Professional Documents
Culture Documents
in
hierarchy
of
POTENTIAL
SIZE
or
2.9 Subordination [s bd ne n]
Clauses which are embedded in other clauses (eg: since we returned
from Italy last week in [3] are SUBORDINATE clauses, and they are often
introduced by a subordinating CONJUNCTION (since in [3D. The subordinate
clause in [3] is parallel in its function to the adverb phrase just recently in Fig
2.3d, and is indeed termed an 'adverbial clause'. On the other hand, it is itself
divisible into phrases in a way which makes it parallel to the whole clause. The
relation between the two clauses of [3] is one of 'part to whole', as is illustrated
by the abbreviated tree diagram, opposite.
The weather has been remarkably warm.
[I]
We returned from Italy last week.
[2]
The weather has been remarkably warm since we returned from Italy
last week. [3]
2.10 Coordination [k d ne n]
2.11 Sentence
SIMPLE SENTENCE (ie the sentence consisting of a single independent
clause) is the most central part of grammar.
MULTIPLE SENTENCE (subsuming complex and compound sentences)
are all sentences which consist of more than one clause, either through
subordination or through coordination.
Clause structure
2.13 Central and peripheral [p rf
clause
Most people [S] consider [V] these books [O] rather expensive [C],
actually [A].
[6]
You [S] must put [V] all the toys [O] upstairs [A] immediately [A].
[7]
The distinction between 'centre' and 'periphery' is relative rather than
absolute. The verb element is the most CENTRAL element in the clause (i) its
position is normally medial rather than initial or final; (ii) it is normally
obligatory; (iii) it cannot normally be moved to a different position in the
clause; and (iv) it helps to determine what other elements must occur. For the
opposite reasons, adverbials are the most PERIPHERAL elements: (i) their
position is most frequently final; (ii) they are usually optional; (iii) they are
mostly mobile; and (iv) they do not determine what other elements occur. They
may be regarded, from a structural point of view, largely as 'optional extras',
which may be added at will, so that it is not possible to give an exact limit to
the number of adverbials a clause may contain. The other elements, subject,
object, and complement, are in various degrees more peripheral than the verb,
and less peripheral than the adverbial.
[2]
2.15 Adverbials
The adverbial category has been described as the most peripheral, but it
is in fact a heterogeneous category. There are, some adverbials which cannot
readily be moved from their position in a given clause, and there are even
adverbials which are OBLIGATORY, such as the place adverbials I have been
in the garden all the time since lunch. and You must put all the toys upstairs
immediately.
Because they are essential to the 'completion' of the meaning of the
verb, such elements are classified by some grammarians as COMPLEMENTS.
Our position, however, is that adverbials represent a spectrum of types, the
most central of which, because of their obligatoriness and relative immobility,
resemble complements.
Cutting across this threefold classification are three main verb classes:
INTRANSITIVE VERBS (eg: laugh in [1 a]), are followed by no obligatory
element, and occur in type SV.
TRANSITIVE VERBS (eg: enjoy in [2a], give in [3a], consider in [6a], put
in [7a]) are followed by an OBJECT, and occur in types SVO, SVOO, SVOC, and
SVOA respectively.
COPULAR VERBS (eg: become in [3a], be in [4aJ) are followed by a
SUBJECT COMPLEMENT or an ADVERBIAL, and occur in types SVC and SVA.
In a general sense, the term TRANSITIVE is often applied to all verbs
which require an object, including those of clause types SVOO, SVOC, and
SVOA. It is, however, convenient to make a further-classification of the verbs in
these patterns:
We give priority to the distributional fact that whenever there are two
objects (in type SVOO), the former is normally the indirect object, and the latter
the direct object. But although it is more central with regard to position, in
other respects the INDIRECT OBJECT is more peripheral than the DIRECT
OBJECT: it is more likely to be optional, and may generally be paraphrased by
a prepositional phrase functioning as adverbial.
In SVC clauses the complement applies some attribute or definition to
the subject, whereas in SVOC clauses it applies an attribute or definition to the
terms
SUBJECT
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
Clause patterns
10.1 Simple and multiple sentences
SIMPLE SENTENCE: consists of a single independent clause.
MULTIPLE SENTENCE: contains one or more clauses as its immediate
constituents. Multiple sentences are either COMPOUND or COMPLEX.
COMPOUND SENTENCE: where the immediate constituents are two or
more COORDINATE clauses.
COMPLEX SENTENCE: where one or more of its elements, such as
direct object or adverbial, are realized by a SUBORDINATE clause.
A complex sentence with one subordinate clause can be analysed twice
over, once for the sentence as a whole and once for the subordinate clause
included within the sentence:
It must be borne in mind that a given verb can belong, in its various
senses, to a number of different classes, and hence enter into a number of
different clause types. The verb get is a particularly versatile one, being
excluded only from Type SV:
SVO
SVC
SVA
SVOO
SVOC
SVOA
He'll get a surprise.
PREDICATE
buys her vegetables in the
market.
are carnivorous.
these books for sale? [( - These books are for sale) Thus in the questions, is,
was, and are, which are here main verbs, are placed in front of the subject.
The main verb HAVE, on the other hand, tends to resemble the main
verb DO in not functioning as operator (Do you have a box of matches?),
although there is also a traditional usage (chiefly BrE) in which it does so: Have
you a box of matches? These usages are exceptions to our earlier definition of
the operator as 'first auxiliary'.