EVOLUTION

OUR BIOLOGY AFFECT OUR LIVES

Sperm example
Culture is seen in gender deferent,
biology, and evolution are seen in sex
differences.
STEREOTYPES VS GENERALIZATION
Average are not always true
Only observation
Neither good not bad no moral judgments
THE STANDAR SOCIAL SCIENCE
MODEL
Principle for explaining turn a behavior
Human are different them other animals
and exempt from biological principles
Human behavior has none to do with
environment and socialization than
biology
EVOLUTION PSYCHOLOGY MODEL
Principles for explaning human
behavior (Humans and animals are
unique in adaptation)
Human are animals every species is
unique in it, adaptation and human are
no different
Human behavior is a product of BOTH
human biology and Human environment.
BEHAVIORAL BY PRODUCT
Our body and brain are full of adaption
and we are product of thus
Adaptation are domain specific, they work
in small narrow area of life
Evolved psychological mechanism
contribute behavior
Behavior occurs in human due to part
evolved benefits occurrences.
EVOLUTION NATURAL SELECTION
What is anthropology?
Discipline devoted to human being
(anthro=people, logos= study)
FOUR PARTS: Cultural Anthropology,
Archaeology, Physical Anthropology, and
Linguistic.
Anthropology is HOLISTIC ( whole people)
Begin in late 19th century.
EVOLUTION WANTS US TO: SURVIVE, FIND
A MATE AND REPRODUCE
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
The study of human origin and osteology
Include primatology of human remain
archeological sites, modern sites to
prehistoric people

Early physical anthropology comes out of

comparative and to
, beginning
to sociobiology
Paleoanthropology is the study of human
evolution and relate fossils

https://quizlet.com/82163920/anthropology-310-flash-cards/

Standard Social Model

Explains human behavior Humans are different then other

animals

Evolutionary Psychology

Humans and animals are unique in adaptation

Behavior by Products

Behavior stuck around because they are usefully

Human Evolution Ecology

Anthropology

study of human behavior and cultural diversity

Devoted to human being . Four parts Cultural Archeological
Physical and linguistic

Physical Anthropology
Biological Evolution
Human Evolution
Major landmark in human
evolution #1

Study of human origins

Put decent with modification
1. Bipedalism 2. Food supplies : beginning: gatherness, then
scavengers , then hunter 3. Socially : small familiar bands .
Led by alpha
4.2 million years ago. Austhralapithecus group begins
biped reduce caininemassive sexual dimorphism

Major landmarks in human

evolution #2

2.5 Homo groups begins Lg. human body less sexual

dimorphism Lg. brains meat eating stone tools

Prosimians

50 spices smallest in size nocturnal

Old world monkey's

200 spices New World in S. And Central America Old world

Asia and Africa Small in size diurnal

Great Apes

14 spices Gorillas , Bonobos and chimps from

Africa Oragsntan and gibbons South Asia Large in size
except gibbons . Diurnal
measure by reproduction and generation # of genetic copies
that survive
Other have similar genes children and sibling 50 % nices
and nephews 25% Cousins 12.5%

Biological Fitness
Inclusive fitness
MicroEvolution
Macroevolution

Change within Spices

Change to create new spices evolutionary change might
occur to some slowly

Asexual Reproduction

is a mode of reproduction by which offspring arise from a

single organism, and inherit the genes of that parent only

Sexual Reproduction

s a form of reproduction which involves the fusion of male and

female reproductive cells (gametes) to create a zygot

Male to Male Competition

Cryptic Post-copulatory
choice

For social status and control over females

Physical injection of spermstorage sperm for later usebirds
and reptiles have a gland in cervix for this process

Testicle size

Small testicles compete for females Large testicles share

females with no competition Chimp have 3x bigger balls
than human. Produce more sperm to compete Gorillas have
no need for big balls they compete in size
Egg is more valuable than sperm
Fertilization of the egg
Difference between reproductive winners and losers males
have more varience than females

Anisogamy
Internal Geststion
Fitness Variance
Fitness Floor
Fitness ceiling
Semelparity
Iteroparity
Operational sex ratio
Sexual Division Labor
Cultural Determinism
Estrus
Plasticity
Golden Ratio
Cuckoldry
Infant resemblance
Deception
Satellite Strategies

The worst you can do reproductively have no kids

The most amount of children you can have
One child
Many children
# of sexually active males, to sexually active females
Investment in different aspect of life
Our culture determine our behavior and emotional
characteristics
Female chimp smells when she is ovulating attracts males
Changes in phenotype during development and adulthood
social and ecological conditions
Symmetrical to Face
Raising a child who isn't yours
birth =mom 1 year = dad
Used to attract a mate lies showing off
use deception mate poaching (cock blacking) hang out
with some weaker or uglier

HUMAN EVOLUTIONARY ECOLOGY

Basis for this class
Principles of evolutionary theory to the study of human behavioral and Cultural Diversity
How ecological and social factors influence and shape flexibility in human Populations
Basics of Evolution
Biological evolution, simply put, is descent modification
Earth is 4.5 billion years old
There are common ancestors
Evolution
Very few things are single allele traits.
o Ear lobes
o Tongue rolls
Most are complex genetically determined, occurring in several places on your genes
Often are genetic AND environmentally determined.
Genotype: Biological expression of genes P
henotype: Physical expression of genes
Basics of Evolution
Humans did not evolve from chimpanzees. Humans and chimpanzees are evolutionary
cousins and share a recent common ancestor that was neither chimpanzee nor human.
Humans are not "higher" or "more evolved" than other living lineages. Since our lineages
split, humans and chimpanzees have each evolved traits unique to their own lineages
Darwins Ideas
Social Darwinism
Chimps are our closest ancestors
Chimp-human split likely at 5-7 million years ago

Human Evolution Theory

Use modern hunter-gatherers and primates for comparisons to possible behaviors
Problems with sample sizes (from prehistory bones are scarce)
Sexual dimorphism varies within evolutionary species
Heterogeneities across geography, time, and ecology for biological differences in bones
Human Evolution
Bipedalism: Walking on two feet
o Benefits: faster, running, seeing farther, frees up hands
Food Supplies:
o Beginnings: gatherers, then scavengers, then hunters
o Hunting requires cooperation of a group
Socially: small familial bands
Lead by: Alpha males with strength, ability, favor, skills
Social cohesion does not benefit males- does benefit females
Human Evolution
Genus species as name
Location of bones
Approximate dates
Important features for signs of the evolution of the body
Oldest finds to present
News:
April 2010: Lee Berger's son is playing fetch with dog while he digs in South Africa.
Boy Finds a perfectly preserved clavicle, almost 2 million years old.
New species: Australopithecus sediba

 Perfectly preserved 11 to 13 year old boy and woman with no skull.

Important Ideas
Transitions from Genuses
o Sahelanthropus to Orrotin to Ardipithecus to Paranthropus to Australopithecus to Homo
Timeline and timing to transitions
o When do these transition come?
Tools and Develoments of civilization
o Really begins with Homo groups and larger brains
Lets go through the timeline of human evolution!
Sahelanthropus tchadensis
Discovered in Chad
6-7 million years ago
Badly crushed and distorted cranium was found
It had a small brain, estimated to be around 360 cc in volume.
We cannot assess bipedalism from this specimen
Orrorin tugenensis
Discovered in Tugen Hills region of Kenya
6 and 5.8 million years ago
20 fossil specimens, coming from a minimum of five Individuals. Specimens include lower
teeth and jaw fragments, pieces of the humerus, pieces of the femur, and a phalanx
Speculated to Have Been beep but inconclusive evidence
Ardipithecus kadabba
Discovered in Middle Awash Valley of Ethiopia
5.2 and 5.8 million years ago
There are Relatively few Ar. kadabba fossils and the majority are teeth and fragments of the
lower jaw. Also, fragmentary pieces of the forearm, two finger bones, and a bone from the
fourth toe.
Fourth toe shows bipedalism
Ardipithecus ramidus
Discovered in Middle Awash region in Ethiopia 4.5 and 4.2 million years ago
Represents the oldest species That Possesses features unequivocally linked to the hominin
(early human) lineage Fossils include most of it to cranium and MOST of the right half of
the face, and to partial, but damaged, pelvis, two partial femora (thigh bones), and MOST
of the foot.
.
Australopithecus Anamensis
Discovered near Lake Turkana in Kenya
4.2 and 3.9 million years ago
Fossils representing the skull outnumber those of the limbs and trunk
Provide a glimpse of the evolutionary changes that represent the transition from earlier,
more primitive to later, more human-like species- such as Australopithecus afarensis
Kenyanthropus platyops
Discovered west of Lake Turkana in Kenya
3.3 and 3.5 million years ago
Known only from cranial remains including teeth
Difficult to precisely determine how this species was evolutionarily related to other hominin
species (why there is a new genus and species)
Australopithecus Afarensis
Discovered in Ethiopia, Ethiopia and other sites in Kenya, Tanzania
3.9 and 3.0 million years
Recovered almost 400 specimens of Au afarensis, Including the famous Lucy.

 This is a long time span and they were a successful species of hominin persisting for almost
a million
years
First user of stone tools (tools used not made)
Australopithecus africanus
Discovered in three sites in South Africa.
3-2.0 million years ago
The first specimen of A. africanus to be found, in 1924, was a juvenile skull from the site of
Taung in South Africa (Aung Child)
Complicated place in evolution. With Au Shares traits with Au. afarensis and Paranthropus.
Genus Paranthropus
Paranthropus aethiopicus, , Paranthropus robustus, Paranthropus boisei (2.7-1.4 million years
ago, East Valley in Africa)
A group of species with extreme features of the skull not found in other species.
This genus Eventually went extinct without leaving any descendants
The diets consisted of hard plant foods and they were able to coexist with other hominin
species (eg, Homo habilis and Homo erectus) without going extinct Until
The disappearance of These foods (due to Changes in climate or other factors) Explains
Their eventual extinction; specialization for a food That was no longer available
Homo habilis
Discovered in Tanzania and Kenya
2.5 to 1.6 million years ago
Has an absolutely bigger brain (average cranial capacity is around 680 cubic centimeters), a
more upright forehead, brow ridges and weaker
Undoubtedly First bipedal
First tool makers: Oldowan tools. These tools simply while, Had sharp, cutting edges, and
could be used for many purposes.
Homo erectus
Found in Indonesia, China, northern, eastern and southern Africa
1.8 million to 50 thousand years ago
First species to be found outside of Africa and many toward the pattern seen in Homo
sapiens
First hominin species with human-like gait and to Actively Control fire
Tools used are called Acheulean: Characterized by hand axes with Two sided blades
Homo neanderthalensis
Discovered in Neander Valley of Germany, also all of Europe, Central Asia (in predominantly
cave sites)
200,000 to 28,000 years ago
Unique cranial features, large skulls, large bodies, short and wide stature
Sophisticated stone tool technologies designed to hunt large mammals at close range and
also used Homo Sapiens tools as well.
No evidence of symbolic artifacts (cave painting, etc) but hearths built in caves for warmth.
Homo sapiens
Appears first in East Africa, then a all over the world
175,000 years ago to present
Large skull (1300 cc) and small, gracile body
Importance of symbolism, complex cognitive behaviors, and a broad subsistence strategy
(diversity of stone tools for hunting multiple prey types)
Probable first users of spoken language
Disappearance of Neanderthals coincides With the migration of Homo sapiens into Europe
from Africa

Major Landmarks in Evolution

4.2 million years ago (mya) Australopithecus groups begin
o Committed biped
o Reduced canines
o Massive sexual dimorphism
2.5 mya Homo groups begin
o Human-like body
o Larger brain
o Systematic meat-eating
o Decreased sexual dimorphism
o Stone tools
o Rudimentary language?
Sex vs. Gender
Sex: either of the two major forms of Individuals that Occur in many species and That are
distinguished respectively as female or male Especially on the basis of Their reproductive
organs and structures
Sexuality: the quality or state of sexual Being: Also sexual activity
Gender: the behavioral, cultural, or psychological traits Typically Associated With one sex
(From Merriam Webster Dictionary)
Sexual dimorphism
Difference in a single species between a biological male and female in size and stature of
bones and musculature
Humans: Differences Relatively small
o Mainly cranium and pelvis
o Age is important: Easier to tell in adults
o Not always reliable
Always use skull and pelvis, other bones as well if available
Sexual dimorphism
Pelvis
o Females Have a wider, broader, rounder pelvic inlet
o Accommodate fetal development and birth
o Males have a higher and more narrow pelvic inlet.
o Superior view, more heart shape Have evils opening
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Problems with sexing a skeleton
Rarely are these rules an absolute (more of tendency)
Nutrition, environment, diet, disease, injury, cultural influences all potential growth
Affect Characteristics That May Have change based on other factors (eg race, species in
human evolution, that diversity amongst people leads to false ID)
Primates:
Prosimians
o includes 50 species (ex: lemurs in Madagascar)
o smallest in size, Most are nocturnal
Old World and New World Monkeys
o Includes more than 200 species, New World in South and Central America, Old World in
Africa and Asia
o Smaller size, diurnal
Great Apes: includes apes and human
o About 14 species; gorillas, bonobos, and chimpanzees in Africa, and orangutans and
gibbons in Southeast Asia
o Larger in size (except for gibbons), diurnal, no tails
Baboons

There are five different species

They live in Africa.
Baboon males average from 33 to 82 pounds (15 to 37 kilograms).
They spend much of their time on the ground.
Baboons generally prefer savanna baboons and other semi-arid habitats, though a few live
in tropical forests.
Orangutans
Found only in Sumatra and Borneo
Orangutans have An enormous arm span. A male may stretch his arms some 7 feet from
fingertip to fingertip- a reach considerably longer than his standing height of 5 feet.
Orangutans are more solitary than other apes. Infants will stay with their mothers for some
six or seven years.
The Animals Have survived as long as 60 years in captivity
Gorillas
Only 700 Mountain Gorillas left in wild.
Gorillas can climb trees, but are usually found on the ground in Communities of up to 30
Individuals Troops are led by one dominant, older adult male. Troops also include several
other young males, some females, and their offspring.
In captivity, gorillas displayed significant intelligence and have even learned simple human
sign language
Bonobos
Relative of Chimpanzee
Live only in the Democratic Republic of Congo
They walk bipedally, on two feet, more easily and for longer periods of time than the other
apes
Bonobo society is peaceful, matriarchal and more egalitarian
Bonobos live in groups of up to 100, day breaking up into foraging groups and gathering to
nest at night

Chimpanzees
They normally walk on all fours (knuckle- walking), chimpanzees can stand and walk upright
Chimps eat fruits and plants, But Also insects, eggs, and meat, including carrion.
Chimpanzees are one of the few animals species That employ tools.
o They shape and use sticks to retrieve insects from their nests or dig grubs out of logs.
o They also use stones to smash open nuts and employ tasty leaves as sponges to soak up
drinking water
o Chimpanzees Have Been Taught to use some basic human sign language.
Selection
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
Natural and Sexual Selection
Variation 2 ways: Evolution mutations and sexual selection
Evolution favors any trait genetically determined trait that leads to more offspring that will
reproduce
Natural Selection
Biological Fitness: measured by reproduction and generations
Number of genetic copies (offspring) that survive
Inclusive Fitness: others have your genes
o Children and siblings: 50%
o Nieces and Nephews: 25%
o Cousins: 12.5%

o Your successful genes will carry on in others related to you

o Fitness score includes all of those related to you genetically.
Natural Selection
Microevolution: change within a species
Macroevolution: change to create a new species
Evolutionary change may occur quickly or slowly
o Rapid changes occur when there is a dramatic change in climate, food, or social
conditions
o Birds in Gulf Coast
Reminder Mutations make permanent genetic changes
Why not Asexual Reproduction??
Single celled organisms that divide, plants with runners or spores, jellyfish that bud
Exact copies of organism
Faster accumulation of harmful mutations that cannot be selected out
Competition for survival would be identical siblings
Lottery Analogy: Asexual is 100 tickets all the same, Sexual is 50 with different numbers
tickets

Virgin Whiptail Lizards

Only females exist.
They reproduce by parthenogenesis, an unfertilized egg develps into individual new. They
produce clones of themselves.
Occasionally one of the females will start to act like a male by attempting to copulate with
another female.
The lizards evolved from a sexual species and they engage in fake sex. It is a vestigial
behavior; a behavior present in a species, which in this case, is useless.

Sexual Reproduction
50% overlap of genes from parent to child
Ability to remove harmful mutations faster
Creation of Increased variability in offspring
Ability of offspring to adapt to ecology
Greater resistance to parasites
o Most parasitic species have about 16 species capable of infecting it.
o Creating constantly moving targets for parasites
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Sexual Selection
Evolved two ways:
o Characteristics are useful to one sex (weapons)
o Female pay attention to traits (plumage, decoration)
Two Components:
o Male to Male Competition
o Female Choice
Female Choice
Good taste vs. Good genes
Good taste: good looking males
o Often a bad thing because of predation
o Females choose sexy fathers because these males and then sons will be healthier,
vigorous, and resistant to parasites.
o Includes also good behavior and good resources.
Female choice

 Good genes
o High quality males able to provide good genetic and material resources
o Bright plumage indicates degree of parasite resistance
o Immune system competence breeding (Multiple Histocompatibility Complex)
Female Choice
Cryptic postcopulatory Choice
o Unseen choice: everything from physical ejection of sperm to changes in biochemistry
that influence sperm viability.
o Storage of sperm for later fertilization
o Can become pregnant from previous mating season
o Suspended animation: delayed implantation of egg (fertilized or not)
o Birds and reptiles have glands in the cervix or uterus (birds about 8 weeks and reptiles
for months or years
o Female Javan Wart Snake: storage for up to 7 years
Female Choice
Good genes and good behavior (parental investment) can be easy to fake in matte
attraction.
Good resources (another idea) is harder
Resource rich mates are preferred
Bonobo chimp evil will eat meat and fruit to entice a female and show themselves to be
desirable. The female approaches, the male mounts the female and runs away with the
food
Male to Male Competition
Armaments are used in direct competition Between males for social status or direct over
control females
Fighting for social dominance: success relates to physical size, age, duration of residency
Fighting can relate to early death
Males in male elephant seals will try to female sneak into female habitats to mate, females
alert of the intruder and competition ensues.
Skill at making a nest or home can be competition
Male to Male Competition
Sperm competition
o Male to male completion in the female reproductive tract
o Black winged damsel fly: penis that acts like a scrub brush
o Insects With That penis breaks off inside the female to act like a chastity belt
o Sharks That Have a double barrel penis to cleanse the previos sperm
o Worms in Rats' intestines where males cement other males penis opening to render
them impotent
Male to Male Competition
Animals with small testicles tend to physically compete for females
Animals with large testicles share females without fighting or domination
Ex: Human testicles weigh twice as much as orangutan and five times as much as a gorilla.
Chimps have testicles 3 times that of humans and produce more sperm to compete.
Gorillas have no need for large testicles as a dominant Silverback Gorilla drives away
competitors with Physical size.
Male Choice and Female to Female Competition
Also options, buy less common in part because of female reproduction requirements and
parental investment

Barn Owls
Seahorses
Meerkats
Female aggression can also occur when focused on resource protection and establishment of
control, not on mate access or preference.
Potential Reproductive Rates
Fun Facts:
Human eggs weigh 85,000 times that of a sperm
Sperm weigh (on average) one ten-trillionth of a gram
Some birds produce eggs weigh 25% of body weight
Human ejaculation produces on average 200 to 600 million sperm
Horses produced 4-9 billion sperm
Pigs produce Often up to 20 billion sperm

Biological Facts of Human Sex Differences

Anisogamy
o Female egg is larger in size and fewer in number than the male sperm
o The egg is biologically egg more valuable, the sperm is abundant
Internal gestation of fertilized eggs
o The female can produce far fewer offspring than male
o Females: 9 months- 2 years to produce typically one offspring
o Males: 15 minutes to produce new 200-600 million sperm

Human Sex Difference

Fitness variance: Difference between reproductive winners and losers
Males have more variance than females
Far more men childless than women
Fitness Floor: the worst you can do reproductively
Have no children
Fitness ceiling: Most amount of children you can have
The largest number of children a man can have is two orders of magnitude Greater Than the
potential children of a woman (Thousands to tens)

Potential Reproductive Rates

More Fun Facts: Historical records of Human Reproduction
Male: King Sobhuza of Swaziland
o More than 100 wives
o About 600 children 1
o 000s of grandchildren
o 1/5 of Swaziland is related to him
Male: Moulay Ismail the Bloodthirsty of Morocco
o At Least 700 sons and 342 daughters
Female: Feodor Vassilyev (18th century Russian Peasant)
o 69 children in 27 pregnancies (16 sets of twins, seven sets of triplets, 4 sets of
quadruplets) all but two lived to adulthood
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Life History
Semelparity: all reproductive potential goes into one breeding episode

 iteroparity all potential is spent parity across multiple breeding episodes

Selector favors semelparity when: adult mortality is high
Selection favors iteroparity when: juveniles and offspring are likely to survive to a second
breeding episode

Operational Sex Ratios Ratios

Ratio of sexually active males to sexually active females in a given area
Influenced by: sex Differences at breeding sites, degree of synchronization of female sexual
receptivity, spatial distribution of resources and mates.
The sex that invests in offspring are usually a limited resource
Male competition can cause high mortality rates
Analogy of males as stockbrokers and women as wealthy investors

Sexual Selection in Humans

Gendered socialization
Sex differences shared by vervet monkeys
Is there a universal in gender that is biological?
The idea of an average that is not a stereotype.

Mating System of the Species

Monogamy
Polygamy (domination by one male of female over the amount of available partners)
o Both polygyny and polyandry
Sexual division of labor (investment in different aspects of life)
Culture as Universal
Miller and Kanazawa write that:
There is only one human culture
Common Characteristics exist among all cultures
Culture is our defense mechanism (knowledge is passed on about our defenses is
created defenses)
Cultural Determinism: the culture we are raised in determines the behavioral and
emotional characteristics of the people. Environment (nurture) makes you who you are.
Anthropology and Culture
If culture is our defense mechanism and form of protection, then a variety of cultural
adaptations exits.
Humans are part of the same species.
Think of Cultural Differences as a form of MICROEVOLUTION.
Cultures have different ways of creating appropriate boundaries for gender and sexuality.
One example: Ghana and hand holding
Primates
Four primates Types: Prosimians, Old World Monkeys, New World Monkeys, and Primates:
Apes and humans
Mating Possibilities
Monogamous: Gibbons
Uni-Male groups (harems): Gorillas

 Multi-Male Groups: Baboons and Chimpanzees

Sex in primates
Sex in primates
Baboons:
Alpha males disproportionately father offspring
Keeping male hierarchy protects offspring of alpha from infanticide
Study: dominant males have low stress hormones, in better health, better immune system
function
Gelada baboons exist in 1 male, 10 female harems with offspring
Male Olive Baboons are violent against females who may not be carrying or caring for their
offspring, females have friendships and multi-mate mating to offset.

Sex in primates
orangutan
Socially dominant males are 2x the size of female
Males develop large flanges around face and large throat sac to produce long calls
Female/ young groups and roaming males
Receptive female will answer the calls of males to reproduce.

Sex in primates
Chimpanzees: Sex is largely promiscuous
Consortship exists: male grooming and sharing of food with female
Male coalition and male philopatry (males stay with birth group)
Lots of group politics: territory size Important, male aggression way of gaining it and females
High ranking female chimps Have more offspring in their life: males prefer mate with older,
experienced mates that more skilled mothers and more fertile per ovulatory cycle.

Sex in primates
Bonobos: related (cousin species) to chimps
Have sex more like humans (variety of positions, female to female, male to male, female
solicited etc.)
Large female coalition to protect from male aggression
Also has male philopatry
Sex in primates
Gorillas: isolated single male harems: one male, two to four females, and offspring
Males exhibit high levels of parenting
Females do not have conspicuous sexual swelling and they primarily solicit copulation from
the alpha male
Also male has philopatry

Female Sexual Swelling or Estrus

Physiologically: Marked by swelling and redness, ovulation and pheromones
Behaviorally: females receptive to sex and males interested in females
Frequency: every month for the first year, often every five years when producing offspring.
Infertile females often never approached by males even when in estrus.
Development
Plasticity

 Potential for phenotypes to change during development and in adulthood because of social
and ecological conditions experiences by individual or mother.
Hormonal or endocrine responses
Constrained range of expression
EX: Coffee
EX: weather
EX: finches in Galapagos and beak size
Plasticity during pregnancy
Mammals: Healthy mother give birth to heavier offspring and provide more milk
Baboons: high ranking females give birth to males who have accelerated testicular
maturation and more up social hierarchy faster
Female differ in plasticity of reproductive timing: EX swallows in meadow from film.

Fetal Development
Only a Y chromosome activates sex development (Female is default fetal sex)
Hormones play a large role- 8 weeks of development and to Y Makes testes form.
Most genetic differences are concerned with timing, types, and levels of hormones
If embryo is exposed to testosterone, it will become anatomically male
Twins, one of each sex in the womb: the male's testosterone will add to masculinity in the
brain of the female twin

Fetal / At Birth
More girls than boys are conceived (150: 1 and more are spontaneously aborted because the
rate at birth is (. 105: 100)
Girls at birth are 1-2 weeks ahead of boys in bone growth Boys are generally heavier and
longer
Girls Have more subcutaneous fats at birth
Infant mortality is Greater in boys (127: 100)
Adolescence
Body weight by % of fat:
o Girls
o Boys
o Even among equally fit/athletic children: girls have more fat
Strength at age 17
o Girls can squeeze 59 lbs
o Boys can squeeze 98 lbs
Ability differences
o Boys have better spatial ability
o Girls have better verbal ability

Adult Differences
Height: Girls 5'4 '' Boys 5'9 "
Weight: 135 lbs Girls, Women 165 lbs
Women have a wider pelvis for childbirth, and are more heat resistant and sweat less
Patterns of fat distribution persist
o Girls need fat for hormone secretion for ovulation and menstruation
o Boys have no ties to fat ratio, body weight and sperm production
Adult Differences

Strength: Girls Have 65% of men's average strength.

Differential is upper body strength
ultramarathons and endurance contests: women do better
Why are not we taller?
Women typically select for male height
Height can help for food access and resource protection
There is a too tall for the body (unsustainable body height)
Large infants are difficult to birth, keep feed and healthy in prehistory
Differences Adult
Women live longer (US estimates)
o Women: 79 years
o Men: 72 years
o Male death may have to do with testosterone
Female Diseases: Bladder Cancer, osteoporosis, immune Disorders, Depression, Anxiety,
hypochondria
o Suicides are: pills, wrists
Male Diseases: heart attacks, pneumonia, cancer, learning disorders, ADHD, autism
o Suicides are commitment: jumpers, drugs, guns
Equal in: manic depression, schizophrenia, OCD

Culture and Biology

Nature vs. Nurture
Get into groups of all evil or all females- About 4-5 people
Make a list of the physical qualities and personality Characteristics That are ideal.
What does this person look like?
How are they attractive and helpful to you as a matte?

Ideals in Men and Women:

Male Ideal
o Young women, short, high voice, subcutaneous fat, less body hair, lighter skin, dainty
feet, noses and chins That not prominent
o Primates: Jane Goodall was found Flo was most popular mate
Female Ideal
o Investment in offspring, height, muscularity, broad shoulders (strength), beards,
powerful (by wealth, influence, and authority)
o Hypothetical Sperm Donors
What Men Want in Men
Physical
Tall,
Muscular fit, athletic
Muscular, round butt
Colored eyes
Good teeth, good smile
Body hair-shaved, waxed, hairless
Strong upper body / chest
Some tattoos and piercings
Nice Smell
What Women Want in Women
Physical
Big boobs (not fake)

Personality
Intelligent
Family oriented
Caring / affectionate
Faithful, honest,
Sensitive, selfless
Funny, Good sense of humor
Match or pass or financially
outgoing, try new things

Fit, athletic (not too skinny)

Pretty smile, lips

Light colored eyes

Exotic ethnicity is cool
Well-manicured, good hygiene
Not too tall
Personality
Does not mind PDA
Smells good
Tattoos and piercings okay

Sporty
Funny, sense of humor
Thoughtful
Honest, faithful
Outgoing, confident
Kids / Family Friendly

Ideals of Men (What Women Want)

Size
o Height is important. 5'11 " is preference
o Short men are less desirable as a permanent mate
o Few presidents shorter than 6
Strength
o Physical protection Important for safety
o Both size and strength tied to good health
Love and Fidelity
o Most Important trait
o Works with most of the following traits
Ideals of Men
Resources
o Can find and keep the material goods like food and land
o Food: Biological Resource
o Land: Physical resource
o Money in modernity is a crucial financial resource
Generosity
o Tendency in the mate to want to share the resources
o Will benefit you and children
Ideals of Men
Age
o Maturity and old age mean reliability
o More resources, more experience
Hard work
o Motivation to get resources if needed
Dependability
o Emotional instability can mean violence
o Stability = consistency, Good with stress
Ideals of Men
Intelligence:
o
Good at finding resources if you mate has less than desirable
o Not repeating mistakes
o Good Hunting
Compatibility:
o Similar goals and lifestyle
o Discrepancies cause problems and conflict
o Avoid wasting time and money by choosing matte within their reach
Ideals of Females (what men want)

 Large Breasts
o Humans are unique in having prominent breasts when not lactating
o Selection of potential mates by breast size does not reflect ability to better breast feed
any offspring
Small Waists
o Small waisted women show that they are not pregnant by another man
o Hourglass figure selected for health predictors
Ideals of Females
Long Hair is common among young women
o Hair is an indicator of good health
Blonde Hair
o Young girls with blonde hair become women with brown hair often
o Blonder = younger and more fertile
o Scandinavia, clothed climate, good indicator of health
Blue Eyes
o Pupil dilation better seen in blue eyes
o Dilation allows you to gauge someone's interest in you as mate
Ideals of Females
Youth
o Clue of reproduction and fertility
o Men prefer on average 2.5 years younger C
Chastity and Fidelity
o No Cuckoldry
o Virgin brides vs. virgin grooms
o Cross culturally: single best predictor of infidelity is premarital sexual permissiveness
Ideals of Females
Modern Men Fooled by:
o Plastic Surgery
o Wigs
o Hair dye
o Color Contacts
o Breast enhancement
What you see May not be what you get ...

Cross Cultural Beauty

Bilateral symmetry, averageness, secondary sexual Characteristics
Evolutionary driven standards lead to agreement cross culturally.
Symmetry = Good health, no parasites, good nutrition, Changes With Age
Golden Ratio
http://www.youbeauty.com/beauty/face-symmetry-of-celebrities/
Pornography, Prostitution, and Media

 Miller / Kanazawa assert That Men's impulse is to mate with multiple partners, therefore
prostitution make sense to spread genes.
Women do not need multiple partners, little reproductive benefit
Does this make sense ???
Pornography Allows men see sex and be fulfilled with reproductive needs but still be
monogamous
Movies with age disparities
Nature's Paternity Certainty
o Male water bugs incubate fertilized eggs and starve Themselves to care for eggs; They
Also Repeatedly interrupt egg laying to kill again and Ensure certainty
o Male walking sticks ride on the female's back With His genitalia attached to hers Until
eggs are laid
o Parasitic worms (We Talked About before) cement closed the female genital opening to
block other male's sperm
o Male honey bee's body explodes like a grenade after intercourse to push sperm even
Further into the body
Paternity Certainty
o Cuckolding: 3-10%
o 20% extramarital of American Women Have at Least one extra-marital affair
o Infidelity OCCURS more often around ovulation and were less likely to use contraception
o It is not cuckoldry if it is Known (eg stepparents)
Paternity Certainty
o Concealed ovulation and sexual receptivity relationships to Prevent certainty
o Requires men to Maintain longer, stable relation to Ensure paternity
o Males vary investment based on certainty
o Newborns Often resemble mothers more but boys grow to resemble their fathers over
time
Resemblance of Infants
o Statistics tell us That babies resemble That fathers are more likely to survive
o Fathers Become convinced of paternity (not cuckoldry) and invest in offspring
o Evolution has produced the tendency for offspring to look more like fathers for survival
o Their offspring and parent
o
Experiment With photos : more success ages 1 year old with matching father or to
mother other than
Parental investment of females vs. males
o All humans: more maternal than paternal investment
o in US: employed married men interact with children 12 minutes a day on workdays and
27 minutes on day off Employed married women average 58 minutes on workdays and
38 minutes on days off
o In most cases, mothers perform 15 minutes of childcare for every 1 minute Performed
by fathers
o Women Constitute 90% of single parents
Parental investment of females vs. males
o Women are more likely to show empathy, affiliation, social skills, and sensitivity to
nonverbal cues of a child's needs
o Mothers are better at interpreting Correctly the cries of Their Young Children and Their
meanings
o Breast feeding encourages initial female investment
Parental investment of females vs. males
o Fathers are Typically playmates mothers are nurturing Typically comfort and nurturing

Children with fathers as playmates are Often Chosen more often as preferred peer
playmates D
o ivorce is Most Common reduction of parental investment
o Custodial fathers still Provide monitoring of children less than custodial mothers
Parental investment of females vs. males
o Following divorce, men (men Especially higher status) are more likely to remarry than
women and to Have More Children with new spouse
o Higher levels of testosterone in males is Associated With mating competition; low levels
are Associated with a focus on parenting
o Fathers WHO Respond to infant crying More Often Have lower levels of testosterone
General Selection of mates
o Let's look at our lists of personality traits we want in a matte.
o Do they match With This:
o Females want good financial prospects (resources)
o Females Males value ambition and industriousness
o Males value physical attractiveness over personality
o Men prefer younger mates
o Females prefer older mates
Infidelity: Cuckoldry
o Is this a male or female strategy?
o Why is it beneficial?
o Problems: o Jealousy Trust.
o Survey: Men vs. Women
o Which is worse? Emotional attachment to another sex or infidelity?
Infidelity:
o One survey
o Emotional is more upsetting 83% of women and 40% of men
o Sexual infidelity is more upsetting 17 % of women and 60% of men
o

Risk of Infidelity

Resources re-allocation
Resources loss
Loss of access to offspring
Loss of biological connection to offspring
Violence
Divorce
Social Stigma
Death

Short term mate Vs Long term

Was your list for your long term mate or your short term mate?
Would there be a difference in what you would be looking for?
Short term Mating
Lust is primary emotional force
Benefits to men:
o More offspring
o Desire for more partners (on average 18 vs womens 4 or 5) over lifetime
o Relaxation of standards: more women fit possible profile
o Not bothered by marital status unless looking for long term mate (better because she
wont want long term)

Short term Mating

Men cont
Tendency in nature for men to be more sexually arouse with new, unfamiliar females
(arousal to novelty)
Spouse swapping initiated by men
Group sex initiated mainly by men
Ability to select for sexual compatibility
More sexual freedom and requests for kink

Short term Mating

Women
Only need minimal sexual access to reproduce
Sex for resources (think Bonobo females)
Dont have to do job of wife
Little to no caretaking (BCP)
Evaluation of potential husbands
Additional physical protection with alliance

Short Term Mate

Women's Cont.
Characteristics of women's investment
Money spent lavishly
Generous gifts from beginning to end
Extravagant lifestyle funded
Sounds like prostitution, but sex for things but is now quite c.
Beyond sex for resources- sex for gifts
Sugar babies / sugar daddies trend
Short Term Mate
Women are often looking for similar qualities in short and long term mates
Men are often looking for opposite qualities in short and long term mates
Women are often trying out the man
Men are often mating in completely different ways in the two situations
Fundamental difference in transition from benefits relationship to dating relationship
In modernity Ashleymadison.com seekingagarrangement.com and cougarlife.com
Beer Goggles
Women (or men) get more attractive after liquor
Attributable to psychological mechanism of decreasing time and opportunity as night goes
on.
Less women (or men), less time, standards begin to be re-adjusted with current situation
Costs of casual sex/short term mates
Men
STDs
Poor reputation
Injury from jealous spouse/partner
Unwanted offspring
Retaliatory affairs
Divorce

Women
Risk of physical or sexual abuse
STDs
Poor reputation
Pregnancy
Divorce
Greater rates of infanticide

Deception
Used to attract a mate
Everything from:
Exaggerations of prestige, status and income
Exaggerations of beauty (we talked about manipulations last week)
35 % of online dating ads are people who are married.
Deception
Bragging about accomplishments
Initiating visual contact
Wearing sexy clothes
Displaying athletic prowess
o Flexing muscles, opening jars, physical power
Flashing cash
Showing importance at work
Deception by Men
Showing commitment is difficult to fake-persistence is effective
Display of kindness and compassion can often be exploited
To attract women, men admit to being more polite, more considerate, and more vulnerable
than they really are. (Remember good behavior??)
Display of love
Spreading rumors about rival or fighting a rival
Talking down a rival (no $, no job, no ambiton)
Satellite Strategies
Stealthy men using deception
Being near a weaker men to show the difference
Mate poaching
Making friends with a woman and sneaking into her life
Feigning femaleness
Deception by Women
Mainly alteration of appearance
Re-dressing, re-showering, getting ready over again before going out
Sexualizing of appearance that may not be consistent in their daily lives
Pretending to be dumb, meek, helpless
Denigration other womens appearance
o Ex woman taking out the hairbrush
o Drawing attention to others flaws
Deception by Women
Two fold problem: Women need to show men they are sexy- but not too sexy
Too sexy means: promiscuous
Your reputation can be badly damaged
What do we call these women?
They need either low promiscuity, high desirability Or low desirability, high promiscuity ( long
or short term attraction to men)
Missed Signals
Eye contact and smiling are both easily misread signals from women to men
Women have more to lose in mixed signals
Women are taken as whores often because of provocative behaviors or dress
Signals to men when misread can lead to aggression or even violence

Strategies of Mate Keeping

For women: showing kindness and love, buying gifts, spending money.
For men: showing love and kindness, enhancing physical appearance
Emotional manipulation: crying, etc
Dependence or partner
Strategies of Mate Keeping
Submitting to mate
Provoking sexual jealousy
Signal of ownership
o Physical: holding hands, wearing jacket or jewelry, pictures
o Verbal: introducing person as mate
Derogation, threats and violence- Performed almost exclusively by men
Anger and threats to keep mates from straying.

Strategies of Mate Keeping

Vigilance as primary strategy
5th year of marriage- most common strategy employed
o Calling mates at odd times
o Checking mail or email or phone
o Monopolizing a mates time
65,000 calls made by Dutch women to her ex in 1 year (178 calls per day)
Fear of infidelity
Fear of womens infidelity leads to stratefies to ensure mens reproductive success is fulfilled
and mates are guarded
o Eunuchs guard harems of women
o Chinese foot binding
o Seclusion of women with other women
o Female circumcision
o Women who refuse are often socially scorned and considered unmarriable
Control over women is still a form of violence and strategies of reproduction
Link to Violence and Jealousy
Killing a mate might be beneficial in status
Reactionary to perceived threat
Sometimes culturally approved
We will pick this up after the midterm with our section on violence

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Nov11

Brain Structures
Evolutionary Development of the brain: three parts.
Reptilian Brain
o Brain Stem
o Simple motor skills and reflexes, all senses except smell and vision, feeding , fighting,
fleeing, and sex
Mammalia Brain (Limbic System)
o Contains hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, pitutitary
o Emotions, Hunger, thirst, sleep
Thinking Brain ( NeoCortex)
o Frontal lobe, temporal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe
o Decision making, risk taking, language and spatial perception

https://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/joel.wallenberg/ContextsJoelGeoff/lecture4.htm
Sex differences in Brain
Women
o More area devoted to language (temporal and parietal)
o Brain functions more diffused make for more emotions
o Better at fine motor skills
Men :
o More area devoted to spatial skills (parietal lobe)
o Effect of testosterone in brain makes for more aggression
o Better at gross motor skills
Reasoning for Brain Differences
Hunting/Scavenging
o Gross motor skills needed

o Aggression to kill
o Spatial skills to track animals
Gathering / Rearing infants
o Fine motor skills for picking food and grooming infants
o Language skills for communicating
o Intuition for understanding an infants non-verbal cues.
Brain Development and Laughter
Built in mechanism, like sneezing; not learned like tool use. WHY?
Social Brain Hypothesis
Social complexity and increased need for cohesion
Laughter adds to sociability and smoother relations between people
Chimps laugh too. Adds to sociability while doing bonding activities like grooming
Laughing may be analogous to blushing
Brain Development and Fear
Fear centers in the amygdala
Originated to protect people from predators
Even if a perceived threat is artificial(like in scary movies) it is still received and understood
the same way by the brain
Amygdala sends out dopamine in response: some people like this sensation, others dont.
Extreme sports junkies feed off the chemical high
Brain Development and Fear
Two types of fear:
Instinctual Fear: predators, heights, danger
o Snakes, Bears, Fire
Learned Fear: something that has happened personally that creates a fear response not
previously there
o Dog bite, Gun fire.
Brain Development and Fear
Three types of bodily response to fear:
Widening eyes and dilated pupils, so your eyes can take in more light and get the most
information about whats happening.
Sweating palms. When you are afraid, your sympathetic nervous system and epinephrine
secretion form your adrenal gland kick in, acting on your sweat glands.
Tightening of muscles. Muscles are tightened and shot full of oxygen because of the bodys
anticipation of a fight-or- flight response.
The Brain and Romantic love
Visual cues react faster than higher order thought processes
When in love or looking at photo of loved one, release of pleasure/reward chemicals similar to
cocaine
Different than falling in love at first sight; only for people already in love
Chemical response different in brain (form different part of brain entirely) for those who are
lovers or romantically involved from children or family.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Framework of the cognitive Mind
Bias to evolutionary significant information
Motivation to Control
o Access to resources are primary
o Enabling processes for biological (food) and physical (territory) resources
o Struggle for life
Benefits of Control

 Resources are social, biological, and physical

Men often have exclusive access to resources and exclusive access to women as sexual
resources
Women benefit from being with a man with resources
Strategies of control: (covered next week)
o Physical Aggression
o Relational Aggression
Sex differences
Politics. Gaining control over people and their resources
Competition between coalitions of men
Often in modernity include women
Socially dominant men have more wives and mistresses. Also more children
Men Have more to gain in politics
Politics
Women have a stronger preference to reduce violence and conflict
Violence and intimidation often male tactics
Coalitions and conflicts can result in community-wide disruptions
UN report: 1985-1996
o 2 million children killed worldwide
o 6 million seriously injured
o Large scale wars to small ethnic conflicts
o Millions of women affected as well
Stability
Stable social relationship suppress male to male competition
Promote equal
Cooperative child care
Women achieve power through influence of mens activities
Differences in the sexes in strategies of organization
o Men organized to gain power, reproduction, and resources
o Women organize to enhance well-being of children
Mechanism for control
Human ability to form mental representations of situations centered on the self and
relationship with people
Form of mental time travel
Problem solving
Fantasizing about possibilities and strategies
Scenario in a bar:
Men how to get attention form a woman in a crowd of men
Women how to choose which man to selects
Ingroup\ Outgroup
Us Vs Them
Involves bias for people and against people
Attributions favor in-group
Attributions justify, facilitate, and precede violence in conflict situations
Attributing failures to external causes (not my fault)
Or maintaining the illusion of predictable outcomes(I knew this would happen)
Working memory
Ability to take mental representations of information and manipulate these representations
Related past experiences and simulations of potential future states
Evolutionary history of past experiences, complex and ever-changing information, social
cooperation and competition give unpredictability (need for control)

 Rehearse to control possible outcomes better

o What tactics worked good or bad in past for survival
Affective Mechanism
Emotions: observable feedback for others
Feelings: unobservable feedback to yourself
Positive feelings provide reinforcement of strategies to obtain goals or to get a desired state
Negative feelings provide punishment and promote disengagement to detach from situation
Amygdala: amplifies attention to evolutionary significant forms of information
o Facial expressions, emotions, feelings.
o Judging others expression
Sex Differences: Emotions
More women than men develop unwanted feelings of social dependency and anxiety about
their partners emotions about them
Different reproductive potentials
Women report more negative feelings about 1 night stands.
o Higher cost evolutionarily
o Unwanted pregnancy and disease
Emotions lead to action-eliminate the problems
Sex differences: Emotions
Emotions can betray the degree of investment on the part of the both sexes
Women often conceal their emotions
Women try to get men to express emotions to discern commitment
Too much emotions from either partner can be costly
Women perform assessment with friends to asses mates intentions and actions.
Sex differences: Emotions
Women express visible emotions more frequently and intensely than men
5 facets of measuring emotions:
o Expressive confidence-act emotions without feeling
o Positive expressivity-expression of positive emotions
o Negative expressivity-expression of negative emotions
o Impulse intensity-difficulty of expressing intense emotions
o Masking-suppression of feelings.
Sex differences: Emotions
Women report feeling more intense feelings than men
Men tend to mask their emotions more
Men focus more on sensory aspects of emotional stimuli in terms of required actions needed
Women direct more attention to the feelings engendered by the emotional stimuli
Women tend to use emotions/expressions strategically
o Used to manage relationship with men and same-sex friends.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Control for Long Term Mating
Staying in a bad marriage can be costly
You may need a second choice mate because of dangers
Danger to both: men (bad father, abusing mate, impotence, lose status, bad hunter) or
women (mishandle family resources, bad at gathering, bad mother, infertile, frigid, pregnant
by the other man)
Asses possible mates constantly
People exchange information about mates constantly
Control for long Term Mating
People generally need justification to leave a mate
Explanation to family, friends and preserve reputation

 Two main reasons for divorce: infidelity and infertility

Infidelity
Number 1 reason for leaving a marriage
Men are most likely to be unfaithful
3 reasons: men can impose their will, infidelity less costly than for women, high cost of divorce
Often used intentionally to get out of marriage
Exploited even if just rumor, no actual infidelity
Infertility
39% of divorce are to people with no children (26% with 1 kid, 19 % with 2 kids, 3% with 4 or
more kids)
Children strengthen marriages
75 societies have infertility as a cause for dissolution of marriage
Strongly sex linked (often ascribed to one sex more: women)
Infertility
Marriages are not consummated if no kids in several societies
Old age linked to low fertility in both sexes
Direct failure to provide reproductive resources in relationship
Fear of reproductive reallocation to other men
How to preserve a marriage
Remain faithful
Produce children
Have ample economic resources
Be kind, generous and understanding
Never refuse or neglect a mate sexually
These suggestions increase the likelihood of success greatly
Long Term Mating and Conflict
Mates tend to test each other periodically
Neglect shows low investment
Dependency and possessiveness can take too much energy
Selfishness and self centeredness can create conflict
Women are sexual deceivers- Men are commitment deceivers
VIOLENCE
========================================================
===
Violence Theory
Evolution has selected for high levels of male violene.
o Assault, murder, battery
o Control over resources
o Control over mates
Evolution says the death penalty will not deter murder.
o Assumes murders are premeditates (people weigh the outcome/penalty before
commuting a crime)
o Assumes death (execution) is worst possible fate ( not reproductive failure)
Fight or Flight/Tend and Befriend
Fight or flight: Hippocampus analyzed situation, messages forwarded to hypothalamus,
decision made there:
o Amygdala- encourages arousal to fight
o Septum-discourages arousal to fight (flight)
Testosterone makes the amygdala response louder in the brain, provoking fight response
more often

Women often attributed with a tend and befriend response: blend in with environment,
calm and quiet children, build group affiliations.
Sex differences: Emotions
No difference in men/women with expressing anger
Men express it more physically
Two out of 3 boys/men behave more aggressively than women
When women are directly provoked and little risk of retaliation: behave nearly as
aggressively as men
Mens aggression is usually over control of social dynamics to get what they want.
Sex differences: Emotions
Testosterone decrease fear and increases risk-taking in both men and women
Females in prison with the highest rates of violence also had higher than normal
testosterone levels
Testosterone levels high in women who have long criminal records or been declared
dangerous by parole boards
Social Expectations of violence
Reinforce biological conclusions
Men are overwhelmingly soldiers, executioners, hunters, gang, members, workers in
slaughterhouses
Men are expected to be aggressive, women are supposed to be passive
Males have to compete for mates and resources through physical violence or intimidation
Evolution has favored aggression over timidity for gaining mates.
Male Violence
Strategy for gaining control
If aggression gains mating opportunities, then those genes will be passed along more often
Violence has disadvantages: run risk of injury or death early in life (no reproduction)
Men commit violent crimes more than women at a rate of 3 or 4 to 1.
Male Violence
Men who have a tendency towards violence open themselves up to other vulnerabilities
Risk taking and competition often results in accidents, fights, drugs, and alcohol.
Brain injuries ( because of all of the above) can result in more loss of impulse control and
violence
Males who lack impulse control tend towards: oppositional defiant disorder, general
conduct disorder, intermittent explosive disorder, pathological gambling, pyromania
Male Violence
A man is 20x as likely to be killed by another man
1995 US murders
o 3,329 men convicted
o 226 women convicted
o Victims: 3,051 men vs 508 women
Age of most male murders in the 20s
Highest arrest rate for murder is from 18-22
Womens Aggression
Patterns are different often from men
Male aggression related to testosterone production, female aggression related to cerebral
aggression
Often indirect aggression: gossip, rumors, use of third party, looks more moderated, but
usually just not as physica in nature.
Women often see aggression as a loss of control and something to be ashamed of
Shoplifting and prostitution
Tends to be reactive

Womens Aggression
Staying alive Theory of female criminality
Need to care for children
Theft mainly
Or violence to protect themselves or children
Battered womens syndrome
Achieve goals or secure resources
Better life for children
Tied to economic need
Sexual Harassment
Motivated by access to short term mating
Most complains filed by women, most complaints filed against men
Victims are disproportionately young, physically, attractive, and single
Single women are thought to be more receptive to advances
Study: 63 % of women insulted by advances, 17 % of women flattered, 15% of men insulted
by advances, 67% flattered.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Public displays of aggression
Men at the bottom have little to lose and are drawn to violent to bravado that is risky and
possibly deadly
Killers are likely to be unmarried, unemployed, less educated, and lower socioeconomic class
Murders and violent crimes occur in public
Has evolutionary purpose
If violence is an evolved strategy, It maintains a credible threat of ongoing ability for violence
that reinforces power for the individual
Public displays of aggression
Violence can be a performance
o Often being macho or manly (usually provoked as non masculine)
Largest motive for murder is altercation of relatively trivial origin: insult, curse, jostling
o Arguments at sports games, bars, and offhanded remark, insult.
o Evolutionary says this is NOT trivial because personal altercations were based on
threats to prestige and social success
Can be a risky strategy: law enforcement.
2010 Crime Stats
Violent crime occurred every 25.3 seconds
Homicide every 35.6 minutes
Rape every 6.2 minutes
Total murders and homicides 14,748
Total forcible rapes 84, 767
Violence and Rape
Heterosexual rape: unconscious reproductive strategy enacted by males low probability of
reproductive success
Men display sexual arousal to consenting and non-consenting situations (exposed in studies to
images and videos)
Rape has been documented in animals: fruit flies, crickets, guppies, snow geese, tree shrews,
right whales, big horn sheep.
Rape in primates: rhesus monkeys, spider monkeys, gorillas, orangutan, chimpanzees.
Violence and Rape
Predatory rapist tend to be men of a lower class and status, who are unable to secure women
or resources

 Motivated to secure access to mates and reproduction when unable to do so by legitimate

means.
Men are marked by impulsiveness, hostility and hypermasculinity, high degree of sexual
promiscuity. Often low self esteem
Often causes sexual excitement for rapists
Most rape victims are at peak reproductive age.
1994 Justice Department Stats on Rape
One of every four rapes take place in a public area or in a parking garage.
31% of female victims reported that the offender was a stranger.
68% of rapes occur between the hours of 6 pm ad 6 am.
At least 45% rapists were under the influence of alcohol or drugs
In 29% of rapes, the offender used a weapon
In 47 % of rapes, the victim sustained injuries other than rape injuries
75% of female rape victims require medical care after the attack.
2010 Justice Department Stats on Rape
188,000 rapes or sexual assaults
Female victims:
73% non-stranger, 17% family
Male victims:
78 % non-stranger, 0% family
Rape Stats from Justice Dept.
Risk factors for perpetrating sexual violence include: early sexual experience (both forced and
voluntary) adherence by men to sex role stereotyping, negative attitudes of men towards
women, alcohol consumption, acceptance of rape myths by men.
The adult pregnancy rate associated with rape is estimated to be 4.7% This information, in
conjunction with estimates based on the U.S. Census, suggest that there may be 32,101
annual rape-related pregnancies among American women over the age of 18.
Rape and Violence
1960s rape data on women
1 in 77 chance for inner city
1 in 2,000 chance in suburbs
1 in 10,000 chance in wealthiest suburbs
Shows that lower socioeconomic class plays a role in risky reproductive strategy.
Wealthy men have more wives and mistress, so no need for rape (other than usually spousal
rape)
12 Latin American countries, rape victims are defiled and not fit for marriage. If rapist offer/do
marry their victim they are exonerated of criminal charges.
Rape in Asia
2013 study of rape of 10,000 men in Bangladesh, China, Cambodia, Indonesia, Papua New
Guinea, and Sri Lanka.
24% of men had forced a woman to have sex with them
had raped more than one woman
Reasons: Felt entitled to sex (73%), found it entertaining (59%), and did it to punish a woman
(38%)
Associate factors: history of sexual abuse, history of physical violence with a partner, paying
for sex, large number of sexual partners.
Date Rape
2 in 3 middle class American 19 year old males admit to getting a date drunk to coerce her
into sex.
2 in 5 middle class American 19 year old males admit to using intimidation to get sex
Sexual Aggression
Demanding on forcing sexual intimacy, failing to get mutual agreement for sex and touching a
womans body without her permission

 Women do not want forced sex

Men consistently underestimate how unacceptable sexual aggression is to women
Sexual Withholding
Sexual teasing and leading a man and then turning him off, being cold and distant sexually,
declining sexual requests.
Possible allocation of sexual resources to other man
Mainly a womans strategy and source of conflict
Used because:
o Selective allocation of sex increases the value
o Scarce resource
o Encourages commitment by men to get sex
Incest ( Rape in the Family)
Considered taboo in almost every country/culture
Widespread prohibition reflects biological consequences: genetically disadvantaged offspring
Mother son incest is rarer than Father daughter incest.
Violent Husbands
Women and children may benefit by staying with a wealthy, abusive husband by utilizing
resources
Mens aggression towards their partner sometimes increases their victims emotional
attachment
Evolution tells us that at least the man is sticking around to parent the children
Brutish men breed brutish sons and daughters and it continues on
Violent men may continue to be produced and continue to force themselves on nonconsenting women to continue their genes
Spousal Abuse
Created often from jealousy (Morbid jealousy)
Frustration from inability to control his wife, accusation of cheating, lack of trust, power grab
Risks triggering flight from spouse
Abusers often profusely apologize after abuse, crying, pleading, promising to never do it
again.
Also, insults about physical appearance rise ( from 5% in first year of marriage to 15 % in
fourth year of marriage)
Adultery
Husbands extra-marital affairs often more socially acceptable
Historically adultery is viewed as a crime against men (against the betrayed husband) so it
is usually the womans crime that is fact a crime (not the man)
Adulterous men may impregnate the mistress but unless she is married, no man is short
changed. If a man is forced into cuckoldry, he will unknowingly raise someone elses child.
Intimate Partner Violence
Women ages 12-15 % 50 and over are at least risk
Women 35-49 at most risk
1993-2000 ( Murders by Intimate Partners)
Year #males % #females % of all murders
2000 440
3.7% 1,247 33.5%
1993 708
3.7% 1,581 28.5%
1990 859
4.7% 1,501 29.3%
1980 1,221 6.9% 1,549 29.6%
1976 1,357 9.6% 1,600 34.9%
Murdering a spouse
Most cases are out of jealousy and a response to a wifes real or imagined infidelity

 Until 1974 in Texas: homicides were legal if committed by husband upon the person of anyone
taken in the act of adultery with the wife, provide the act takes place before the parties to
the act have separated (the act is literally in progress)
Common for a man to pursue and kill a separated or estranged wife
Rarely do women kill their husbands
Murdering a spouse
Seems biologically maladaptive
Three reasons for it:
Weak and ineffectual men are held in low regard and this empowers them
If there are multiple wives, this is a major statement to the rest of the wives
It is evolutionarily problematic for a man to raise someone elses child and results in a need to
take back control
Conflict among Multiple Wives
Polygyny
25,000 to 35,000 polygynous marriages in US
Men can also maintain two separate households and families, unknown to each other.
Conflict occurs among wives, division of resources, equal attention, equal sex.
Sororal polygyny quells conflict (sisters marry one man)
Violence in the family
Mothers less likely to abandon or kill their children and children of divorce more often stay
with mothers
Womens reproductive strategy says she will remain invested in those offspring
Male reproductive strategy says he can continue to have more children by investing in second
mate that is younger
o 40 year old male can produce 20 more children in lifetime
Mothers commitment to children often allows fathers to neglect them more.
Violence in the family
Natural selection has favored infanticide
o Hormones like testosterone may be involved
Infants and children who do not live with both biological parents face 40 to 100 times a
greater chance of being injured or killed within the family
Most often it is stepparents or strangers with whom the killer has no genetic connection
( often to further their own genetic success)
Violence in the family
Maternal homicide:
o Young mothers most common to kill their young more reproductive potential still ahead of
them
o Older mothers kill defective children most often to reserve resources for those most likely
to benefit from them
Biological parents very rarely kill their own children. When they do they get lots of press like
Susan Smith or Andrea Yates.
EVOLUTIONARY MISTERIES
========================================================
======
Change over time: Menopause
Humans live beyond their reproductive years (about 30-40% of their lifetime)
Most other mammals only live for 10 % or less of their life span in post-reproductive years.
Women begin puberty about 2 years before men, but reproductive capacity ends 20-30 years
before mens.
Why would we have menopause and post-reproductive years?
Change Over time: Menopause
Grandmother Hypothesis

Female adaptation to shift from parenting to other forms of investing in kin

Acquired wisdom and knowledge are useful
Males acquire more resources with age
Early male death
Males die earlier than women in all societies (U, 6-8 years)
Large frame to feed, susceptible topredation, risk takers, more suicides, more murders, more
testosterone related diseases.
Female Orgasm
Male orgasm is obvious in function
What do we know about the female orgasm?
Not necessary for conception
Often Analogous to male nipples (because of design from start as female development)
No hard evidence of female primates having an orgasm during intercourse (only alternative
stimulation)
Female orgasm is highly variable (from person to person, and culture to culture)
Female Orgasm
What are the 5 possible functions of the female orgasm?
Hedonistic Hypothesis: women can and want to experience orgasm and it encourages sex
(explains why women like sex)
Mr. Right Hypothesis: Orgasm is a method for choosing the right mate. If he works to secure
female pleasure, he may stick around to raise children
Paternity confidence Hypothesis: The presence of a female orgasm provides confidence to the
partner of her commitment.
Female Orgasm
Paternity Confusion Hypothesis: Female orgasm may promote promiscuity and secure
connetions with multiple males giving her benefits
Sperm Retention Hypothesis: Female orgasm may draw more sperm into the cervix and
uterus.
Womens bodies eject 35% of sperm within 30 mins, if there is a female orgasm then she
ejects only 30%.
Female Orgasm
Women report more orgasm with men who are more symmetrical.
Remember: what does symmetry signal?
Orgasm is not linked always to greater love by women or men for their partner.
Women have more frequent sperm retention orgasms with lovers than with husbands.
Homosexuality (Sex that is not about mating)
====================================================
5 major behaviors around sex/mating
Courting
Affection
Sex
Pair bonding
Parenting
All of this is accounted for in both heterosexual and homosexual pairing
Theories of Homosexuality
Kin- Altruism Theory ( kin= family relationship altruism) Kin selection is the
evolutionary strategy that favours the reproductive success of an organism's
relatives, even at a cost to the organism's own survival and reproduction. Kin
altruism is altruistic behaviour whose evolution is driven by kin selection. Kin
selection is an instance of inclusive fitness, which combines the number of

offspring produced with the number an individual, can produce by supporting

others, such as siblings.
Homosexuals increase their reproductive fitness by investing in genetic (nieces /nephews)
No mate, so invest where it counts
Homosexual men have greater empathy
Often later in birth order
Problem: why not be asexual, you can be gay and have heterosexual sex and make babies
Theories of Homosexuality
Alliance Formation Theory
Homoerotic behavior strengthens same sex bonds
Valuable relationships
Better for younger, lesser ranked males
Guarantees resources, protection, status boost, better access to women
Problems: same sex alliance does not require sex, only sexual behaviors, and does not explain
exclusive homosexual behaviors
Theories of Homosexuality
Nice Guy theory:
o Homosexuality is a by-product of genes that have another function (feminine traits like
empathy)
o Good guys traits make you more appealing to women (better parents and providers)
Genes lead heterosexual men to greater fitness
Genes pass on because women select for it leading to concentration of genes and
homosexuality
o Problems: why not be masculine heterosexual with kindness, and fails to explain lesbians.
Homosexuality
Presence or absence of testosterone (as prenatal hormones) builds structure in the brain in 3
states for male or female identity
1. Development of sex centers (physical characteristics)
2. Mating center in hypothalamus (low male hormones, you like men; high male hormones,
you like women)
3. Gender roles center- acting feminine or masculine (if differs from physical sex then
effeminate or tomboy)
Hormone imbalance can lead to things like straight, effeminate male or effeminate
homosexual
Brain Structure
Amygdala: area in brain with BSTc cells
Hierarchy in autopsy in brain size of BSTc cells
o Straight men most
o Transsexual women
o Straight women
o Gay men least
May determine orientation
Nothing in the study mentions transsexual men or gay women
Homosexuality
Biological theories:
No single gay gene, but a possibility of a multiple gene effect
May affect hormones, enzymes that modify hormones, or receptors on hormone producing
cells
Mutations vs. continuation through mating
Homosexuality
Men with biological older brothers are more likely to be gay.

o Most often males 2nd or later in birth order

May have something to do with prenatal environment and antibodies/immune response to
testosterone
Also, higher # of gay males born in times of stress (like war)
o Cortisol (stress hormone) may compete with testosterone in the womb preventing it from
getting to the fetus.
Flexibility of homosexuality
More flexibility in women, more of a continuum from straight to gay
Less flexibility in men, either highly heterosexual or highly homosexual
Women have greater erotic plasticity
Their sexual orientation can be shaped by cultural influences, altered by positive or negative
experiences and intensified by feelings of love or attachment. Women are far more likely
than men to report remarkably late and abrupt onset of same-sex sexuality, often after
heterosexual marriage, (Archives of sexual behavior)
Twin Studies
Male homosexuality 52% identical twin concordance
22% fraternal concordance
Female homosexuality
48% identical twin concordance
16% fraternal concordance
Other factors: prenatal influences, environmental factors.
Lesbian had more lesbians sisters than gar brothers, and gay men had more gay brothers than
lesbian sisters.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Homosexuality: Study in 70s
Gay Men:
75% had sex with more than 100 partners
28% had sex with more than 1000 partners
Looking for mating opportunities, looks very important
Lesbians:
2% had sex with more than 100 partners
0% had sex with more than 1000 partners
Looking for lasting, paired relationship, Look not as important
Gay men act like straight men, only more so
Gay women act like straight women, only more so
Study on Lesbians
Butch lesbians
More testosterone
More masculine hip to waist ratio
More permissive attitude toward casual sex
Less desire for children
Femme Lesbian
More estrogen
Greater levels of jealousy
Greater importance on financial prospects of potential mate
Animal Homosexuality
More than 450 different species engage in homosexuality or transgender behavior
Still only about 2% of animal species
Most species have not been studied in depth due to social norms and beliefs
Found in every geographic region and every animal grouping
Relationship tend to last like heterosexual ones

Animal Homosexuality
Types of activity include multiple strategies
Heterosexual pairs to make and raise offspring, homosexual interactions
Egrets, Social Weavers, Tree Swallows
Homosexual activity as single parents
Japanese Macaques, Northern Fur Seals,
Participating in homosexual activity while pregnant
Bonobos, gorillas
Breed prior to or following a period of homosexuality
Orangutans, Emus, Kangaroos
Incestuous homosexual relationships with own offspring
Gibbons, Red Foxes, Livingstones Fruit Bats
Primate Homosexuality
More than 30 species engage in homosexuality
Zoologist call this precultural or protocultural behaviors
Involves social behaviors like shared same-sex parenting or nest/home building
Behaviors are often learned which makes them cultural
Primate copulations:
Heterosexual often interrupted and bothered by others
Homosexual not interrupted and sometimes ignored or joined by others
Primate Homosexuality
Chimpanzees and Bonobos
Both engage in same-sex open mouth kissing
Bonobos have been seen using tongue in male-male kissing
Bonobos also have specific arm positions that signal same sex behaviors
Rump rubbing, manual stimulation, genital inspection, kissing or licking of genital,
masturbation and other behavior all observed
Chimps use tools to masturbate like stones, sticks, leaves, etc
Primate Homosexuality
Gorillas
Females create pair friendships, constant touching, grooming, fondle genitals in face to face
positioning (uncommon in heterosexual)
Young males do have homosexual encounters in small groups of all males and it involves
mounting and thrusting, most males mount each other but only silverbacks are not mounted.
Orangutans
Young, adolescent males perform anal intercourse or fellatio
Females will stimulate each other with their fingers
All less violent than heterosexual encounters
Primate Homosexuality
Gibbon
Father/son interactions that includes grooming, play, and rubbing of penises together in a face
to face position.
If the son ejaculates on him, the father will often eat it.
Siamang
Same as gibbon, but Brothers will often join in as well, nibbling on groin area and penis of
usually younger brother
Baboon
Homosexual male mounting, including ejaculation, masturbating each other, and often play
fighting
Usually perform diddling, which is touching or pulling on the others penis and fondling the
scrotum.

Primate Homosexuality
Often dominance displays
Sometimes with chimps from other troops when conquered
Diffuse tense social situations
Gain an advantage
Make allies
Barter for food
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Accidents
Higher frequency of men and boys dying and becoming injured in accidents
Boys: 2x the likelihood of near drowning and 4x the likelihood of drowning
More boys are injured or killed while riding bicycles, playing on recreational equipment, and
during unorganized and unsupervised athletics.
Accidents
For every 1 girl injured on a playground, 4 boys are.
For every 1 girl injured with a serious burn, 3 boys sustain an equally bad burn (like fireworks)
Traffic fatalities, including pedestrians, increase in late teens, early 20s
Because of risk-taking behaviors and frequency of rough and tumble behaviors in play
Gendered Differences
Women evaluate themselves based on other peoples beliefs about them and men do it based
on physical characteristics
More men than women are left handed
Women obsess about their bodies being smaller and men obsess about their bodies being
larger
Men poorly read non-verbal cues of women and mistake friendliness for sexual interest
Women and men both accurately interpret positive and negative facial expressions in studies.
Men though, are more likely to assess what to do about the expression.
Language
Boys use more directive language: Go do that
Girls use more socially binding language: Lets go do that
Girls and women show less usage of pauses in language like uhhh
More boys stutter (2-4x more) and have more language related disorders
3 out of 4 women commit fewer speech errors (retrieving the wrong word) than does the
average man
Language
Estrogen may enhance the working memory and attentional control of women, which is a
memory advantage
Higher prenatal testosterone levels may suppress the development of brain that support
language.
Group (ingroup/outgroup)
Both boys and girls exert pressure on same-sex peers, but it is stronger among boys
Boys show a greater concern for teasing in childhood about cooties than girls do
Men and women have similar attitudes toward lesbians
Mens attitudes towards gay men are particularly more negative than women (7 of 10 men
had more negative feelings) May be related to coalition building.
Other topics: General Intelligence
Measured by IQ
There is no general sex differences in scores, just distribution of scores
Study: 1,296 opposite sex twins: small male advantage in IQ score, more brothers than sisters
at the high AND low ends
For top 2%, brothers outnumbered sisters 2 to 1
Other topics: Reading and Math
Reading
Females have a modest buy consistent advantage

Females use both hemispheres of the brain during language processing and comprehension
Females read more than males, and about romance and relationship themed materials
Male read about politics, competition and technical matters
Math
No real differences in general/average
Males: better at geometry and word problems
Social sex differences: ratio of males of females at high end of math scores: 13:1 in 1983 and
3:1 today
Other topics: Eating Disorders
Preference for heavier women strongest in cultures with unpredictable food supplies
44% of cultures
To 19% where slim is considered optimal
9:1 rate of female to males with eating disorders
Form of extreme female-female competition
Influence of media and social pressures within cultures
Mating Behaviors of Politicians
Powerful men have married monogamously and mated polygynously
Wives but also mistresses.
Usually attain high reproductive success, large amount of offspring
Theory: Men strive to attain political success to gain reproductive success (access to large
numbers of women)
Politics is the Mean, Women are the goal.
Mating Behaviors of Politicians
Notion of invincibility
Power breeds corruption
Greed
Morality Clauses
Thrill of the chase (excitement)
Ego or entitlement
Example in four years