ASSIGNMENT OF WORKSHOP ON

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

SUBMITTED TO:

SUBMITTED BY:

TIPSY MAM

BHAVYA GUPTA 5915

AASTHA JAIN 5924
SHASHANK KAUSHIK 5918

TOPIC: REPORT WRITING AND IMPLEMENTING

RESULTS

INTRODUCTION
After collecting and analyzing the data, the researcher has to accomplish the task of
drawing inferences followed by report writing. This has to be done very carefully,
otherwise misleading conclusions may be drawn and the whole purpose of doing
research may get vitiated. It is only through interpretation that the researcher can
expose relations and processes that underlie his findings. In case of hypotheses
testing studies, if hypotheses are tested and upheld several times, the researcher
may arrive at generalizations. But in case the researcher had no hypothesis to start
with, he would try to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. This may at
times result in new questions, leading to further researches. All this analytical
information and consequential inference(s) may well be communicated, preferably
through research report, to the consumers of research results who may be either an
individual or a group of individuals or some public/private organisation.

MEANING OF INTERPRETATION

Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after
an analytical and/or experimental study. In fact, it is a search for broader meaning
of research findings. The task of interpretation has two major aspects viz the effort
to establish continuity in research through linking the results of a given study with
those of another, and the establishment of some explanatory concepts.
In one sense, interpretation is concerned with relationships within the collected
data, partially overlapping analysis. Interpretation also extends beyond the data of
the study to include the results of other research, theory and hypotheses.1 Thus,
interpretation is the device through which the factors that seem to explain what has
been observed by researcher in the course of the study can be better understood
and it also provides a theoretical conception which can serve as a guide for further
researches.

WHY INTERPRETATION?
Interpretation is essential for the simple reason that the usefulness and utility of
research findings lie in proper interpretation. It is being considered a basic
component of research process because of the following reasons:

It is through interpretation that the researcher can well understand the abstract
principle that works beneath his findings. Through this he can link up his findings
with those of other studies, having the same abstract principle, and thereby can
predict about the concrete world of events. Fresh inquiries can test these
predictions later on. This way the continuity in research can be maintained.
Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts that can serve as
a guide for future research studies; it opens new avenues of intellectual adventure
and stimulates the quest for more knowledge.
Researcher can better appreciate only through interpretation why his findings are
what they are and can make others to understand the real significance of his
research findings.
The interpretation of the findings of exploratory research study often results into
hypotheses for experimental research and as such interpretation is involved in the
transition from exploratory to experimental research. Since an exploratory study
does not have a hypothesis to start with, the findings of such a study have to be
interpreted on a post-factum basis in which case the interpretation is technically
described as post factum interpretation.
The task of interpretation is not an easy job, rather it requires a great skill and
dexterity on the part of researcher. Interpretation is an art that one learns through
practice and experience. The researcher may, at times, seek the guidance from
experts for accomplishing the task of interpretation. The technique of interpretation
often involves the following step:

Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has found
and he must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes
and must try to find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the surface layer of
his diversified research findings. In fact, this is the technique of how generalization
should be done and concepts be formulated.

Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered while

interpreting the final results of research study, for it may prove to be a key factor in
understanding the problem under consideration.
It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult someone
having insight into the study and who is frank and honest and will not hesitate to
point out omissions and errors in logical argumentation. Such a consultation will
result in correct interpretation and, thus, will enhance the utility of research results.
Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all
relevant factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization. He must be in
no hurry while interpreting results, for quite often the conclusions, which appear to
be all right at the beginning, may not at all be accurate.
PRECAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION

One should always remember that even if the data are properly collected and
analysed, wrong interpretation would lead to inaccurate conclusions. It is, therefore,
absolutely essential that the task of interpretation be accomplished with patience in
an impartial manner and also in correct perspective. Researcher must pay attention
to the following points for correct interpretation:

At the outset, researcher must invariably satisfy himself that the data are
appropriate, trustworthy and adequate for drawing inferences, the data reflect
good homogeneity; and that proper analysis has been done through statistical
methods.
The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in the
process of interpreting results. Errors can arise due to false generalization and/or
due to wrong interpretation of statistical measures, such as the application of
findings beyond the range of observations, identification of correlation with
causation and the like. Another major pitfall is the tendency to affirm that definite
relationships exist on the basis of confirmation of particular hypotheses. In fact, the
positive test results accepting the hypothesis must be interpreted as being in
accord with the hypothesis, rather than as confirming the validity of the
hypothesis. The researcher must remain vigilant about all such things so that false
generalization may not take place. He should be well equipped with and must know
the correct use of statistical measures for drawing inferences concerning his study.
He must always keep in view that the task of interpretation is very much intertwined
with analysis and cannot be distinctly separated. As such he must take the task of
interpretation as a special aspect of analysis and accordingly must take all those
precautions that one usually observes while going through the process of analysis

viz., precautions concerning the reliability of data, computational checks, validation

and comparison of results.
He must never lose sight of the fact that his task is not only to make sensitive
observations of relevant occurrences, but also to identify and disengage the factors
that are initially hidden to the eye. This will enable him to do his job of
interpretation on proper lines. Broad generalisation should be avoided as most
research is not amenable to it because the coverage may be restricted to a
particular time, a particular area and particular conditions. Such restrictions, if any,
must invariably be specified and the results must be framed within their limits.
The researcher must remember that ideally in the course of a research study, there
should be constant interaction between initial hypothesis, empirical observation and
theoretical conceptions. It is exactly in this area of interaction between theoretical
orientation and empirical observation that opportunities for originality and creativity
lie." He must pay special attention to this aspect while engaged in the task of
interpretation.

SIGNIFICANCE OF REPORT
WRITING
Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the
research task remains incomplete till the report has been presented and/or written.
As a matter of fact even the most brilliant hypothesis, highly well designed and
conducted research study, and the most striking generalizations and findings are of
little value unless they are effectively communicated to others. The purpose of
research is not well served unless the findings are made known to others. Research
results must invariably enter the general store of knowledge. All this explains the
significance of writing research report. There are people who do not consider writing
of report as an integral part of the research process. But the general opinion is in
favour of treating the presentation of research results or the writing of report as part
and parcel of the research project. Writing of report is the last step in a research
study and requires a set of skills somewhat different from those called for in respect
of the earlier stages of research. This task should be accomplished by the
researcher with utmost care; he may seek the assistance and guidance of experts
for the purpose.

QUALITIES OF A
GOOD RESEARCH
A lot of reports are written daily. Some of them are intended to document the
progress of some activities, feasibility reports, investigation reports, some of the
reports are for monitoring purposes, some are evaluation reports but it is clear that
all the reports have some objective and purpose behind it. That objective and
purpose can only be achieved if a report has the following qualities and
characteristics:
1. It should be factual: Every report should be based on facts, verified
information and valid proofs.
2. Clear and Easily understandable: Explained below
3. Free from errors and duplication
4. Should facilitate the decision makers in making the right decision:
5. Result focused and result oriented
6. Well organized and structured
7. Ethical reporting style
Reader-Friendly
Readers are various stakeholders who receive reports generated by M&E. If reports
are reader-friendly, they are likely to be read, remembered and acted upon.
Following decisions need to be made by CSOs to make their reports reader-friendly:

What do they need to know?

When do they need to know?

How do they like to know?

Easy, Simple Language

M&E reports are meant to inform not impress. Using easy, simple language, be it
Urdu or English makes the report friendly on reader. To do this, here are some useful
tips:

Write only what is necessary

Avoid repetition and redundancy

Give interesting and relevant information

Avoid preaching or lecturing

Compose short and correct sentences

Purposeful Presentation
Each report has some objective(s) to meet. The objective comes from analyzing
the needs of the reader. A CSO is working for a project that has several donors, and
is channeled through an agency that needs to be informed about some specific
things going on in the field. CSOs reports are the main pathways or channels of
information to the people who decide to fund this and other such projects. Similarly,
field reports are the amin vehicles for the management of the CSOs to make
decision regarding the project itself. A good report presents facts and arguments in
a manner that supports the purpose of the report.
Organized and Well-Structured
Each CSO comes up with a format of internal reporting to suit its requirements.
Reporting to donors is done on their prescribed formats. The M&E system should be
able to generate information that can be organized using different formats. In the
annex, this manual provides some useful formats that can be customized by a CSO.
Result-Focused
In general, all readers are interested in the RESULTS. Therefore, one over-riding
principle that CSOs should aim for in all report writing is to report on the results of
their activities. This requires some analysis on their part that goes beyond a mere
description of their activities.
Result-focused means that description of activities is liked with the project
objectives. This aspect must be addressed especially in the project progress reports.
According to Phil Bartle, A good progress report is not merely a descriptive activity
report, but must analyze the results of those reported activities. The analysis should
answer the question, "How far have the project objectives been reached?"
Timely Prepared and Dispatched
M&E generate Information Products, a customized set of information according to
needs to a defined group of users. M&Es information products are time-bound for
both internal and external stakeholders. Reports, in suitable formats, need to be
timely produced and made available to the readers. It is useful to develop an
Information Product Matrix (IPM) like the one described below:
Straightforward
A good report is straight forward, honest description. It contains no lies, no
deception,
no fluff. It is neat,
readable
and RESEARCH
to-the-point. It is well
spaced, has titles
EXAMPLE
OF A
GOOD
REPORT
and subtitles and is free of language errors.

Computer systems computer systems

Assignment 1 - Topic: scanners
Date:
Student name:
Student number:
Tutor name:
Tutorial time:
Abstract
This report investigates the current state of scanner technology and examines the predicted future
advancements of scanners. A brief history of the scanner and its operation is initially outlined. The discussion
then focuses on the advantages and limitations of the five main types of scanners in common use today: drum,
flatbed, sheet-fed, slide, and hand held scanners. The performance of these scanners is examined in relation to
four main criteria: resolution, bit-depth, dynamic range and software. It is concluded that further technological
advances in these four areas as well as the deployment of new sensor technology will continue to improve the
quality of scanned images. It is also suggested that specialised scanners will increasingly be incorporated into
other types of technology such as digital cameras.

Table of contents
1.0
2.0
3.0

4.0

5.0
6.0
7.0

Abstract
Introduction
How scanners work
Types of scanners
3.1
Drum scanners
3.2
Flatbed scanners
3.3
Sheet-fed scanners
3.4
Slide scanners
3.5
Hand held scanners
Scanner specifications
4.1
Resolution
4.2
Bit-depth
4.3
Dynamic range
4.4
Software
Future developments
Conclusion
Reference list
Appendicies
Appendix 1 Image Sensor Scanner
Appendix 2 Frequently Used References
Appendix 2.1 Scanner Tips
Appendix 2.2 Scanners, Digital Cameras and Photo CDs
Appendix 2.3 The PC Technology Guide

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2
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3
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1. Introduction
The purpose of this report is to survey the current state of scanner technology and to briefly discuss predicted
advancements in the field.

By examining a range of recently published journal articles, magazine articles and internet sites on the topic of
scanners this report describes the main types of scanners in common use today and examines their
performance in relation to four criteria: resolution, bit-depth, dynamic range and software. The report then
considers the effect of further technological advances in these four areas, as well as the deployment of new
sensor technology on the future development of scanners.
The first scanner, initially referred to as a 'reading machine', was developed in 1960 by Jacob Rabinow, a
Russian born engineer. The device could scan printed material and then compare each character to a set of
standards in a matrix using, for the first time, the "best match principle" to determine the original message
(Blatner, Fleishman and Roth 1998, p.3). This reading machine was to form the basis for the development of
current scanning, sorting and processing machines.
An early improvement on the reading machine was the drum scanner. These scanners used a type of scanning
technology called photomultiplier tubes (PMT). Drum scanners are still used in industry today because of the
high quality images they produce. The development of smaller, more economical scanners such as desktop
scanners and scanners for domestic use followed the drum scanner as the number of computer users
increased and computer technology advanced.
Scanners can now capture images from a wide variety of two and three dimensional sources. These images
are converted to digitised computer files that can be stored on a hard-drive or floppy disk. With the aid of
specific software, these images can then be manipulated and enhanced by the user. It is now possible to
deploy electronic acquisition to create an entire layout (including all graphic elements) from the same computer.
This means manual stripping is no longer required (Scanners, digital cameras and photo CDs 2000). Scanners
are considered an invaluable tool for adding graphics and text to documents and have been readily adopted by
both business and domestic users.

2. How scanners work

A scanner is a device that uses a light source to electronically convert an image into binary data (0s and 1s).
This binary data can then be used to store the scanned image on a computer. A scanner recreates an image by
using small electronic components referred to as the scanner's 'eyes' (Scanner tips 2000). The type of 'eyes'
used in today's scanners are charge-coupled devices (CCD) and photomultiplier tubes (PMT). These electronic
eyes measure the amount of light reflected from individual points on the page and translate it to digital signals
that correspond to the brightness of each point (Englander 2000).
To create a file on the computer that represents a colour image, the scanner divides the image into a grid with
many individual points called pixels or picture elements (Scanner tips 2000). A scanning head, termed a row of
'eyes', reads over the grid and assigns a number to each pixel based on the main colour in that pixel, using
green, blue and red. For example an aqua pixel would be saved as a number to represent the proportion of
blue, green and red which represents the colour aqua (Scanners, digital cameras and photo CDs 2000).

3. Types of scanners
There are five main types of scanners in common use today: drum scanners, flatbed scanners, sheet-fed
scanners, slide scanners, and hand held scanners.

3.1 Drum scanners

Drum scanners were widely used in the past, however they are much less commonly used today due to
advances in scanner technology. As a result of their expense, these machines are primarily used by
professionals in industry, where they are considered important due to the high-end quality image they produce
and because they use PMT technology which is more sophisticated than charge-coupled devices (CCDs) and
contact image sensor's (CISs). Drum scanners are difficult to operate and technicians operate these scanners

by placing the item to be scanned on a glass cylinder rotating at high speeds around the sensor (Sullivan
1996).

3.2 Flatbed scanners

The most popular scanners for general use are flatbed scanners. This type of scanner is highly versatile
because it is able to scan flat objects as well as small three dimensional objects. Flat-bed scanners operate by
placing the item to be scanned on a glass window while scanning heads move underneath it. A transparency
adapter is used to scan transparent originals such as slides or x-rays, and an automatic document feeder is
available for scanning large numbers of documents (Scanner tips 2000).

3.3 Sheet-fed scanners

Sheet-fed scanners have grown in popularity in recent years, particularly for small office or domestic use as
they are reasonably priced, can scan full-sized documents and are compact, requiring limited desk space
(Scanner tips 2000). Most models of sheet-fed scanners have an inbuilt document feeder to overcome the
problem of manually feeding one sheet of paper at a time. However the actual process or scanning with a
sheet-fed scanner may result in distortion as the image to be scanned moves over the scanning heads
(Scanner tips 2000). A further limitation of sheet-fed scanners is that they are unable to scan three dimensional
objects.

3.4 Slide scanners

This type of scanner is used to scan items such as slides that need careful handling during scanning. Unlike
other scanners, the scanning heads in slide scanners do not reflect light from the image, but rather pass light
through it. This enables these scanners to produce superior results without distortions caused by reflective
light. To be able to scan small and detailed items, these scanners have a large number of eyes on the scanning
head which produces a high quality result. Slide scanners tend to be more expensive and less versatile than
flatbed and sheet-fed scanners as they are limited to only scanning slides and film. These scanners, however,
are well suited to users requiring high quality scans of large numbers of slides (Scanner tips 2000).

3.5 Hand held scanners

Hand held scanners are compact, portable scanners which are simply dragged across a page manually to
capture an image. These scanners are easy to use and economical to purchase; however, their use is limited to
text of up to four inches in diameter that does not require a high resolution. For this reason, hand held scanners
are unsuitable for colour images. A further disadvantage of hand held scanners is that the user must have a
steady hand when scanning or the resulting image will be distorted (Scanner tips 2000).

4. Scanner specifications
The performance of a scanner can be examined in relation to four main criteria: resolution, bit-depth, dynamic
range and software.

4.1 Resolution
Resolution is a measure of how many pixels a scanner can sample in a given image. It is used to describe the
amount of detail in an image (Figeiredo, McIllree and Thomas 1996). Higher resolution scanners are generally
more expensive and produce superior results as they have a greater capacity to capture detail. Scanners have
two types of resolutions: optical resolution and interpolated resolution.
Optical resolution, or hardware resolution, is a measure of how many pixels a scanner can actually read. A
current model desktop scanner typically has a resolution of 300 x 300 dots per inch (dpi) (Anderson 1999). This

means that this scanner has a scanning head with 300 sensors per inch, so it can sample 300 dpi in one
direction and 300 dpi in the other direction by stopping the scanning head 300 times per inch in both
directions. Some scanners stop the scanning head more frequently as it moves down the page, giving an
optical resolution of 300 x 600 dpi; however, scanning more frequently in one direction does not improve the
result of the scan. The basic requirement for scanning detailed images and line art from photos or other printed
originals is an optical resolution of 600 dpi. When scanning slides and negatives the minimum optical resolution
is 1200 dpi.
Interpolated resolution measures the number of pixels a scanner is able to predict. A scanner can turn a 300 x
300 dpi scan into a 600 x 600 dpi scan by looking in-between scanned pixels and guessing what that spot
would have looked like if it had been scanned. This prediction is then used to insert new pixels in between the
actual ones scanned. This technique is less precise than optical resolution; however it assists in improving the
enlargement of scanned images.

4.2 Bit depth

Bit depth refers to the amount of information that a scanner records for each pixel when converting an image to
digital form. Scanners differ in the amount of data they record for each pixel within an image. The simplest
kinds of scanners only record data related to black and white details and have a bit depth of 1 (Anderson
1999). The minimum bit depth required for scanning photographs and documents is 24-bits, while slides,
negatives or transparencies need a scanner with at least 30-bits.
Thus for a scanner to produce a high quality scan with colour, a higher bit depth is required. In general, current
scanners have a bit depth of 24, which means that 8 bits of information can be collected for the three primary
colours used in scanning; blue, red and green (Anderson 1999). This high resolution allows scanners to
produce images close to photographic quality.

4.3 Dynamic range

Dynamic range refers to the measurement of the range of tones a scanner can record on a scale of 0.0 to 4.0,
with 0.0 being perfect white and 4.0 being perfect black. Colour flat-bed scanners usually have a dynamic
range of 2.4. A range of this measurement is unable to provide high quality colour scans. A dynamic range of
2.8 and 3.2 is suited to professional purposes and can be found in high-end scanners. An even higher dynamic
range of 3.0 to 3.8 can be provided by drum scanners.

4.4 Software
A scanner, like any type of hardware, requires software. Typically the two most common pieces of software
provided with scanners include optical character recognition (OCR) and image editing software. Optical
character recognition software translates the information recorded in a scan, tiny dots, into a text file which can
be edited. Image editing software allows the tones and colours of an image to be manipulated for better printing
and display. Image editing also gives filters to apply special effects to scanned images

5. Future developments
The quality of scanned images is constantly improving as characteristics such as resolution, bit-depth and
dynamic range are enhanced and further developed. More sophisticated image editing and optical character
recognition software development is also resulting in superior quality scans. Future advances are expected to
result in the incorporation of specialized scanners into other types of technology such as the recently
developed digital camera. This device allows the user to take pictures of three-dimensional objects much like a
regular camera, except that instead of using film, the objects are scanned by the camera in a similar process to
the functioning of a flatbed scanner.

The relatively new area of sensor technology in the form of a contact image sensor (CIS) (see Appendix 1) is
expected to improve the functionality of scanners and the quality of images as it "replaces the cumbersome
optical reduction technique with a single row of sensors" (Grotta and Wiener 1998, p. 1). Developers have
already been able to produce a CIS scanner which is thinner, lighter, more energy efficient and cheaper to
manufacture than a traditional CCD base device. However, the quality of the scan is not as good as its
counterparts. Further development of CIS technology is needed to improve image quality and colour, and to
address the problem of a limited 300 or 600 dpi.

6. Conclusion
This report has identified five types of scanners currently available. Some are primarily used for professional
purposes such as the drum scanner; others are used more broadly in the workplace and home such as flatbed
scanners and to a lesser extent sheetfed scanners. Scanners for specialized purposes have also been
identified such as slide and handheld scanners. The performance of these scanners is dependent upon their
resolution, bit-depth, dynamic range and software. Scanners have improved significantly in recent years in
terms of weight, size, price and speed, and the replacement of CCD technology with CIS technology is
anticipated to produce further benefits to these areas as well as to scan quality. The impact of these
improvements is expected to increase the accessibility of scanner technology to a wider range of users and its
suitability for a wider range of purposes. In relation to this, the future of scanner technology seems to point to
the convergence of different technologies. Specialized scanners are currently being incorporated into other
types of technologies such as digital cameras, printers, and photocopiers. This can be expected to continue
with other forms of technology in conjunction with further improvements to image quality, speed, price, size and
weight.

7. Reference list
Anderson, D. The PC Guide. [http:www.pctechguide.com/18scanners.htm].
Blatner, D., Fleishman, G. Roth, G. (1998) Real world scanning and halftones 2nd edition, Peachpit Press,
USA.
Englander, I (2000). The Architecture of computer hardware and systems software. John Wiley, USA, p272.
Figeiredo, J. McIllree, J. Thomas, N. (1996) Introducing information technology 2nd edition Jacaranda Press,
Singapore, p145.
Grotta, D. and Weiner, S. What's now ...What's next.
[http://www.zdnet.com/pcmag/features/scanners98/intro.html] PC Magazines 20 October 1998. 8/4/00
Prepress, scanners, digital cameras and photoCDs. [http://www.prepress.pps.com/mem/lib/ptr/scanners.html]
1998. 6/4/00
Scansoft scanner tips [http://www.scannercentral.com/scanners/tips/tips1.asp] 2000.6/4/00
Sullivan. M. Types of scanners. [http://hsdesign.com/scanning/types/types.html] 1996. 8/4/00

INGREDIENTS OF A REPORT:

 A report, irrespective of the type, has a set of components

that are placed in a logical order. Each report is unique
hence a section may be dropped or added, condensed or
expanded.
Sequence may change depending on the needs of the
audience.

A researcher should follow the logical sequence adding

whatever he feels is necessary.

REPORT IS CATEGORIZED AS
FOLLOWS:
Prefatory
information
Main body
End section

PREFATORY INFORMATION
These preliminary pages introduce a reader to the research
project. It includes the following:
1. Title page: This includes the title of the report, the name
and address of researcher or organization that is conducting
the research.
2. Preface: It states the usefulness of the research project and
includes the acknowledgement of all the people who have
contributed.
3. Letter of transmittal: It summarizes the overall experience
of the researcher with the project without mentioning the
findings.
4. Letter of authorization: It is the letter from client to the
researcher authorizing him to conduct the report.
5. Table of contents: This covers the list of all the topics with
their pg nos. followed by the list of graphs, diagrams. Tables
etc.

6. Executive summary: It is a very imp part of this section

which summarizes the problem, research designs and the
major findings and conclusions. It is like a mini report & is
written after the rest of the report.

MAIN BODY
The following body of report contains all the details and includes
the following sections:
1. Problem statement: It explains the need for research by
detailing the background to the problem.
2. Research objectives: It clearly defines the objectives of
research. In case of experimental or casual studies this
section would also include the hypothesis statement.
3. Research methodology: This section details the
methodology adopted to collect the relevant information. It
includes the sample design, data collection design etc.
4. Findings: This is the longest section as analyzed data is
explained using graphs, tables and diagrams.
5. Limitations: These limitations are caused due to time and
budget constraints, sampling limitations etc.

6. Conclusions and Recommendations: It interprets the

findings stated earlier by correlating the different variables.
The results are interpreted in the light of the problem being
handled in the project and then draw conclusions.

END SECTION
1. Bibliography: It is the list of all sources arranged in
alphabetic order that the researcher has used while
conducting research.
2. Appendices: It contains all the technical information. It
could be in the form of tables, instruments used for data
collection and any other supporting document.
3. Glossary: Report may contain glossary of imp items.it is an
alphabetical arrangement of the terms with a brief definition
of the term.
4. Index: A report may contain an alphabetical arrangement
name, subject or a co giving the page on which item is
mentioned.

Guidelines for report writing

Typography: It should be written on good quality unruled
paper and only one side of the sheet should be used.
Quotations: Report often uses quotations and they should
be placed in quotation marks.
Punctuations: It is an effective method of indicating the
meaning being conveyed by the sentence and indicated the
way in which the text is to read.
Bibliographies: It is a list of all the words used by
researcher in an alphabetical order.
References: These are given for all kinds of direct or
indirect quotations that have been used in the research
report in order of their appearances in the text.
Footnotes: These are generally used to provide explanation
of a term that has been used in the text.
Pagination: This means giving numbering to the pages.
Every page in a report is a numbered page.
Labelling tables and figures: A report often contains
tables, graphs, diagrams whose presentation should be clear
and consistent.

 Abbreviations: Abbreviations finds place in bibliography,

footnotes etc. they help in saving time and efforts of
researcher.

Evaluation of research report

Evaluation of a report should be done objectively and
preferably by people not associated with the research
activities.
A research report should be critically evaluated to obtain
new insights and knowledge.
He could himself evaluate the report or get it done by
somebody else.
In certain situations, feedback comes automatically whereas
in others the researcher may have to ask for it.

Parameters against which

report should be evaluated:

Does it address the problem correctly?

Is the research design appropriate?

Have appropriate
numbers and
statistics been
used?

Are the
results
generalizabl
e?

Are the
interpretations and
conclusions
objective?

Does it address the problem

correctly?
A research report should be checked to see if it provides the
right background to the problems and if has successfully
identified and located the problem.
A report that does not provide such an information is a weak
report.

Is the research design apt?

This question evaluates the report on 2 criteria:
Firstly, on the choice of research designs &
Secondly, on the description of the research design.
The report should describe the method of drawing the
sample, collecting data and analyzing it.
However, the description should have been simple and nontechnical.
If the audience is unable to understand the research design,
then the reports falls a notch on the scale of good report.

Have apt nos & statistics

been used?
Almost all reports make use of no and stats to support their
discussion.

 These should be carefully examined to see if the apt

statistics have been used and they serve the purpose of
study well.

Are the interpretations and

conclusions objective?
The report is evaluated for the objectivity and candidness of
interpretation of results.

Any assumptions used while interpreting the results should

have been clearly stated and the conclusions should be
evaluated in the light of limitations faced by the researcher
in his project.

This demands a complete and honest disclosure by the

researcher.

Are the results

generalization?
Lastly, the research project should be evaluated in terms of
generalizability of results.
A good report provides sufficient evidence regarding the
reliability, validity and generalizability of the findings.
The target population to which the findings apply should be
clearly identified and factors that limit the results should be
stated.