Math 482, Abstract Algebra 2, Spring 2004

Problem Set 2, solutions

13.20 Find all units, zero-divisors, idempotents, and nilpotent elements in Z3 Z6 .

An element (a, b) is a unit if there is (c, d) such that (a, b)(c, d) = (ab, cd) = (1, 1). This can
occur only if both a and b are units. The units of Z3 are {1, 2}, and the units of Z6 are {1, 5}
(here I am using that the units in Zn are 1 k < n such that (k, n) = 1), so the units of
Z3 Z6 are (1, 1), (1, 5), (2, 1), and (2, 5).
An element (a, b) is a zero divisor if (a, b) 6= (0, 0) and there is (c, d) 6= (0, 0) such that
(a, b)(c, d) = (ac, bd) = (0, 0). Of course, Z3 contains no zero divisors (it is a field), so we know
that ac = 0 implies a = 0 or c = 0. On the other hand, Z6 contains several zero divisors, in
particular, {2, 3, 4}, so bd = 0 implies that b {0, 2, 3, 4} or d = 0. We can then write down
the zero divisors by choosing all the possible non-zero zero divisor combinations. We get (0, 1),
(0, 2), (0, 3), (0, 4), (0, 5), (1, 0), (2, 0), (1, 2), (2, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3), (1, 4), and (2, 4).
An element (a, b) is an idempotent if (a, b)(a, b) = (a2 , b2 ) = (a, b). This can only happen if
a2 = a and b2 = b. But a2 6= a only if a = 0, 1 in Z3 . We can check that b2 = b for b = 0, 1, 3, 4
in Z6 , and thus the idempotents of Z3 Z6 are (0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 3), (0, 4), (1, 0), (1, 1), (1, 3),
and (1, 4).
Finally, an element is nilpotent if there exists an n > 0 such that (a, b)n = (0, 0). This occurs
only if there is an n such that an = 0 for a Z3 (and because Z3 is a field we conclude
immediately that a = 0), and bn = 0. The only such element in Z6 is 0. We can easily check
this: clearly there is no n > 0 such that 1n = 0. The element 5 is a unit, so if there were an
n > 0 with 5n = 0, then 5 = (51 )n1 5n = 0 a contradiction. Both 3 and 4 are idempotents,
so that 3n = 3 and 4n = 4 for all n > 0. Finally, 21 = 2, 22 = 4, 23 = 2, 24 = 4, and so on, so
that 2n 6= 0 for n > 0. Thus the nilpotent of Z3 Z6 is (0, 0).
13.38 Suppose that a and b belong to a commutative ring and ab is a zero-divisor. Show that either
a or b is a zero-divisor.
If ab is a zero divisor then ab 6= 0 and there exists a t R such that t 6= 0 = abt. If it is the
case that bt = 0, then b is a zero divisor (neither b or t is zero, but their product is zero). But
if bt 6= 0, then a 6= 0 6= bt, but the product a(bt) = 0, so a is a zero divisor. Thus either a or b
is a zero divisor.
13.40 Suppose that R is a commutative ring without zero-divisors. Show that the characteristic of
R is zero or prime.
It is enough to show that if the characteristic is not zero, then it is prime. So suppose that
charR = n 6= 0 and let r R be an element such that n r = 0 and l r 6= 0 for all 0 < l < n
(such an element exists because otherwise the characteristic of R would be strictly less than n).
If n is not prime then n = ab for integers 1 < a, b < n. Of course, 0 = n r = r + + r, and
| {z }
ntimes

thus, multiplying both sides of the equation by r, we get 0 = r2 + + r2 . Then it follows that
{z
}
|
ntimes




0 = r2 + + r2 = r + + r r + + r , and because R has no zero divisors, it must
|
{z
}
| {z } | {z }
abtimes

atimes

btimes

be that a r = 0 or b r = 0. Both of these options force contradictions because 1 < a, b < n

and we chose r such that there does not exist an l < n such that l r = 0. We conclude that
n is prime as required. Note: ab r2 = (a r)(b r)
is clear if one

thinks about the number of
r2 s which occur if one multiplies out r + + r r + + r .
| {z } | {z }
atimes

btimes

13.60 Let F be a field of order 32. Show that the only subfields of F are F itself and {0, 1}.
Note that the set F = {f F | f 6= 0} is a multiplicative group: in particular, multiplication
is associativity by hypothesis, there is a multiplicative identity (because every field contains
such an element), and there always exist multiplicative inverses (again because F is a field and
we have excluded 0). Now given a subfield G, it must be that G is a non-zero subgroup of

F (it contains unity, which is non-zero by definition) and G must be a subgroup of F (the
latter assertion could use some justification: we already know that G is a group, so the only
remaining question is if it is a subgroup of F ; but this follows because G contains the unity
and consists of non-zero elements and is thus clearly a non-empty subset of F ). Note that
F has order 32, while F has order 31. By Lagranges theorem |G| divides 32 while |G| 1
divides 31. The only divisors of 31 are 1 and 31, so this implies that G has order 32 (whence
it is F ) or order 2. In the latter case, because G must contain 0 and 1, G = {0, 1} as required.