot even restrain on load? The answer lies in
the
reactance relay in conjunction with a directional relay or another distance relay having
rformance of the relay in the face of fault resistance. This is discussed
in
the directional
feature like the h010 relay.
.4.
Reactance Relay
Reverse c
-4Forward
Figure 6.14 Reactance relay operates during normal load flow.

i
ffect of Arc Resistance on Reach of Reactance Relay
Ii
shows a line section A-B being protected using a reactance relay. Let there
t the end of the protected line section, at point B, with a resistance equal to
be seen that the tip of the impedance seen phasor AC, still remains within
normal
load in spite of the i
ion. Thus,Figure:
the reachPerformance
of the reactance under
relay remains
unaffected
fect
of Arc Resistance
ontoReach
of Reactance
Relay
arc resistance.
This is only
be expected,
as the relay
measures only the 4
a
V and
I.
rtshows
of the
ratiosection
of phasors
a line
A-B being
protected
using a reactance relay. Let there
the end of the protected line section,

.. at point B, with a resistance equal to
on. Thus, the reach of the reactance relay remains unaffected in spite of
" the
characteristic
arc resistance. This is only to be expected, asLine
thefault
relay
measures only the
t of the ratio of phasors V and I.
Restrain
..
Ii
I
?
Restrain
/
Restrain
/
I I
I I I / J / /
I/
* I
'
Forward faults
(First quadrant)
Reverse faults (Third quadrant)
Line fault characteristic

(Reverse)
Trip
Trip
7 > 1 1 , , 1 1 ,
Setting = X,,
<
Restrain
Directional property o f reactance relay.
Figure: Directional property of reactance relay
7 > 1 1 , , 1 1 ,
Impedance seen
Setting = X,,
<
Reactance seen
Figure 6.16
Reactance seen
Trip
Trip
A
Impedance
seen of reactance relay.
Figure 6.15 Effect of arc resistance
on reach
Figure: Effect
of arcTrip
resistance on reach
Trip
39 / 77
relay
his is clearly unacceptable. Therefore, the reactance relay cannot be used
byoccupies areas in both these quadrants, it does not exhibit any directional property
Thus a reactance relay which is set to protect the line section AB, a s shown in
tection of the transmission line but needs to be supewised from another relay
Figure
ts operation on load. A question may arise in the readers' mind at this stage. 6.16, in the forward direction also responds in the reverse direction for a n
unlimited distance. This again, is not a desirable feature. Therefore, we should use the
her about a relay which cannot even restrain on load? The answer lies in
the
reactance relay in conjunction with a directional relay or another distance relay having
rformance of the relay in the face of fault resistance. This is discussed
in
the directional
feature like the h010 relay.
.4.
Reactance Relay
Reverse c
-4Forward

i
ffect of Arc Resistance on Reach of Reactance Relay
Ii
shows a line section A-B being protected using a reactance relay. Let there
t the end of the protected line section, at point B, with a resistance equal to
normal
load in spite of the i
ion. Thus,Figure:
the reachPerformance
of the reactance under
relay remains
unaffected
fect
of Arc Resistance
ontoReach
of Reactance
Relay
arc resistance.
This is only
be expected,
as the relay
measures only the 4
a
V and
I.
rtshows
of the
ratiosection
of phasors
a line
A-B being
protected
using a reactance relay. Let there
the end of the protected line section,

.. at point B, with a resistance equal to
on. Thus, the reach of the reactance relay remains unaffected in spite of
" the
characteristic
arc resistance. This is only to be expected, asLine
thefault
relay
measures only the
t of the ratio of phasors V and I.
Restrain
..
Ii
I
?
Restrain
/
Restrain
/
I I
I I I / J / /
I/
* I
'
Forward faults
(First quadrant)
Reverse faults (Third quadrant)

(Reverse)
Trip
Trip
7 > 1 1 , , 1 1 ,
Setting = X,,
<
Restrain
Directional property o f reactance relay.
Figure: Directional property of reactance relay
7 > 1 1 , , 1 1 ,
Impedance seen
Setting = X,,
<
Reactance seen
Figure 6.16
Reactance seen
Trip
Trip
A
Impedance
seen of reactance relay.
Figure 6.15 Effect of arc resistance
on reach
Figure: Effect
of arcTrip
resistance on reach
Trip
40 / 77
1 If IZ,
Mho Relay
i1
2,
cos ( 8 - z) then trip; else restrain
where 9 is the phase angle between the voltage and current fed to the relay. The relay
characteristic is as shown in Figure 6.18.

X
if 2, < 2, cos (0
T = k1 |IR | + k2 |VR | + k3 |VR ||IR | cos( )+ k4
- c) then trip: else restrain
Operating Principle
k3 > 0, k2 < 0, k1 = 0, k4 0
For
T > 0,
k2 |VR |2 < k3 |VR ||IR | cos( )
I
|VR | k3
<
cos( )
|IR |
k2
or,
|Zseen | < |Zset | cos( )
6.5.2
Figure 6.18 Mho relay characteristic.
Figure: Characteristics
nofr aPower
ls
Svsrrnt
Prurecrion
implementation
Mho
Relay
Using
136 F ~ o l d a ~ ~ ~ eof
induction Cup Structure
Trip cup structure. The flux due

Figure 6.19 shows a four-pole induction
A
R
.C. to operating voltage
coil interacts with the induced current due to the current coil to produce the operating
torque proportional to
cos (9 - z). The restraining torque is produced because of the
fluxes created by the operating and polarizing voltage Polarizng
coils. The resistor R and capacitor
voltage
C in the voltage coil circuit enable adjustment of MTA
tocoli
any desired value.
The advantage of the four-pole induction cup structure is its increased sensitivity due
to high torque to weight ratio, over the simple induction disc structure.
I
?.
6.5.3
Performance of Mho Relay During Normal Load Flow
Ld/
It can be seen from Figure 6.20 that the impedance seen by the relay during normal
IR outside the trip region of the characteristic. Thus, the
load (double-end-fed system) is well
Induction cup
relay is stable during load conditions.
XL
Polarizing
voltage coil
41 / 77
Mho Relay
Distance Protecrio!~of Tra~umission

Lirlrs 137
o f Power Svrrem Protection
138 F~rndarnenmls
Under-reach = AB
Percentage under-reach
<
Figure 6.21 Effect of arc resistance on reach of mho relay.
Figure: Effect of arc resistance on reach of mho
Recall that the simple impedance relay also suffers from under-reach due to fault
relay
tance.
If we compare the under-reach of the two relays for the same fault resistance
?I,'
Figure 6.23 Directional property of rnho relay.
we find that the percentage under-reach of the mho relay
is slightly more than that
,,d, .:
Figure: Directional property of mho relay
1::;
e simple impedance relay.
kl
.'; It
6.5.6 Performance of Mho Relav Durina Power Swina
Directional Property Exhibited by Mho Relay
The mho relay bccupies a much smaller area on the R-X plane. To that extent
re 6.22 shows the characteristic of a directional relay on the R-X plane.

It is seen
immune
to to
power swing. However, when the swing is very large, the impeda
straight line at right angle to the MTA line. The straight line can be considered as
enters the mho circle and the relay trips, as shown in Figure 6.24. Special rela
cle with infinite radius. A mho relay is a directional relay with voltage restraint. The
as
blinders
can
tion of voltage restraint to directional relay causes the radius to take a finite value be used to prevent operation on power swing.
*v
6.23. Thus,and tripping schemes are discussed in Appendix B.
collapse intothe mho circle with diameter equal to 2, as shown in FigureBlocking
"
mho relay very much possesses the directional property which makes it so useful.
X
,
42 / 77
Three-Stepped Distance Protection

Zone-III
Zone-II
Zone-I
t2
t1
RA
t3
RB
80 %
10 %
50 %
R
Figure: Three-Stepped Distance Protection
43 / 77
Line under consideration
Figure: Three-Stepped Distance Protection of Double-End-Fed Line
Zone-II of both R A and R B
50%
RA
80%
RB
Figure: Loss of Selectivity of Second Zone of RA and RB
44 / 77
Table: Zone Settings

Zone-I
Zone-II
Zone-III
80% of the line under consideration

100% of the line under consideration + 50% of the lowest impedance
adjacent line
100% of the line under consideration + 100% of the largest impedance
adjacent line + 10% extra
45 / 77
while CT, has an actual ratio of nz and phase angle error of 8,. The difference between
these two currents,
up as spill current,
as shown in Figure 3.9. Since both
Actual Behaviour
oftherefore,
Simpleends
Differential
Scheme
the ratio and phase angle errors aggravate as primary current increases, the spill current
builds up as the 'through fault' current goes on increasing.
/P
= lr, eil
n:1
Equipment under
protection
A
,,
.-
Ip
- --
If, ex1
n :I
U
.
Spill current
\
?
External
fault
11, ext
.
?
n = nominal CT ratio
n, and n, = actual CT ratios

!
Ideal positions of I,, and Is2
Primary current
'P
current
c u r rbecause
e n t because
errors
Figure:
current
of of
CTCTerrors
Figure Spill
3.9 Spill
46 / 77
pick-up value of the over-current relay in the spill path. This causes the relay to operate,
disconnecting
equipmentDifferential
under protectionRelay
from rest of the system. This is clearly a
Characteristics
oftheSimple
case of maloperation, since the relay has tripped on external fault. In such instances, the
differential scheme is said to have lost stability. To signify the ability of the differential
scheme to restrain from tripping on external faults, we define 'through fault stability
limit' as the maximum 'through fault' current beyond which the scheme loses stability.
In Figure 3.10, 'through fault stability limit' is shown as Istab
. .
I
>
External fault
characteristics
So
Pick-up value of OC
relay in spill path
1/
-1
Trip
f'
Through
fault current
Through
-2
fault stability
/'
<
/rob
FigureCharacteristics
3.10 Characteristics
of simple
differential
relay.
Figure:
of Simple
Differential
Relay
Compare this with the situation of an internal fault. The minimum internal fault
current required for the scheme to operate, correctly in this case, is decided by pick-up
value of the over-current relay in the spill path. To signify the spread between the
minimum internal fault current at which the scheme operates and the maximum 'through
f a a t ' current beyond which the scheme (mal)operates, we define a term called stability
ratio as:
47 / 77
Percentage Differential Relay

68 Fundamentals oj Power Sysrem Prorecriott
'P
>
-*
CT
n : l
ir 1
CB
CB
Equipment under
/ Trip
protection
\
,
?
Trip,
Restraining coil
rn
'&
1,
12
Armature
Spring
rid output
Balanced beam structure

Figure 3.13 Percentage differential relay
48 / 77
where KO accounts for the effect of spring.

Thus, the of
operating
characteristics
of this relay will
be a straight line with a slope of
Characterisctics
Percentage
Differential
Relay
(N,IN,) and an intercept KOon the y-axis. All points above the straight line will represent
the condition where the operating torque is greater than the restraining torque and hence
will fall in the trip region of the relay. All points below the straight line belong to the
restraining region. The operating characteristics of the percentage differential relay are
:..
'
Internal fault
characteristic
200% slope
,..
External fault
characteristic
Minlrnurn Internal
-? ,+ fault current, IF ,,,,,,

I
I
I
I
Figure 3.14
'
Through fault current. -
(";")
,
!
Maximum through fault current, I,,,,,.,,
Operating characteristics of percentae differential relay.
Thus, the spill current must be greater than a definite percentage of the 'through
fault' current for the relay to operate. Hence, the name percentage differential relay. The
slope of the relay is customarily expqessed as a percentage. Thus, a slope of 0.4 is
expressed as 40% slope.
49 / 77
Differential Protection Busbar

Selection of CT Ratios
'"1
Plug setting 4 R OC relay

=...A
QA
Trip coils of CB.,
CBB, CBc
NO = Normally open
r m
OC
relav o u t ~ u t
Trip battery
Figure 5.2 Wrong method of selection of CT ratios for differential protection of busbars.
Figure: Wrong Method
5.2.2
Selection of CT Ratios in Case of Busbar Protection: Correct

Method
50 / 77
Method
Differential Protection Busbar
Figure 5.3 shows the correct method of setting the CT ratios for the busbar differential
protection. It can be seen that the CT ratios of all the CTs are equal and are based on
the
primaryofcurrent
of that feeder which carries the maximum current. Thus, all the CT
Selection
CT Ratios
'"1
104 F~rndanlrntalsof Power System

P IProtectiotz
Usetting
~
-+ R OC relay
=...A
Zero ampere
ratios are 3000/1 A. Therefore, as can be seen from the figure, there is no spill current
through the OC relay connected in the spill path and the scheme remains stable.
1 i
1A
We draw an important rule for the selection of CT ratios for all the CTs in a busbar
differential
protection,
namely:
Figure 5.3 Correct method of selection of CT ratios for differential protection of busbars.
CT ratio for all CTs in bus differential scheme
5.3
Maximum out of all the feeder currents

1 A or 5 A
External and Internal Fault

51 / 77
CTA or CTB. In all likelihood, CTc will therefore become saturated. We can, therefore, no
CTc willFault
faithfully transform the fault current. For the sake of
onger
assumeand
thatInternal
External
llustration, we have assumed that the secondary current of CTc is only 4 A instead of
10 A. I t can be seen from Figure 5.4 that this results into a spill current of 6 A, causing
he scheme to maloperate, i.e. lose stability on external fault.
".
CT, and CT. are unsaturated
J4A
o
I
Plug setting -+
A
.
.
10A
R OC relay
A
-1
.
?
External fault
1iiiii.:
I
4A
Figure 5.4 Behaviour of busbar differential scheme on external fault.

Figure: Behaviour of busbar differential scheme on external fault
In the worst case scenario, CTAand CTB continue to transform faithfully as per their
ameplate CT ratio but CTc, which carries the total fault current, gets completely
aturated. This clearly indicates the occurrence of an imbalance in transformed secondary
urrents, resulting in substantial spill current. This situation most likely will cause the52 / 77
CTc is concerned. This is depicted in Figure 5.5, wherein it can be seen that CTc now
oesExternal
not carry any
current
(assuming a single-end-fed system with source on leftandfault
Internal
Fault
and side). Since CTA and CTB are not carrying excessive primary currents, they
ansform the current without too much error. There is thus a spill current in the spill
ath and the scheme operates as expected.
No source
10A
Zero
Figure 5.5 Behaviour of busbar differential scheme on internal fault.

Figure: Behaviour of busbar differential scheme on internal fault
The maloperation of the busbar differential scheme on external faults is caused due
non-ideal behaviour of a CT carrying excessive primary current. I t will, therefore, be
rtinent, at this point to take a closer look at the actual behaviour of protective current
nsformers.
53 / 77
Actual 106
Behavious
of a Protective CT
F~rnda~tlentais
of Power Svste~nProtection
Figure 5.6 Equivalent circuit of CT.
Figure: Equivalent circuit of CT

characteristics is passed, any further increase in flux demand causes a disproportionately
large increase in the magnetizing current requirement of the CT. This is illustrated in
54 / 77
Figure 5.6 Equivalent circuit of CT.
near the zero-crossings of the primary current. This is shown in Figure 5.8
be seen that in order to reach the peak of the sinusoidal flux waveform, the
ristics is passed, any further increase in flux demand causes adeep
disproportionately
into saturation. Due t o flatness of the excitation curve in this region
crease in the magnetizing current requirement of the CT. This
is illustrated
in current is demanded by the CT The waveform of the ex
amount
of exciting
5.7. It may also be noted that I, is no longer sinusoidal and its
waveform
has a and is, in fact, very peaky in nature.
becomes distorted
I
nt peak.
Actual Behavious of a Protective CT
4 Flux @
i'
Time
Magnetizing current
'10
Figure 5.7 Operation of the CT beyond the knee point of the B-H curve.
Figure: Operation of the CT beyond the knee point

of the B-H curve
55 / 77
circuit to signify the fact that the magnetizing branch is taking up all the seconda
Actual
of a Protective
CT
current
andBehavious
none is available
to the burden.
IplN
Rb
>Ii:
Xb
RS
I, =
Xs
zero
1s
Burden
lo = /,IN
f
ru"
CT ratio = N : l
.
c
),
lo
= Ip/N
Burden
ru"
.Figure 5.9 Circuit model of a saturated CT.

Figure: Circuit model of a saturated CT
...
%-
.,.~
..".
56 / 77
saturated). We can easily accomplish this by connecting a high resistance (kaown as

stabilizing
in One
seriesCT
with
the OC relay. The stabilizing resistance should be
Externalreszstance)
Fault with
Saturated
such a value that under the worst case of maximum external fault and full saturation
one CT, the current through the OC relay is less than its pick-up value. Such schemes
Need as
for high
high impedance
known
impedance busbar
busbarprotection
differential schemes.
CTc
Saturated CT
Rb
I
I
I
I
Rb
I Short circuit
I-----------_______----.
OC relay
Figure 5.10 Secondary equivalent circuit with one CT fully saturated during external fau
57 / 77
External Fault with One CT Saturated

Minimum internal fault
can
detected
byallthe
high
impedance
busbar
Figure that
5.11 shows
thatbe
during
internal fault,
t h e CT
secondaries
feed into the spill
path. Therefore, the current for a minimum internal fault in the high i ~ ~ p e d a n cspiii
e
differential scheme
path will be
plug
setting = ,I
CTA
10.4
1,
, - - 1,
'c -
- .IOC
Rb
CTc
Rs
RL
- .
Po
CTB
OC relay
p~ck-up
58 / 77
ected side carry the line currents I* IB, IC, while the windings on the delta side
phase currents whose magnitudes are
Three Phase Transformer

76
Furldarnerltuls of Power Svstern Ptotectiorl
as shown in the phasor diagram in Figure 4.2. Each line current on the delta s
phasor sum of two of the phase currents. Hence, there is a phase shift of 30" be
line currents on the two sides of the star-delta transformer. Figure 4.2 s
schematic representation of the transformer connection with all voltages and
Primary
Secondary
Core
\
A
Figure 4.1 Construction of a three-phase transformer.
59 / 77
3. Line currents on the star side are determined. These are same as
Percentage
Differential Protection
of I,.Transformer
I,, Ib and
pment
of Connections
4. Line currents on the delta side are then determined. These are (Ic
a delta-star transformer. Assume a turns ratio

of -1IC)
: 1.asNote
that
the 4.8.
and (Ig
shown
in Figure
ded.
~ , , t ~(rc
: - zA),etc. are all phasor differences.
Delta-star transformer
neutral grounded
with
Delta-star transformer
with neutral grounded
A7
Figure 4.8 Determination of the line currents on the two sides of the t
evelopment of CT connections for differential5.protection

of three-phase
Therefore, if we connect the secondary windings of the CTs60on
/ 77 b
Percentage Differential Protection of Transformer
; Zero
., .
, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - _ _ _ _ _ A
1
\
Percentage differential relay

.I
Figure 4.9 Final connections of percentage differential relay under normal load flow or
external balanced fault.
61 / 77

In
-I
c-g
exerna faull

Figure 4.10 Phase c-to-ground (c-g) external fault.
Figure: Phase c-to-ground external fault
4.6.3 Phase c-to-Ground (c-g) Internal Fault
62 / 77
Transjorn~erProrecrion
35
there is no fault current through the primaries of the CTs on the scar side. The path of
the fault current 1s shown in bold lines. It can be seen from the figure that the fault
current flows through the spill path in two of the percentage differential units causlng
them to operate, thus tripping out the transformer.
, _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ---.
Figure 4.11 Phase c-to-ground (c-g) internal fault.
Figure: Phase c-to-ground internal fault
63 / 77
Il - I2
where KO accounts for the effect of spring.

Thus, the operating characteristics of this relay will be a straight line with a sl
(N,IN,) and an intercept KOon the y-axis. All points above the straight line will rep
the condition where the operating torque is greater than the restraining torque and
will fall in the trip region of the relay. All points below the straight line belong
restraining region. The operating characteristics of the percentage differential rel
Percentage Differential Protection
undamentals oj Power Sysrem Prorecriott
'P
>
-*
CT
n : l
ir 1
CB
CB
Equipment under
/ Trip
protection
\
,
?
Trip,
Restraining coil
rn
'&
1,
:..
Internal fault
characteristic
200% slope
,..
12
'
Minlrnurn Internal
-? ,+ fault current, IF ,,,,,,
Armature
Spring
I
I
I
Figure 3.14
rid output
External fault
characteristic
'
Through fault current. -
(";")
,
!
Maximum through fault current, I,,,,,.,,
Operating characteristics of percentae differential relay.
Thus, the spill current must be greater than a definite percentage of the 'th
fault' current for the relay to operate. Hence, the name percentage differential relay
slope of the relay is customarily expqessed as a percentage. Thus, a slope of
expressed as 40% slope.
The percentage differential relay does not have a fixed pick-up value. The
automatically adapts its pick-up value to the 'through fault' current. As the 'through
current goes on increasing, we are in effect asking the relay to take it easy, by introd
a restraining torque proportional to the circulatillg current. I t can be seen
Figure 3.14,that the 'through fault' stability and the stability ratio of the perce
Balanced beam structure

Figure 3.13 Percentage differential relay
64 / 77
Inrush Current
Therefor., when voltage is passing through zero and becoming positive the flux
should be at its negative maxima and increasing as shcwn in Figure 4.13. In a time equal
to T!2 (half cycle), the flux changes from -$, to + 6, as shown in Figure 4.14. The
change in flux is therefore 2 q , in TI2 seconds. This is the steady-state picture.
Transient flux
flux
i 10
Steady-state
magnetizing current
Excitation characteristics of core
H(AT1rn)
: 810
Inrush current
Time
65 / 77
causing it to draw a very large magnetizing current with a peaky non-sinusoidal
causing it to draw a very large magnetizing current with a peaky non-sinusoidal

waveform. The magnetizing current is, therefore, very high, of the order of
waveform. The magnetizing current is, therefore, very high, of the order of
8 to 30 times the full-load current. This current is known as inrush current. The time
8 to 30 times the full-load current. This current is known as inrush current. The time
constant of this transient component of current could be of the order of a few secondsi, at
constant of this transient component of current could be of the order of a few seconds at
worst.
worst.
The inrush
phenomenon
be explained
mathematically
as follows:
The inrush
phenomenon
can be can
explained
mathematically
as follows:
Letvoltage
the voltage
be represented
as
Let the
be represented
as
.I,
Inrush Current
= Vm
v = Vmv sin
( w tsin
+ 8)( w t
8)
(4.3)
. i,I ,
,
(4.3) a."
a."
The The
variable
8 in the
expression
controlscontrols
the switching
instant. instant.
variable
8 inabove
the above
expression
the switching
Let @
b ethe
value of
the flux.
Then
weThen
can write:
Let
@ binstantaneous
ethe instantaneous
value
of the
flux.
we can write:
d @=
+
(21(21
- sin ( w t 8) dt
sin ( w t + 8) dt
d @=
where K is the constant of integration.

The
value
K can
be found
out from the initial condition, i.e. when t = 0,
where
K isofthe
constant
of integration.
@ = @R = residual flux. Substituting this initial condition in Eq. (4.4), we get
The value of K can be found out from the initial condition, i.e. when t = 0,
@ = @R = residual flux. Substituting this initial condition in Eq. (4.4), we get
@, = -(&)coso
+K
(4.5)
which gives K as
which gives K as
@,
-(&)coso
+K
(4.5)
'
Vm
K = 9, + (x;-)cos8
'
Vm
K = 9, + (x;-)cos8
66 / 77
Inrush Current
'
Thus the expression for flux in the transformer in the initial moments Just after
switching can be written as
' v,"
, , (t)cos~
=
- (xjcos(Wt
+ e)
We can write (VmINw)as p,, the peak value of the flux, giving
Sj'stettr Protecrio~l
Thus, the flux in 90
the Fltt~~/n~rrc.~tinl,r
transformerqfisPob~!er
a function
of the following three factors:
1. Residual flux gR
Table 4.1 Harmonic content of inrush waveform
2. Instant of switching e
Frequency
Magnitude
3. Magnetic properties of core, i.e. the
amount
Fundamentalof magnetizing current
100% required to
produce a given amount of flux.
DC
!
;
1
I
40-60%
+gm, harmonic
the flux attains an amplitude
of 34, at
Thus, we see that for 0 = 0 and qR =Second
30-70s
OJ t = n radians. To satisfy a flux demand of 34,, the transformer primary draws a very
Third
harmonic
10-30%
large magnetizing current with a peaky non-sinusoidal waveform.
Fourthare
harmonic
than 5%voltage
Inrush is also experienced whenever there
sudden changes in Less
the system
such as sudden recovery of system voltage
clearing of a fault, Less
somewhere
Fifthonharmonic
than 5% in the
system.
Sixth harmonic
Less than 5 6
While an unloaded transformer, whichSeventh
is being
switched on, experiences
harmonic
Less thanan5%inrush,
an adjacent transformer, which is in service, may also experience a smaller degree of
inrush. This is known as sympathetic inrush.
Figure 4.15 shows the conceptual scheme of a harmonic restraint diff
Further, as such a high current flows only on one side of the transformer (on the side
The fundamental component of spill current is segregated with the help of
which is being connected to the supply), it looks like an internal fault to the differential
used to develop the tripping torque. The non-fundamental component of th
scheme and ends up as spill current.
aids the unfiltered circulating current in developing the restraining torqu
As seen in Section 4.3, a short circuit at the terminals of a transformer causes similar
the relay stable on inrush while at the same time not affecting its operat
magnitudes of currents to flow. Hence, the percentage differential relay is likely to
genuine internal faults.
maloperate on magnetizing inrush.
67 / 77
I:
1.I Restrain
Percentage Differential Relay with Harmonic
Sixth harmonic
Seventh harmonic
Less than 5 6
Less than 5%
15 shows the conceptual scheme of a harmonic restraint differential relay.

ntal component of spill current is segregated with the help of a filter and is @.
op the tripping torque. The non-fundamental component of the spill current
tered circulating current in developing the restraining torque. This makes
ble on inrush while at the same time not affecting its operation in case of
nal faults.
. . ,.
Transf~7rmerProrecrron
I
(17
- 12)
Fundamental
component
1 :
91
CT
j.
\,
CT secondaw
currents I,, 1;
Transformer
Filter
Unfiltered
All harmon~w
I I
Fundamental +
all harmonics
i
> '
Operating
torque
-Relay
Fundamental
Harmonics
circulating current
Conceptual representation of harmonic restraint percentage differential
relay.
. .
harmonics
spill current
All
.
Fundamental
spill current
Figure 4.16 Percentage biased differential relay with harmonic restraint.
ic restraint percentage aifferential relay which implements the conceptual

n in Figure 4.15 is illustrated in Figure 4.16.
4.8 High Resistance Ground Faults in Transformers
A percentage differential relay has a certain minimum value of pick-up for internal faults.
Faults with fault current below this value are not detected by the percentage differential
68 /h77
~gh
relay. Winding-to-core faults, which are of the single phase-to-ground type, involving
High Resistance Ground Faults: Restricted Earth Fault relays
High resistance ground fault may not be detected by the percentage differential relay \
Reach of restricted
thus it requires more sensitive relaying scheme.
earth fault protection
OC relay
Figure 4.17
protection for
delta transformer;
side of delta-star transformer.
The reach of such a protection must be restricted
to Earth
thefault
winding
ofthethe
otherwise it may operate for any ground fault,
in the
system
- restricted
Since anywhere
this is a current balance
scheme,
it is independent
of the load current and hen
can be made as sensitive as desired.
earth fault protection.
4.8-2 High Resistance Ground Faults on the Star Side
92
High Resistance Ground Faults on the

Delta Side
Frrndu~ner~tals
of Power Sysrern Protection
Figure 4.18 shows the restricted earth fault protection whose reach is limited to the st
side of the transformer. Ground faults beyond the star side CTs, anywhere in the syste
do cause current to flow on the secondary of the CTs. However, the currents circula
through the CT in the neutral path and the CT in faulted phase. Thus, no spill curre
flows and the scheme remains stable on external faults.
High Resistance Ground Faults on the

Star Side
Transformer
Transformer
I
OC relay
Reach of restricted
earth fault protection
Figure 4.17 Earth fault protection for the delta side of delta-star transformer.
earth fault relay
Figure 4.18! Restricted earth fault protection for star side of delta-star transformer.
Since this is a current balance scheme, it is independent of the load current and hence
can be made as sensitive as desired.
I . ,,_ ',
,,
.,. ,<,
, ,
'
69 / 77
from the transformer terminals, the reflected current can be quite small. This can be
Inter-turn faults
heavy current
to flow
within4.19.
the shorted turns. However, seen
fromcause
simplified
analysis
of Figure
Inter-turn
Faults
inthe
Transformer
from the
transformer
terminals, the reflected current can be quite small. This can be seen
from the simplified analysis of Figure 4.19.
d
Figure 4.19 Calculation of terminal current for an inter-turn fault.
Figure 4.19 Calculation

of terminal=current
for(5anx inter-turn
1: Rf =
103)'(1 x fault.
lo3) = 25 kW
Power dissipated
Equating primary and secondary VA

Power dissipated = 1: Rf = (5 x 103)'(1 x
Equating primary and secondary VA
-kV
(I,)
-kV
(I,)
lo3)
= 25 kW
= ( 5 V)(5000 A)
= ( 5 V)(5000 A)
The current that circulates within the short-circuited turns is 5000 A whereas at
400 kV terminals the current is only of the order of 0.11 A. Thus, inter-turn faults
difficult
to detect
using
over-current
or differential
principles
of relaying.
The current
that
circulates
within
the
short-circuited
turn
is is
5000
The current
that
circulates
within
the
short-circuited
turns
5000A.
A whereas
at theHowever, t
can the
cause
severeishot
spots
resulting
in 0.11
deterioration
insulation.
400 kV terminals
current
only
of the
order of
A. Thus, of
inter-turn
faults are
Whereas
at
the
400
kV
terminals
the
current
is
of
the
order
of
0.11
A.
This has
led to theordevelopment
of Buchholz
relay which
makesthey
use of the h
difficult to detect using
over-current
differential principles
of relaying.
However,
generated
and
the consequent
decomposition
of oil or
to differential
sense the fault
by purely
can cause
severe
hot spots
resulting
deterioration
of insulation.
Thus
inter-turn
faults
are
difficult
toindetect
using
over-current
principles
of n
electrical
This has led
to themeans.
development of Buchholz relay which makes use of the heat
relaying.
generated and the consequent decomposition of oil to sense the fault by purely nonelectrical means.
4.10 Incipient Faults in Transformers
70 / 77
Incipient Faults in Transformer: Buchholz Relay

Figure 4.20 Plac
against
faults - relay
insulation
faults
onceptual Protection
diagram of the
inner minor
workinginternal
of the Buchholz
is shown
in between turns, breakdown
1. When an
incipient
such asetc.
a winding-to-core fault or an inter-turn fault
core,
corefault
heating
the transformer winding, there is severe heating of the oil. This causes gases
rated fromDuring
the oil around
is a build-up
of oil pressure
causing oil
these350C.
faultsThere
transformer
insulating
oil decomposes
in different hydrocarbon
nto the conservator. A vane is placed in the path of surge of oil between the
gases,
CO,
CO
.
2
er and the conservator. A set of contacts, operated by this vane, is used as trip
of the Buchholz relay This output of Buchholz relay may be used to trip the
er.
,
of
:t.
>.
To consewator
tank
Buchhalz trip
Figure 4.21 Construction of the Buchholz relay.
Lower circuit is for more sever faults - such as short circuit between phases or to earth,
Buchholz relay also has another set of contacts operated by a float. These
tay open faults
when the
transformer
tank is equipments.
filled with oil. However, in case of
in the
tap changing
oil or decomposition of oil, the float sinks causing the contacts to close. Loss
no doubt cause the transformer temperature to rise but does not warrant
71 / 77
HZ, CH4, C O z and CsHB
Hot spot in a winding
Protection against Over-fluxing: volts/hertz relay
4.1 1 Phenomenon of Over-fluxing in Transformers

4.1 1.1 Protection Against Over-fluxing
The flux and the applied voltage in a transformer are related through the following
expression
v = 4.44 4, fN
where
V is the rms value of the voltage
f is the frequency
N is the number of turns in the winding.
Thus, we can write the flux as
Whenever there is an over-voltage (frequency remaining constant), the transformer

core is subjected to a higher value of flux in order to be able to support the higher applied
Over-flux
drives
thepower
transformer
into saturation
- it draws
design,
transformers
operate a tregion
the knee
of the excessive
saturation magnetizing
curve at
voltage. By
normal (over-excitation).
voltage. Hence, any increase in applied voltage, and the consequent increase in
current
flux density, drives the transformer deeper into saturation. The transformer, therefore,
This
considerably
core current.
losses - Hence,
overheating.
a n excessiveincreases
magnetization
this condition is described as ouerdraws
excitation. This, considerably, increases the core losses giving rise to overheating of the
volts/hertz relay - measures V /f ratio.
transformer. Further, saturation of the core causes the flux to flow into adjacent
structures, causing high eddy current losses in the core and adjacent conducting
materials. Such an operating condition cannot be allowed to continue for long and the
transformer should be tripped if there is a prolonged over-excitation. Figure 4.22 shows
a typical allowable over-excitation limit curve.
72 / 77
Air-Breaker Circuit Breaker
73 / 77
Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker and Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker
74 / 77
Air-blast Circuit Breaker
75 / 77
SF6 Circuit Breaker
76 / 77
Vacuum Circuit Breaker
77 / 77

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Protection System

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Power System Protection

Subject Name: Switch Gear and Protective Devices

Distance Protection of Transmission Lines

Power System Faults

A fault is a condition that causes

Occurrence of a fault can cause the following problems:

Interruption in the power supply to the consumers

Classification of Short Circuit Faults

Probability of occurrence (%)

(b) L-L fault

Probability of occurrence (%)

(c) L-L-G fault

(e) L-L-L-G fault

Various ground faults and phase faults.

Figure: Various ground faults and phase faults

A fault is accompanied by a build-up of current, which is obvious. At the same time th

1.3.2 Phasor Diagram of Voltages and Currents During Various F

A fault is accompanied by a build-up of current, which is obvious. At the same time

Figure 1.13 Trip circuit of a circuit breaker.

Prirnaw current (rms)

secondary voltage on line-to-line basis is 110 V. This helps in standardizing the pr

Operative States of a Protection System

The system operates in the normal state when

To trip the device

Violate the inequality

Violate the time constraints,

When the normal operating limits exceed, the

Operative States of a Protection System

Figure: Functional elements of protective device

To trip the device

Violate the inequality

Violate the time constraints,

Figure: Electromechanical and Digital relays

Withstands voltage spike due to surges and carries substantial currents

Consists of moving parts and suffers from the problem of friction

Produces low torque

Provides high burden and high power consumption

Does not contain moving parts. Free

Electronic components are more

High operating torque

Requires auxiliary DC supply

Quick response and quick reset action

Characteristics of electronic devices are

Low short time overload capacity

Provides many functions such as

Has the ability of self-monitoring and

Has the ability to communicate with

Multiple functions (can work as

Short life cycles

Requires highly trained persons for use

Primary and Backup Protection

Primary relay CBB

Pr~maryfault clearing time

Back-up relaying time > Primary fault clearing time

Primary protection provided by RB starts operating

Primary relay CBB

Back-up protection prov~dedby RA starts operating

Primary protection issues trip command to primary circuit breaker CBB

Primary circuit breaker starts operating

Pr~maryfault clearing time

Primary protection provided by RB starts operating

Back-up protection prov~dedby RA starts operating

Primary circuit breaker CBB trips. Current returns to normal value

Back-up protection provided by RA resets,