New 21st Century Chemistry

Supplementary Notes
Topic 2 Microscopic World I
Unit 6 The periodic table
Supplement to Section 6.7 (P 46)
6.7 Group 0 elements noble gases
Refer to HKDSE Practice
Paper 2012 Paper 1A Q7

Density of gas
Density is the mass of an object divided by its volume.

density of gas =

mass
volume

The following diagram shows two containers of equal volumes containing helium and carbon
dioxide gases at the same temperature and pressure. As equal volumes of gases contain equal
numbers of molecules (refer to Avogadros Law), the mass of gas in the second container is higher
because the relative molecular mass of carbon dioxide is higher. Thus, the density of carbon dioxide
is higher than that of helium.

Relative molecular mass

1

Density (g cm )

helium (He)

carbon dioxide (CO2)

4.0

44.0

0.00018

0.001977

Suppose a helium gas sample contains 1% of carbon dioxide gas, the mass and density of this
impure helium sample will be higher than those of pure helium.

Supplementary Notes

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New 21st Century Chemistry

John Rayleigh and William Ramsay the noble gases discovered

By the 1770s, chemists thought that the main components of the
atmosphere had been well identified. But in 1892, John Rayleigh
found that nitrogen isolated from the air had a density slightly
higher than that of nitrogen prepared from nitrogen compounds.
One dm3 of pure nitrogen gas generated from a chemical reaction
weighed 1.2505 g. On the other hand, one dm3 of nitrogen gas
generated from air by removing oxygen, carbon dioxide and
water vapour weighed 1.2572 g (at the same temperature and
pressure). A possible explanation was the presence of an
unknown gas denser than nitrogen in the atmosphere.
Both William Ramsay and John Rayleigh tried to isolate
John Strutt Lord Rayleigh
this unknown gas using different methods. Each found evidence
(1842 1919)
of the presence of an unknown gas in the atmosphere. This gas
was a new element. Rayleigh and Ramsay announced their discovery in 1894, claiming that they

had found a new element which did not fit into any group of the periodic table, and named it argon
(from the Greek word argos, meaning inactive). Ramsey went on to discover helium, neon,
krypton and xenon.

Supplementary Notes

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New 21st Century Chemistry

Topic 2 Microscopic World I

Unit 6 The periodic table
Supplement to Section 6.7 (P 46)
6.7 Group 0 elements noble gases
Using argon to preserve wine in an opened bottle

Refer to HKDSE Practice Paper

2012 Paper 1B Q2(a) & (c)

Argon can be used to replace oxygen which causes food to oxidize, the chemical reaction that turns
crisps stale and apples brown. Oxygen in the air can oxidize ethanol in wine to form ethanol or
ethanoic acid, giving the wine a sour taste. Argon is denser than air. Pumping argon into an opened
bottle of wine displaces air from the bottle, thus preventing the wine from contact with air.
Traditionally nitrogen has been used in a similar manner for food preservation. However,
argon is denser and fills spaces around the food more completely, making it a more efficient
preservative agent.
The first noble gas helium is less dense than air and cannot displace air from the bottle. Thus,
it is not used for preserving wine in an opened bottle.
The vacuum pump method is another wine preservation method. This is to pump air out of the
opened bottle of wine and stop the bottle. A vacuum is created inside the bottle. However, pumping
air out may also remove volatile organic compounds that give the wine a pleasant odour.

Supplementary Notes

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New 21st Century Chemistry

Topic 6 Microscopic World II

Unit 24 Bond polarity and intermolecular forces
Supplement to Section 24.10 (P 66)
Refer to HKDSE Practice
Paper 2012 Paper 1B Q6(d)

24.10 Intermolecular attractions in alcohols

Comparing the Intermolecular attractions in alcohols with different number of OH

groups
The table below shows the boiling points of three alcohols.
Alcohol

Structural formula

Boiling point (oC)

Propan-1-ol

CH3CH2CH2OH

97

Propane-1,3-diol

HOCH2CH2CH2OH

213

Propane-1,2,3-triol

HOCH2CH(OH)CH2OH

290

The intermolecular attractions in the alcohols are predominantly hydrogen bonds. Propan-1-ol
has one, propane-1,3-diol has two and propane-1,2,3-triol has three OH group(s) per molecule that
can take part in hydrogen bonding. Thus, the intermolecular attractions in the alcohols are in the
following order:
propan-1-ol < propane-1,3-diol < propane-1,2,3-triol
The boiling points of the alcohols follow the same order.
The viscosity of a liquid is a measure of a liquids resistance to flow. It depends on:

the strength of attractive forces between molecules of the liquid; and

the tendency of molecules to become entangled with each other.

Among the three alcohols, the viscosity of propane-1,2,3-triol is the highest because it has the
strongest intermolecular attractions and its molecules tend to become entangled due to the shape.
propan-1-ol

propane-1,3-diol

propane-1,2,3-triol

CH3CH2CH2OH

HOCH2CH2CH2OH

HOCH2CH(OH)CH2OH

increasing viscosity

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New 21st Century Chemistry

When three identical steel balls are dropped through the three alcohols, the ball in
propane-1,2,3-triol takes the longest time to reach the bottom because this alcohol is the most
viscous.

Supplementary Notes

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New 21st Century Chemistry

Topic 9 Chemical Reactions and Energy

Unit 34 Energy changes in chemical reactions
Supplement to Section 34.7 (P 12)
34.7 Enthalpy change of an exothermic reaction

Refer to HKDSE Practice

Paper 2012 Paper 1B Q7(b)

Self-heating food / beverage containers

Today, many people wish to pursue outdoor activities in environments where modern conveniences
such as stoves and microwave ovens are not readily available. The food and beverage industry has
developed self-heating food / beverage containers so that people can enjoy a hot meal or beverage
while engaging in such pursuits.
A self-heating container generally includes a reaction chamber and a food / beverage chamber.
The reaction chamber contains reactants separated by a breakable membrane. Breaking of the
membrane allows contact between the reactants which react exothermically. The reaction generates
a sufficient amount of heat to warm the food / beverage.
The diagram below shows the design of a can of self-heating coffee.

When the bottom of the can is pushed, the rod causes the membrane to break, allowing water
to mix with the calcium oxide. The following reaction occurs.
CaO(s) + H2O(l)

Ca(OH)2(s)

The reaction between calcium oxide and water is used because it generates a substantial
amount of heat. Calcium oxide is cheap and readily available. An alternative is to dissolve
anhydrous calcium chloride in water, which has the advantage of producing no reaction products,
but generates a less amount of heat.

Supplementary Notes

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New 21st Century Chemistry

The reaction chamber of the can is made of polypropene. Polypropene is a poor conductor of
heat. Using it to hold the calcium oxide can prevent the fingers from being burnt. It can also
withstand the high temperature caused by the reaction between calcium oxide and water.
The beverage chamber of the can is made of aluminium. Aluminium is used because it is
non-toxic and will not poison the coffee. It is a good conductor of heat. The heat generated from the
reaction between calcium oxide and water can be transferred to the coffee readily. Aluminium is
also covered by a layer of aluminium oxide, which prevents the metal from corrosion.

Supplementary Notes

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New 21st Century Chemistry

Topic 10 Rate of Reaction

Unit 37 Factors affecting the rate of a reaction
Supplement to Section 37.7 (P 60)
37.7 Applications of catalysts

Refer to HKDSE Practice Paper

2012 Paper 1B Q10(b)(ii)

Autocatalysis

A chemical reaction is said to have undergone autocatalysis if one of the products acts as a catalyst
for the reaction itself. From industrial production point of view, autocatalytic reactions play an
important role. The rate of reaction can be maximized by making sure that the optimum
concentrations of reactants and products are always present.
Consider the reaction between permanganate ions and oxalate ions under acidic conditions:
2MnO4(aq) + 5C2O42(aq) + 16H+(aq)

2Mn2+(aq) + 10CO2(g) + 8H2O(l)

The following graph shows how the concentration of permanganate ions in the reaction
mixture varies with time in an experiment conducted to study the kinetics of the reaction.

The concentration of MnO4(aq) ions changes slowly at the beginning of the reaction,
indicating the reaction is quite slow at this stage. Both MnO4(aq) and C2O42(aq) ions are
negatively charged, so they are unlikely to make fruitful collision with each other.
However, the concentration of MnO4(aq) ions decreases rapidly after the initial stage, i.e. the
reaction proceeds rapidly. It is likely to be due to the building up of the concentration of a product
which catalyzes the reaction. The reaction is slow at the beginning because of the low concentration
of the product.
When MnO4(aq) ions are almost used up, the reaction slows down.

Supplementary Notes

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New 21st Century Chemistry

We can use the following experiment to show that Mn2+(aq) ion is a catalyst for the reaction.
1.

Add MnO4(aq) ions to beakers

containing C2O42(aq) ions.

2.

Add a little manganese(II)

sulphate to beaker 2.

3.

After 2 minutes, the contents of

beaker 2 become colourless
while that of beaker 1 remains
purple. Manganese(II) sulpahte
catalyzes the reduction of
MnO4(aq) ions to colourless
Mn2+(aq) ions.

4.

The contents of beaker 1

become colourless also after 6
minutes. The rate of the reaction
in beaker 1 increases as the
concentration of Mn2+(aq) ions
builds up.

Supplementary Notes

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New 21st Century Chemistry

Topic 11 Chemical Equilibrium

Unit 40 Factors affecting chemical equilibrium systems
Refer to HKDSE Practice
Paper 2012 Paper 1B Q13(c)

Supplement to Section 40.4 (P 49)

40.4 The effect of concentration changes on chemical equilibrium system

Adding aqueous ammonia to copper(II) sulphate solution until excess
When aqueous ammonia is added to copper(II) sulphate solution, a blue precipitate (copper(II)
hydroxide) is produced initially. With the addition of excess aqueous ammonia, a deep blue solution
results due to formation of complex ions. The following equilibrium is established.
Cu2+(aq) + 4NH3(aq)

Cu(NH3)42+(aq)

Suppose the above equilibrium mixture contains 2 x 1016 mol dm3 of Cu2+(aq) ions,
3.20 mol dm3 of NH3(aq) and 0.200 mol dm3 of Cu(NH3)42+(aq) ions. We can calculate the value
of Kc for this reaction in the following way:
[Cu(NH3)42+(aq)]
Kc =
[Cu2+(aq)][NH3(aq)]4
0.200 mol dm3
=
(2 x 1016 mol dm3)(3.20 mol dm3) 4
= 9.54 x 1012 dm12 mol4
Effect of adding dilute sulphuric acid to the system
Addition of dilute sulphuric acid to the system introduces H+(aq) ions, which react with NH3(aq) to
form NH4+(aq) ions. Decreasing the concentration of NH3(aq) causes the equilibrium position of the
above system to shift to the left, producing Cu2+(aq) ions in the process.
Ammonia also reacts with water to form the NH4+(aq) and OH(aq) ions.
NH3(aq) + H2O(l)

NH4+(aq) + OH(aq)

The Cu2+(aq) ions react with the OH(aq) ions to form a pale blue copper(II) hydroxide
precipitate.
Cu2+(aq) + 2OH(aq)

Supplementary Notes

Cu(OH)2(s)

10

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New 21st Century Chemistry

When excess dilute sulphuric acid is added, the acid reacts with the copper(II) hydroxide to
give a deep blue solution.
Cu(OH)2(s) + H2SO4(aq)

Supplementary Notes

CuSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

11

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New 21st Century Chemistry

Topic 15 Materials Chemistry

Unit 51 Metals, alloys and other synthetic materials in modern life
Supplement to Section 51.4 (P 116)
Refer to HKDSE Practice Paper
2012 Paper 2 Q2(a)(i)(III)

51.4 Unit cells

Calculating the density of metal

Nickel has a cubic close-packed structure. The unit cell of a nickel structure is shown below:

We can calculate the number of atoms per unit cell as follows:

one atom at the centre of each of the six faces, giving 6 x

one atom at each of the eight corners, giving 8 x

number of atoms per cell = [ (6 x

1
atoms;
2

1
atoms.
8

1
1
) + (8 x
)]
2
8

=4
Given that the edge length of a unit cell of nickel is 3.52 x 108 cm, we can calculate the
density of solid nickel as follows.
Volume of one unit cell = (3.52 x 108)3 cm3 = 4.36 x 1023 cm3

Mass of one nickel atom =

molar mass
Avogadro number

58.7 g mol1
6.02 x 1023 mol1

= 9.75 x 1023 g
Mass of nickel atoms in one unit cell = 4 x 9.75 x 1023 g

Density of solid nickel =

=

mass of one unit cell

volume of one unit cell
4 x 9.75 x 1023 g
4.36 x 1023 cm3

= 8.94 g cm3

Supplementary Notes

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New 21st Century Chemistry

Topic 15 Materials Chemistry

Unit 49 Natural and synthetic polymers
Refer to HKDSE Practice Paper
2012 Paper 2 Q2(b)(ii)

Supplement to Section 49.14 (P 24)

49.14 Production of polypropene, polyvinyl chloride and polystyrene

Copolymer formed from styrene and acrylonitrile
When two different types of monomers are joined in the same polymer chain, the polymer is called
a copolymer.

Styrene acrylonitrile resin (SAN) is thermoplastic copolymer of styrene (

acrylonitrile (

) and

). SAN consists of styrene units and acrylonitrile units in a ratio of

approximately 70 to 30.

Remark:
SAN is not made from styrene and acrylonitrile in 1:1 mole ratio. The two types of monomers
distribute randomly along the polymer molecule. Thus, the structure of SAN CANNOT be
represented as shown below.

Supplementary Notes

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New 21st Century Chemistry

SAN combines the clarity and rigidity of polystyrene with the hardness, strength, and heat and
solvent resistance of polyacrylonitrile. It was introduced in the 1950s and is employed in
automotive parts, battery cases, kitchenware, computer products, packaging material and furniture.
Weak instantaneous dipole-induced dipole attractions exist between polymer chains of
polystyrene. On the other hand, acrylonitrile has a polar C N group. Stronger permanent
dipole-permanent dipole attractions exist between polymer chains of SAN. Thus, SAN can
withstand higher temperatures than polystyrene and it is widely used in place of polystyrene.

Supplementary Notes

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