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1.1 ELECTRIC VEHICLES

An electric vehicle (EV), also referred to as an electric drive vehicle, uses one or more
electric motors or traction motors for propulsion. Electric vehicles include electric cars, electric
trains, electric Lorries, electric aero planes, electric boats, electric motorcycles and scooters and
electric spacecraft.
Electric vehicles first came into existence in the mid-19th century, when electricity was among
the preferred methods for motor vehicle propulsion, providing a level of comfort and ease of
operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline cars of the time. The internal combustion
engine (ICE) is the dominant propulsion method for motor vehicles but electric power has
remained commonplace in other vehicle types, such as trains and smaller vehicles of all types.
During the last few decades, environmental impact of the petroleum-based transportation
infrastructure, along with the peak oil, has led to renewed interest in an electric transportation
infrastructure. Electric vehicles differ from fossil fuel-powered vehicles in that the electricity they
consume can be generated from a wide range of sources, including fossil fuels, nuclear power,
and renewable sources such as tidal power, solar power, and wind power or any combination of
those. Currently though there are more than 400 coal power plants in the U.S. alone. However it
is generated, this energy is then transmitted to the vehicle through use of overhead lines,
wireless energy transfer such as inductive charging, or a direct connection through an electrical
cable. The electricity may then be stored on board the vehicle using a battery, flywheel, or super
capacitors. Vehicles making use of engines working on the principle of combustion can usually
only derive their energy from a single or a few sources, usually non-renewable fossil fuels. A
key advantage of electric or hybrid electric vehicles is regenerative braking and suspension;
their ability to recover energy normally lost during braking as electricity to be restored to the onboard battery.
Electricity sources
There are many ways to generate electricity, some of them more ecological than others:
on-board rechargeable electricity storage system (RESS), called Full Electric Vehicles
(FEV). Power storage methods include:
o chemical energy stored on the vehicle in on-board batteries: Battery electric
vehicle (BEV)
o static energy stored on the vehicle in on-board electric double-layer capacitors
o kinetic energy storage: flywheels
direct connection to generation plants as is common among electric trains, trolley buses,
and trolley trucks (See also : overhead lines, third rail and conduit current collection)
renewable sources such as solar power: solar vehicle
generated on-board using a diesel engine: diesel-electric locomotive
generated on-board using a fuel cell: fuel cell vehicle
generated on-board using nuclear energy: nuclear submarines and aircraft carriers
It is also possible to have hybrid electric vehicles that derive electricity from multiple sources.
Such as:
on-board rechargeable electricity storage system (RESS) and a direct continuous
connection to land-based generation plants for purposes of on-highway recharging with
unrestricted highway range
on-board rechargeable electricity storage system and a fueled propulsion power source
(internal combustion engine): plug-in hybrid

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Batteries, electric double-layer capacitors and flywheel energy storage are forms of
rechargeable on-board electrical storage. By avoiding an intermediate mechanical step, the
energy conversion efficiency can be improved over the hybrids already discussed, by avoiding
unnecessary energy conversions. Furthermore, electro-chemical batteries conversions are easy
to reverse, allowing electrical energy to be stored in chemical form.
Another form of chemical to electrical conversion is fuel cells, projected for future use.
For especially large electric vehicles, such as submarines, the chemical energy of the dieselelectric can be replaced by a nuclear reactor. The nuclear reactor usually provides heat, which
drives a steam turbine, which drives a generator, which is then fed to the propulsion. See
Nuclear Power. A few experimental vehicles, such as some cars and a handful of aircraft use
solar panels for electricity.
Electric motor
The power of a vehicle electric motor, as in other vehicles, is measured in kilowatts (kW).
100 kW is roughly equivalent to 134 horsepower, although most electric motors deliver full
torque over a wide RPM range, so the performance is not equivalent, and far exceeds a
134 horsepower (100 kW) fuel-powered motor, which has a limited torque curve.
Usually, direct current (DC) electricity is fed into a DC/AC inverter where it is converted to
alternating current (AC) electricity and this AC electricity is connected to a 3-phase AC motor.
For electric trains, DC motors are often used.
Vehicle types
It is generally possible to equip any kind of vehicle with an electric power train.
Hybrid electric vehicle
A hybrid electric vehicle combines a conventional (usually fossil fuel-powered) power train with
some form of electric propulsion. Common examples include hybrid electric cars such as the
Toyota Prius.
On- and off-road electric vehicles
Electric vehicles are on the road in many functions, including electric cars, electric trolleybuses,
electric bicycles, electric motorcycles and scooters, neighborhood electric vehicles, golf carts,
milk floats, and forklifts. Off-road vehicles include electrified all-terrain vehicles and tractors.
Railborne electric vehicles
The fixed nature of a rail line makes it relatively easy to power electric vehicles through
permanent overhead lines or electrified third rails, eliminating the need for heavy onboard
batteries. Electric locomotives, electric trams/streetcars/trolleys, electric light rail systems, and
electric rapid transit are all in common use today, especially in Europe and Asia. Since electric
trains do not need to carry a heavy internal combustion engine or large batteries, they can have
very good power-to-weight ratios. This allows high speed trains such as France's double-deck
TGVs to operate at speeds of 320 km/h (200 mph) or higher, and electric locomotives to have a
much higher power output than diesel locomotives. In addition they have higher short-term
surge power for fast acceleration, and using regenerative braking can put braking power back
into the electrical grid rather than wasting it. Maglev trains are also nearly always electric
vehicles.
Airborne electric vehicles

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Since the beginning of the era of aviation, electric power for aircraft has received a great deal of
experimentation. Currently flying electric aircraft include manned and unmanned aerial vehicles.
Seaborne electric vehicles
Electric boats were popular around the turn of the 20th century. Interest in quiet and potentially
renewable marine transportation has steadily increased since the late 20th century, as solar
cells have given motorboats the infinite range of sailboats. Submarines use batteries (charged
by diesel or gasoline engines at the surface), nuclear power, or fuel cells to run electric motor
driven propellers.
Space borne electric vehicles
Main article: Electrically powered spacecraft propulsion
Electric power has a long history of use in spacecraft. The power sources used for spacecraft
are batteries, solar panels and nuclear power. Current methods of propelling a spacecraft with
electricity include the arcjet rocket, the electrostatic ion thruster, the Hall effect thruster, and
Field Emission Electric Propulsion. A number of other methods have been proposed, with
varying levels of feasibility.
Energy and motors
Most large electric transport systems are powered by stationary sources of electricity that are
directly connected to the vehicles through wires. Electric traction allows the use of regenerative
braking, in which the motors are used as brakes and become generators that transform the
motion of, usually, a train into electrical power that is then fed back into the lines. This system is
particularly advantageous in mountainous operations, as descending vehicles can produce a
large portion of the power required for those ascending. This regenerative system is only viable
if the system is large enough to utilise the power generated by descending vehicles.
In the systems above motion is provided by a rotary electric motor. However, it is possible to
"unroll" the motor to drive directly against a special matched track. These linear motors are used
in maglev trains which float above the rails supported by magnetic levitation. This allows for
almost no rolling resistance of the vehicle and no mechanical wear and tear of the train or track.
In addition to the high-performance control systems needed, switching and curving of the tracks
becomes difficult with linear motors, which to date has restricted their operations to high-speed
point to point services.
Properties of electric vehicles: Energy sources
Although electric vehicles have few direct emissions, all rely on energy created through
electricity generation, and will usually emit pollution and generate waste, unless it is generated
by renewable source power plants. Since electric vehicles use whatever electricity is delivered
by their electrical utility/grid operator, electric vehicles can be made more or less efficient,
polluting and expensive to run, by modifying the electrical generating stations. This would be
done by an electrical utility under a government energy policy, in a timescale negotiated
between utilities and government.
Fossil fuel vehicle efficiency and pollution standards take years to filter through a nation's fleet
of vehicles. New efficiency and pollution standards rely on the purchase of new vehicles, often
as the current vehicles already on the road reach their end-of-life. Only a few nations set a
retirement age for old vehicles, such as Japan or Singapore, forcing periodic upgrading of all
vehicles already on the road.
Electric vehicles will take advantage of whatever environmental gains happen when a
renewable energy generation station comes online, a fossil-fuel power station is

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decommissioned or upgraded. Conversely, if government policy or economic conditions shifts
generators back to use more polluting fossil fuels and internal combustion engine vehicles
(ICEVs), or more inefficient sources, the reverse can happen. Even in such a situation, electrical
vehicles are still more efficient than a comparable amount of fossil fuel vehicles. In areas with a
deregulated electrical energy market, an electrical vehicle owner can choose whether to run his
electrical vehicle off conventional electrical energy sources, or strictly from renewable electrical
energy sources (presumably at an additional cost), pushing other consumers onto conventional
sources, and switch at any time between the two.
Issues with batteries
Efficiency
Because of the different methods of charging possible, the emissions produced have been
quantified in different ways. Plug-in all-electric and hybrid vehicles also have different
consumption characteristics.
Electromagnetic radiation
Electromagnetic radiation from high performance electrical motors has been claimed to be
associated with some human ailments, but such claims are largely unsubstantiated except for
extremely high exposures.[16] Electric motors can be shielded within a metallic Faraday cage,
but this reduces efficiency by adding weight to the vehicle, while it is not conclusive that all
electromagnetic radiation can be contained.
Charging ; Grid capacity
If a large proportion of private vehicles were to convert to grid electricity it would increase the
demand for generation and transmission, and consequent emissions. However, overall energy
consumption and emissions would diminish because of the higher efficiency of electric vehicles
over the entire cycle. In the USA it has been estimated there is already nearly sufficient existing
power plant and transmission infrastructure, assuming that most charging would occur
overnight, using the most efficient off-peak base load sources.
Charging stations
Electric vehicles typically charge from conventional power outlets or dedicated charging
stations, a process that typically takes hours, but can be done overnight and often gives a
charge that is sufficient for normal everyday usage.
However with the widespread implementation of electric vehicle networks within large cities,
such as those provided by POD Point in the UK and Europe, electric vehicle users can plug in
their cars whilst at work and leave them to charge throughout the day, extending the possible
range of commutes and eliminating range anxiety.
One proposed solution for daily recharging is a standardized inductive charging system such as
Evatran's Plugless Power. Benefits are the convenience of with parking over the charge station
and minimized cabling and connection infrastructure.
Another proposed solution for the typically less frequent, long distance travel is "rapid charging",
such as the Aerovironment PosiCharge line (up to 250 kW) and the Norvik MinitCharge line (up
to 300 kW). Ecotality is a manufacturer of Charging Stations and has partnered with Nissan on
several installations. Battery replacement is also proposed as an alternative, although no OEM's
including Nissan/Renault have any production vehicle plans. Swapping requires standardization
across platforms, models and manufacturers. Swapping also requires many times more battery
packs to be in the system.

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One type of battery "replacement" proposed is much simpler: while the latest generation of
vanadium redox battery only has an energy density similar to lead-acid, the charge is stored
solely in a vanadium-based electrolyte, which can be pumped out and replaced with charged
fluid. The vanadium battery system is also a potential candidate for intermediate energy storage
in quick charging stations because of its high power density and extremely good endurance in
daily use. System cost however, is still prohibitive. As vanadium battery systems are estimated
to range between $350$600 per kWh, a battery that can service one hundred customers in a
24 hour period at 50 kWh per charge would cost $1.8-$3 million.

Battery swapping
There is another way to "refuel" electric vehicles. Instead of recharging them from electric
socket, batteries could be mechanically replaced on special stations just in a couple of minutes
(battery swapping).
Batteries with greatest energy density such as metal-air fuel cells usually cannot be recharged
in purely electric way. Instead some kind of metallurgical process is needed, such as aluminum
smelting and similar.
Silicon-air, aluminum-air and other metal-air fuel cells look promising candidates for swap
batteries. Any source of energy, renewable or non-renewable, could be used to remake used
metal-air fuel cells with relatively high efficiency. Investment in infrastructure will be needed. The
cost of such batteries could be an issue, although they could be made with replaceable anodes
and electrolyte.
Other in-development technologies
Conventional electric double-layer capacitors are being worked to achieve the energy density of
lithium ion batteries, offering almost unlimited lifespans and no environmental issues. High-K
electric double-layer capacitors, such as EEStor's EESU, could improve lithium ion energy
density several times over if they can be produced. Lithium-sulphur batteries offer 250Wh/kg.
Sodium-ion batteries promise 400Wh/kg with only minimal expansion/contraction during
charge/discharge and a very high surface area.[27] Researchers from one of the Ukrainian state
universities claim that they have manufactured samples of supercapacitor based on
intercalation process with 318 W-h/kg specific energy, which seem to be at least two times
improvement in comparison to typical Li-ion batteries.[28]
Advantages and disadvantages of electric vehicles: Environmental
Due to efficiency of electric engines as compared to combustion engines, even when the
electricity used to charge electric vehicles comes from a CO2 emitting source, such as a coal or
gas fired powered plant, the net CO2 production from an electric car is typically one half to one
third of that from a comparable combustion vehicle.
Electric vehicles release almost no air pollutants at the place where they are operated. In
addition, it is generally easier to build pollution control systems into centralized power stations
than retrofit enormous numbers of cars.
Electric vehicles typically have less noise pollution than an internal combustion engine vehicle,
whether it is at rest or in motion. Electric vehicles emit no tailpipe CO2 or pollutants such as
NOx, NMHC, CO and PM at the point of use.
Electric motors don't require oxygen, unlike internal combustion engines; this is useful for
submarines.
While electric and hybrid cars have reduced tailpipe carbon emissions, the energy they
consume is sometimes produced by means that have environmental impacts. For example, the

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majority of electricity produced in the United States comes from fossil fuels (coal and natural
gas) so use of an Electric Vehicle in the United States would not be completely carbon neutral.
Electric and hybrid cars can help decrease energy use and pollution, with local no pollution at all
being generated by electric vehicles, and may someday use only renewable resources, but the
choice that would have the lowest negative environmental impact would be a lifestyle change in
favor of walking, biking, use of public transit or telecommuting. Governments may invest in
research and development of electric cars with the intention of reducing the impact on the
environment where they could instead develop pedestrian-friendly communities or electric mass
transit.
Electric motors are mechanically very simple.
Electric motors often achieve 90% energy conversion efficiency over the full range of speeds
and power output and can be precisely controlled. They can also be combined with regenerative
braking systems that have the ability to convert movement energy back into stored electricity.
This can be used to reduce the wear on brake systems (and consequent brake pad dust) and
reduce the total energy requirement of a trip. Regenerative braking is especially effective for
start-and-stop city use.
They can be finely controlled and provide high torque from rest, unlike internal combustion
engines, and do not need multiple gears to match power curves. This removes the need for
gearboxes and torque converters.
Electric vehicles provide quiet and smooth operation and consequently have less noise and
vibration than internal combustion engines. While this is a desirable attribute, it has also evoked
concern that the absence of the usual sounds of an approaching vehicle poses a danger to
blind, elderly and very young pedestrians. To mitigate this situation, automakers and individual
companies are developing systems that produce warning sounds when electric vehicles are
moving slowly, up to a speed when normal motion and rotation (road, suspension, electric
motor, etc.) noises become audible.
Energy resilience
Electricity is a form of energy that remains within the country or region where it was produced
and can be multi-sourced. As a result it gives the greatest degree of energy resilience.
Energy efficiency
Electric vehicle 'tank-to-wheels' efficiency is about a factor of 3 higher than internal combustion
engine vehicles It does not consume energy when it is not moving, unlike internal combustion
engines where they continue running even during idling. However, looking at the well-to-wheel
efficiency of electric vehicles, their emissions are comparable to an efficient gasoline or diesel in
most countries because electricity generation relies on fossil fuels.
Cost of recharge
The GM Volt will cost "less than purchasing a cup of your favorite coffee" to recharge. The Volt
should cost less than 2 cents per mile to drive on electricity, compared with 12 cents a mile on
gasoline at a price of $3.60 a gallon. This means a trip from Los Angeles to New York would
cost $56 on electricity, and $336 with gasoline. This would be the equivalent to paying 60 cents
a gallon of gas.
Stabilization of the grid
Since electric vehicles can be plugged into the electric grid when not in use, there is a potential
for battery powered vehicles to even out the demand for electricity by feeding electricity into the
grid from their batteries during peak use periods (such as midafternoon air conditioning use)

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while doing most of their charging at night, when there is unused generating capacity. This
Vehicle to Grid (V2G) connection has the potential to reduce the need for new power plants.
Furthermore, our current electricity infrastructure may need to cope with increasing shares of
variable-output power sources such as windmills and PV solar panels. This variability could be
addressed by adjusting the speed at which EV batteries are charged, or possibly even
discharged.
Some concepts see battery exchanges and battery charging stations, much like gas/petrol
stations today. Clearly these will require enormous storage and charging potentials, which could
be manipulated to vary the rate of charging, and to output power during shortage periods, much
as diesel generators are used for short periods to stabilize some national grids.
Range
Many electric designs have limited range, due to the low energy density of batteries compared
to the fuel of internal combustion engined vehicles. Electric vehicles also often have long
recharge times compared to the relatively fast process of refueling a tank. This is further
complicated by the current scarcity of public charging stations. "Range anxiety" is a label for
consumer concern about EV range.
Heating of electric vehicles
In cold climates considerable energy is needed to heat the interior of a vehicle and to defrost the
windows. With internal combustion engines, this heat already exists from the combustion
process from the waste heat from the engine cooling circuit and this offsets the greenhouse
gases' external costs. If this is done with battery electric vehicles, this will require extra energy
from the vehicles' batteries. Although some heat could be harvested from the motor(s) and
battery, due to their greater efficiency there is not as much waste heat available as from a
combustion engine.
However, for vehicles which are connected to the grid, battery electric vehicles can be
preheated, or cooled, and need little or no energy from the battery, especially for short trips.
Newer designs are focused on using super-insulated cabins which can heat the vehicle using
the body heat of the passengers. This is not enough, however, in colder climates as a driver
delivers only about 100 W of heating power. A reversible AC-system, cooling the cabin during
summer and heating it during winter, seems to be the most practical and promising way of
solving the thermal management of the EV. Ricardo Arboix introduced (2008) a new concept
based on the principle of combining the thermal-management of the EV-battery with the
thermal-management of the cabin using a reversible AC-system. This is done by adding a third
heat-exchanger, thermally connected with the battery-core, to the traditional heat pump/air
conditioning system used in previous EV-models like the GM EV1 and Toyota RAV4 EV. The
concept has proven to bring several benefits, such as prolonging the life-span of the battery as
well as improving the performance and overall energy-efficiency of the EV.
Electric public transit efficiency
Shifts from private to public transport (train, trolleybus or tram) have the potential for large gains
in efficiency in terms of individual miles per kWh.
Research shows people do prefer trams,[46] because they are quieter and more comfortable and
perceived as having higher status.[47]
Therefore, it may be possible to cut liquid fossil fuel consumption in cities through the use of
electric trams.

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Trams may be the most energy-efficient form of public transportation, with rubber wheeled
vehicles using 2/3 more energy than the equivalent tram, and run on electricity rather than fossil
fuels.
In terms of net present value, they are also the cheapestBlackpool trams are still running after
100-years, but combustion buses only last about 15-years.
Incentives and promotion
Improved long term energy storage and nano batteries
There have been several developments which could bring electric vehicles outside their current
fields of application, as scooters, golf cars, neighborhood vehicles, in industrial operational
yards and indoor operation. First, advances in lithium-based battery technology, in large part
driven by the consumer electronics industry, allow full-sized, highway-capable electric vehicles
to be propelled as far on a single charge as conventional cars go on a single tank of gasoline.
Lithium batteries have been made safe, can be recharged in minutes instead of hours, and now
last longer than the typical vehicle. The production cost of these lighter, higher-capacity lithium
batteries is gradually decreasing as the technology matures and production volumes increase.
Rechargeable Lithium-air batteries potentially offer increased range over other types and are a
current topic of research.
Introduction of battery management and intermediate storage
Another improvement is to decouple the electric motor from the battery through electronic
control, employing ultra-capacitors to buffer large but short power demands and regenerative
braking energy. The development of new cell types combined with intelligent cell management
improved both weak points mentioned above. The cell management involves not only
monitoring the health of the cells but also a redundant cell configuration (one more cell than
needed). With sophisticated switched wiring it is possible to condition one cell while the rest are
on duty.
Faster battery recharging
By soaking the matter found in conventional lithium ion batteries in a special solution, lithium ion
batteries were supposedly said to be recharged 100x faster. This test was however done with a
specially-designed battery with little capacity. Batteries with higher capacity can be recharged
40x faster. The research was conducted by Byoungwoo Kang and Gerbrand Ceder of MIT. The
researchers believe the solution may appear on the market in 2011. Another method to speed
up battery charging is by adding an additional oscillating electric field. This method was
proposed by Ibrahim Abou Hamad from Mississippi State University. The company Epyon
specializes in faster charging of electric vehicles
1.2 HYBRID VEHICLES
A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a type of hybrid vehicle and electric vehicle which combines
a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) propulsion system with an electric propulsion
system. The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel
economy than a conventional vehicle, or better performance. A variety of types of HEV exist,
and the degree to which they function as EVs varies as well. The most common form of HEV is
the hybrid electric car, although hybrid electric trucks (pickups and tractors) and buses also
exist.
Modern HEVs make use of efficiency-improving technologies such as regenerative braking,
which converts the vehicle's kinetic energy into battery-replenishing electric energy, rather than

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wasting it as heat energy as conventional brakes do. Some varieties of HEVs use their internal
combustion engine to generate electricity by spinning an electrical generator (this combination is
known as a motor-generator), to either recharge their batteries or to directly power the electric
drive motors. Many HEVs reduce idle emissions by shutting down the ICE at idle and restarting
it when needed; this is known as a start-stop system. A hybrid-electric produces less emissions
from its ICE than a comparably-sized gasoline car, since an HEV's gasoline engine is usually
smaller than a comparably-sized pure gasoline-burning vehicle (natural gas and propane fuels
produce lower emissions) and if not used to directly drive the car, can be geared to run at
maximum efficiency, further improving fuel economy.
1.3 A flexible-fuel vehicle (FFV) or dual-fuel vehicle (colloquially called a flex-fuel vehicle) is
an alternative fuel vehicle with an internal combustion engine designed to run on more than one
fuel, usually gasoline blended with either ethanol or methanol fuel, and both fuels are stored in
the same common tank. Flex-fuel engines are capable of burning any proportion of the resulting
blend in the combustion chamber as fuel injection and spark timing are adjusted automatically
according to the actual blend detected by electronic sensors. Flex-fuel vehicles are
distinguished from bi-fuel vehicles, where two fuels are stored in separate tanks and the engine
runs on one fuel at a time, for example, compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied petroleum gas
(LPG), or hydrogen.
The most common commercially available FFV in the world market is the ethanol flexible-fuel
vehicle, with 22.6 million automobiles, motorcycles and light duty trucks sold worldwide by 2010,
and concentrated in four markets, Brazil (12.5 million), the United States (9.3 million), Canada
(more than 600,000), and Europe, led by Sweden (216,975). The Brazilian flex fuel fleet
includes 515,726 flexible-fuel motorcycles sold since 2009. In addition to flex-fuel vehicles
running with ethanol, in Europe and the US, mainly in California, there have been successful
test programs with methanol flex-fuel vehicles, known as M85 flex-fuel vehicles. There have
been also successful tests using P-series fuels with E85 flex fuel vehicles, but as of June 2008,
this fuel is not yet available to the general public. These successful tests with P-series fuels
were conducted on Ford Taurus and Dodge Caravan flexible-fuel vehicles.
Though technology exists to allow ethanol FFVs to run on any mixture of gasoline and ethanol,
from pure gasoline up to 100% ethanol (E100), North American and European flex-fuel vehicles
are optimized to run on a maximum blend of 15% gasoline with 85% anhydrous ethanol (called
E85 fuel). This limit in the ethanol content is set to reduce ethanol emissions at low
temperatures and to avoid cold starting problems during cold weather, at temperatures lower
than 11 C The alcohol content is reduced during the winter in regions where temperatures fall
below 0 C to a winter blend of E70 in the U.S. or to E75 in Sweden from November until
March. Brazilian flex fuel vehicles are optimized to run on any mix of E20-E25 gasoline and up
to 100% hydrous ethanol fuel (E100). The Brazilian flex vehicles are built-in with a small
gasoline reservoir for cold starting the engine when temperatures drop below 15 C. An
improved flex motor generation was launched in 2009 which eliminated the need for the
secondary gas tank.
Terminology
As ethanol FFVs became commercially available during the late 1990s, the common use of the
term "flexible-fuel vehicle" became synonymous with ethanol FFVs. In the United States flexfuel vehicles are also known as "E85 vehicles". In Brazil, the FFVs are popularly known as "total
flex" or simply "flex" cars. In Europe, FFVs are also known as "flexifuel" vehicles. Automakers,
particularly in Brazil and the European market, use badging in their FFV models with the some
variant of the word "flex", such as Volvo Flexifuel, or Volkswagen Total Flex, or Chevrolet

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FlexPower or Renault Hi-Flex, and Ford sells its Focus model in Europe as Flexifuel and as Flex
in Brazil. In the US, only since 2008 FFV models feature a yellow gas cap with the label
"E85/Gasoline" written on the top of the cap to differentiate E85s from gasoline only models.
Flexible-fuel vehicles (FFVs) are based on dual-fuel systems that supply both fuels into the
combustion chamber at the same time in various calibrated proportions. The most common
fuels used by FFVs today are unleaded gasoline and ethanol fuel. Ethanol FFVs can run on
pure gasoline, pure ethanol (E100) or any combination of both. Methanol has also been blended
with gasoline in flex-fuel vehicles known as M85 FFVs, but their use has been limited mainly to
demonstration projects and small government fleets, particularly in California.
Bi-fuel vehicles. The term flexible-fuel vehicles is sometimes used to include other alternative
fuel vehicles that can run with compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG;
also known as autogas), or hydrogen. However, all these vehicles actually are bi-fuel and not
flexible-fuel vehicles, because they have engines that store the other fuel in a separate tank,
and the engine runs on one fuel at a time. Bi-fuel vehicles have the capability to switch back and
forth from gasoline to the other fuel, manually or automatically. The most common available fuel
in the market for bi-fuel cars is natural gas (CNG), and by 2008 there were 9,6 million natural
gas vehicles, led by Pakistan (2.0 million), Argentina (1.7 million), and Brazil (1.6 million).
Natural gas vehicles are a popular choice as taxicabs in the main cities of Argentina and Brazil.
Normally, standard gasoline vehicles are retrofitted in specialized shops, which involve installing
the gas cylinder in the trunk and the CNG injection system and electronics.
Multifuel vehicles are capable of operating with more than two fuels. In 2004 GM do Brasil
introduced the Chevrolet Astra 2.0 with a "MultiPower" engine built on flex fuel technology
developed by Bosch of Brazil, and capable of using CNG, ethanol and gasoline (E20-E25 blend)
as fuel. This automobile was aimed at the taxicab market and the switch among fuels is done
manually. In 2006 Fiat introduced the Fiat Siena Tetra fuel, a four-fuel car developed under
Magneti Marelli of Fiat Brazil. This automobile can run as a flex-fuel on 100% ethanol (E100); or
on E-20 to E25, Brazil's normal ethanol gasoline blend; on pure gasoline (though no longer
available in Brazil since 1993, it is still used in neighboring countries); or just on natural gas. The
Siena Tetrafuel was engineered to switch from any gasoline-ethanol blend to CNG
automatically, depending on the power required by road conditions. Another existing option is to
retrofit an ethanol flexible-fuel vehicle to add a natural gas tank and the corresponding injection
system. This option is popular among taxicab owners in So Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,
allowing users to choose among three fuels (E25, E100 and CNG) according to current market
prices at the pump. Vehicles with this adaptation are known in Brazil as "tri-fuel" cars.
Flex-fuel hybrid electric and flex-fuel plug-in hybrid are two types of hybrid vehicles built with a
combustion engine capable of running on gasoline, E-85, or E-100 to help drive the wheels in
conjunction with the electric engine or to recharge the battery pack that powers the electric
engine. In 2007 Ford produced 20 demonstration Escape Hybrid E85s for real-world testing in
fleets in the U.S. Also as a demonstration project, Ford delivered in 2008 the first flexible-fuel
plug-in hybrid SUV to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), a Ford Escape Plug-in Hybrid,
which runs on gasoline or E85. GM announced that the Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid, launched
in the U.S. in late 2010, would be the first commercially available flex-fuel plug-in capable of
adapting the propulsion to several world markets such as the U.S., Brazil or Sweden, as the
combustion engine can be adapted to run on E85, E100 or diesel respectively. The Volt is
expected to be flex-fuel-capable in 2013. Lotus Engineering unveiled the Lotus CityCar at the

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2010 Paris Motor Show. The CityCar is a plug-in hybrid concept car designed for flex-fuel
operation on ethanol, or methanol as well as regular gasoline.
History
The first commercial flexible fuel vehicle was the Ford Model T, produced from 1908 through
1927. It was fitted with a carburetor with adjustable jetting, allowing use of gasoline or ethanol,
or a combination of both. Other car manufactures also provided engines for ethanol fuel use.
Henry Ford continued to advocate for ethanol as fuel even during the prohibition. However,
cheaper oil caused gasoline to prevail, until the 1973 oil crisis resulted in gasoline shortages
and awareness on the dangers of oil dependence. This crisis opened a new opportunity for
ethanol and other alternative fuels, such as methanol, gaseous fuels such as CNG and LPG,
and also hydrogen.[9][14] Ethanol, methanol and natural gas CNG were the three alternative fuels
that received more attention for research and development, and government support.
1.4 SOLAR POWERED VEHICLES
A solar vehicle is an electric vehicle powered by solar panels on the vehicle. Photovoltaic (PV)
cells convert the sun's energy directly into electric energy. Solar power may be used to provide
all or part of a vehicle's propulsion, or may be used to provide power for communcations, or
controls, or other auxiliary functions. Solar vehicles are not sold as practical day-to-day
transportation devices at present, but are primarily demonstration vehicles and engineering
exercises, often sponsored by government agencies. However, indirectly solar-charged vehicles
are widespread and solar boats are available commercially.
Limitations
There are limitations to using photovoltaic (PV) cells for vehicles:
Power density: Maximum power from a solar array is limited by the size of the vehicle
and area that can be exposed to sunlight. While energy can be accumulated in batteries
to lower peak demand on the array and provide operation in sunless conditions, the
battery adds weight and cost to the vehicle. The power limit can be mitigated by use of
conventional electric cars supplied by solar (or other) power, recharging from the
electrical grid.
Cost: While sunlight is free, the creation of PV cells to capture that sunlight is expensive.
Costs for solar panels are steadily declining (22% cost reduction per doubling of
production volume).
Design considerations: Even though sunlight has no lifespan, PV cells do. The lifetime of
a solar module is approximately 30 years. Standard photovoltaics often come with a
warranty of 90 % (from nominal power) after 10 years and 80 % after 25 years. Mobile
applications are unlikely to require lifetimes as long as building integrated PV and solar
parks. Current PV panels are mostly designed for stationary installations. However, to be
successful in mobile applications, PV panels need to be designed to withstand
vibrations. Also, solar panels, especially those incorporating glass have significant
weight. To be useful, the energy harvested by a panel must exceed the added fuel
consumption caused by the added weight.
Solar cars depend on PV cells to convert sunlight into electricity to drive electric motors. Unlike
solar thermal energy which converts solar energy to heat, PV cells directly convert sunlight into
electricity.
Solar cars combine technology typically used in the aerospace, bicycle, alternative energy and
automotive industries. The design of a solar car is severely limited by the amount of energy

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input into the car. Solar cars are built for solar car races. Even the best solar cells can only
collect limited power and energy over the area of a car's surface. This limits solar cars to a
single seat, with no cargo capacity, and ultralight composite bodies to save weight. Solar cars
lack the safety and convenience features of conventional vehicles.
Solar cars are often fitted with gauges to warn the driver of possible problems. Cars without
gauges almost always feature wireless telemetry, which allows the driver's team to monitor the
car's energy consumption, solar energy capture and other parameters and free the driver to
concentrate on driving.
As an alternative, a battery-powered electric vehicle may use a solar array to recharge; the
array may be connected to the general electrical distribution grid.
Single-track vehicles
A solar bicycle or tricycle has the advantage of very low weight and can use the riders foot
power to supplement the power generated by the solar panel roof. In this way, a comparatively
simple and inexpensive vehicle can be driven without the use of any fossil fuels.
Solar photovoltaics helped power India's first Quadricycle developed since 1996 in Gujarat
state's SURAT city.
The first solar "cars" were actually tricycles or quadricycles built with bicycle technology. These
were called solarmobiles at the first solar race, the Tour de Sol in Switzerland in 1985 with 72
participants, half using exclusively solar power and half solar-human-powered hybrids. A few
true solar bicycles were built, either with a large solar roof, a small rear panel, or a trailer with a
solar panel. Later more practical solar bicycles were built with foldable panels to be set up only
during parking. Even later the panels were left at home, feeding into the electric mains, and the
bicycles charged from the mains. Today highly developed electric bicycles are available and
these use so little power that it costs little to buy the equivalent amount of solar electricity. The
"solar" has evolved from actual hardware to an indirect accounting system. The same system
also works for electric motorcycles, which were also first developed for the Tour de Sol. This is
rapidly becoming an era of solar production. With today's high performance solar cells, a front
and rear PV panel on this solar bike can give sufficient assistance, where the range is not
limited by batteries.
Applications
One practical application for solar powered vehicles is possibly golf carts, some of which are
used relatively little but spend most of their time parked in the sun.
Auxiliary power
Photovoltaic modules are used commercially as auxiliary power units on passenger cars in
order to ventilate the car, reducing the temperature of the passenger compartment while it is
parked in the sun. Vehicles such as the 2010 Prius, Aptera 2, Audi A8, and Mazda 929 have
had solar sunroof options for ventilation purposes.
The area of photovoltaic modules required to power a car with conventional design is too large
to be carried onboard. A prototype car and trailer has been built Solar Taxi. According to the
website, it is capable of 100 km/day using 6m2 of standard crystalline silicon cells. Electricity is
stored using a nickel/salt battery. A stationary system such as a rooftop solar panel, however,
can be used to charge conventional electric vehicles.
It is also possible to use solar panels to extend the range of a hybrid or electric car, as
incorporated in the Fisker Karma, available as an option on the Chevy Volt, on the hood and
roof of "Destiny 2000" modifications of Pontiac Fieros, Italdesign Quaranta, Free Drive EV Solar
Bug, and numerous other electric vehicles, both concept and production. In May 2007 a

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partnership of Canadian companies led by Hymotion added PV cells to a Toyota Prius to extend
the range. SEV claims 20 miles per day from their combined 215W module mounted on the car
roof and an additional 3kWh battery.
On 9 June 2008, the German and French Presidents announced a plan to offer a cedit of 68g/km of CO2 emissions for cars fitted with technologies "not yet taken into consideration during
the standard measuring cycle of the emissions of a car". This has given rise to speculation that
photovoltaic panels might be widely adopted on autos in the near future.
It is also technically possible to use photovoltaic technology, (specifically thermophotovoltaic
(TPV) technology) to provide motive power for a car. Fuel is used to heat an emitter. The
infrared radiation generated is converted to electricity by a low band gap PV cell (e.g. GaSb). A
protoype TPV hybrid car was even built. The "Viking 29" was the Worlds first
thermophotovoltaic (TPV) powered automobile, designed and built by the Vehicle Research
Institute (VRI) at Western Washington University. Efficiency would need to be increased and
cost decreased to make TPV competitive with fuel cells or internal combustion engines.
1.5 MAGNETIC TRACK VEHICLES
Maglev (derived from magnetic levitation), is a system of transportation that suspends, guides
and propels vehicles, predominantly trains, using magnetic levitation from a very large number
of magnets for lift and propulsion. This method has the potential to be faster, quieter and
smoother than wheeled mass transit systems. The power needed for levitation is usually not a
particularly large percentage of the overall consumption; most of the power used is needed to
overcome air drag, as with any other high speed train.
The highest recorded speed of a Maglev train is 581 kilometres per hour, achieved in Japan in
2003, 6 kilometres per hour faster than the conventional TGV wheel-rail speed record.
The first commercial maglev people mover was simply called "MAGLEV" and officially opened in
1984 near Birmingham, England. It operated on an elevated 600-metre section of monorail track
between Birmingham International Airport and Birmingham International railway station, running
at speeds up to 42 km/h; the system was eventually closed in 1995 due to reliability problems.
Perhaps the most well known implementation of high-speed maglev technology currently
operating commercially is the Shanghai Maglev Train, an IOS (initial operating segment)
demonstration line of the German-built Transrapid train in Shanghai, China that transports
people 30 km to the airport in just 7 minutes 20 seconds, achieving a top speed of 431 km/h,
averaging 250 km/h.
Several favourable conditions existed when the link was built:
The British Rail Research vehicle was 3 tonnes and extension to the 8 tonne vehicle was
easy.
Electrical power was easily available.
The airport and rail buildings were suitable for terminal platforms.
Only one crossing over a public road was required and no steep gradients were
involved.
Land was owned by the railway or airport.
Local industries and councils were supportive.
Some government finance was provided and because of sharing work, the cost per
organization was not high.
Technology
The term "maglev" refers not only to the vehicles, but to the railway system as well, specifically
designed for magnetic levitation and propulsion. All operational implementations of maglev

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technology have had minimal overlap with wheeled train technology and have not been
compatible with conventional rail tracks. Because they cannot share existing infrastructure,
these maglev systems must be designed as complete transportation systems. The Applied
Levitation SPM Maglev system is inter-operable with steel rail tracks and would permit maglev
vehicles and conventional trains to operate at the same time on the same right of way. MAN in
Germany also designed a maglev system that worked with conventional rails, but it was never
fully developed.
There are two particularly notable types of maglev technology:
For electromagnetic suspension (EMS), electromagnets in the train attract it to a
magnetically conductive (usually steel) track.
Electrodynamic suspension (EDS) uses electromagnets on both track and train to push
the train away from the rail.
Another experimental technology, which was designed, proven mathematically, peer reviewed,
and patented, but is yet to be built, is the magnetodynamic suspension (MDS), which uses the
attractive magnetic force of a permanent magnet array near a steel track to lift the train and hold
it in place. Other technologies such as repulsive permanent magnets and superconducting
magnets have seen some research.
Electromagnetic suspension
In current electromagnetic suspension (EMS) systems, the train levitates above a steel rail while
electromagnets, attached to the train, are oriented toward the rail from below. The system is
typically arranged on a series of C-shaped arms, with the upper portion of the arm attached to
the vehicle, and the lower inside edge containing the magnets. The rail is situated between the
upper and lower edges.
Magnetic attraction varies inversely with the cube of distance, so minor changes in distance
between the magnets and the rail produce greatly varying forces. These changes in force are
dynamically unstable - if there is a slight divergence from the optimum position, the tendency
will be to exacerbate this, and complex systems of feedback control are required to maintain a
train at a constant distance from the track, (approximately 15 millimeters).
The major advantage to suspended maglev systems is that they work at all speeds, unlike
electrodynamic systems which only work at a minimum speed of about 30 km/h. This eliminates
the need for a separate low-speed suspension system, and can simplify the track layout as a
result. On the downside, the dynamic instability of the system demands high tolerances of the
track, which can offset, or eliminate this advantage. Laithwaite, highly skeptical of the concept,
was concerned that in order to make a track with the required tolerances, the gap between the
magnets and rail would have to be increased to the point where the magnets would be
unreasonably large. In practice, this problem was addressed through increased performance of
the feedback systems, which allow the system to run with close tolerances.
Electrodynamic suspension

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JR-Maglev EDS suspension is due to the magnetic fields induced either side of the vehicle by
the passage of the vehicles superconducting magnets.

EDS Maglev Propulsion via propulsion coils

In electrodynamic suspension (EDS), both the rail and the train exert a magnetic field, and the
train is levitated by the repulsive force between these magnetic fields. The magnetic field in the
train is produced by either superconducting magnets (as in JR-Maglev) or by an array of
permanent magnets (as in Inductrack). The repulsive force in the track is created by an induced
magnetic field in wires or other conducting strips in the track. A major advantage of the repulsive
maglev systems is that they are naturally stableminor narrowing in distance between the track
and the magnets creates strong forces to repel the magnets back to their original position, while
a slight increase in distance greatly reduces the force and again returns the vehicle to the right
separation. No feedback control is needed.
Repulsive systems have a major downside as well. At slow speeds, the current induced in these
coils and the resultant magnetic flux is not large enough to support the weight of the train. For
this reason the train must have wheels or some other form of landing gear to support the train
until it reaches a speed that can sustain levitation. Since a train may stop at any location, due to
equipment problems for instance, the entire track must be able to support both low-speed and
high-speed operation. Another downside is that the repulsive system naturally creates a field in
the track in front and to the rear of the lift magnets, which act against the magnets and create a
form of drag. This is generally only a concern at low speeds, at higher speeds the effect does
not have time to build to its full potential and other forms of drag dominate.
The drag force can be used to the electrodynamic system's advantage, however, as it creates a
varying force in the rails that can be used as a reactionary system to drive the train, without the
need for a separate reaction plate, as in most linear motor systems. Laithwaite led development
of such "traverse-flux" systems at his Imperial College laboratory. Alternatively, propulsion coils
on the guideway are used to exert a force on the magnets in the train and make the train move
forward. The propulsion coils that exert a force on the train are effectively a linear motor: an
alternating current flowing through the coils generates a continuously varying magnetic field that
moves forward along the track. The frequency of the alternating current is synchronized to
match the speed of the train. The offset between the field exerted by magnets on the train and
the applied field creates a force moving the train forward.
Pros and cons of different technologies
Each implementation of the magnetic levitation principle for train-type travel involves
advantages and disadvantages.
Technology
Pros
Cons
EMS
Magnetic fields inside and outside The separation between the vehicle
(Electromagnetic
the vehicle are less than EDS; and the guideway must be
suspension)
proven,
commercially
available constantly monitored and corrected
technology that can attain very high by computer systems to avoid
speeds (500 km/h); no wheels or collision due to the unstable nature

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secondary
needed.

propulsion

system of electromagnetic attraction; due to

the system's inherent instability and
the required constant corrections by
outside systems, vibration issues
may occur.
EDS
Onboard magnets and large margin Strong magnetic fields onboard the
(Electrodynamic
between rail and train enable highest train would make the train
suspension)
recorded train speeds (581 km/h) inaccessible to passengers with
and heavy load capacity; has pacemakers or magnetic data
demonstrated (December 2005) storage media such as hard drives
successful operations using high- and credit cards, necessitating the
temperature superconductors in its use
of
magnetic
shielding;
onboard magnets, cooled with limitations on guideway inductivity
inexpensive liquid nitrogen.
limit the maximum speed of the
vehicle; vehicle must be wheeled for
travel at low speeds.
Inductrack
Failsafe
Suspensionno
power Requires either wheels or track
System(Permanent required
to
activate
magnets; segments that move for when the
Magnet EDS)
Magnetic field is localized below the vehicle is stopped. New technology
car; can generate enough force at that is still under development (as of
low speeds (around 5 km/h) to 2008) and as yet has no
levitate maglev train; in case of commercial version or full scale
power failure cars slow down on their system prototype.
own safely; Halbach arrays of
permanent magnets may prove more
cost-effective than electromagnets.
Neither Inductrack nor the Superconducting EDS are able to levitate vehicles at a standstill,
although Inductrack provides levitation down to a much lower speed; wheels are required for
these systems. EMS systems are wheel-less.
The German Transrapid, Japanese HSST (Linimo), and Korean Rotem EMS maglevs levitate at
a standstill, with electricity extracted from guideway using power rails for the latter two, and
wirelessly for Transrapid. If guideway power is lost on the move, the Transrapid is still able to
generate levitation down to 10 km/h speed, using the power from onboard batteries. This is not
the case with the HSST and Rotem systems.
Propulsion
An EDS system can provide both levitation and propulsion using an onboard linear motor. EMS
systems can only levitate the train using the magnets onboard, not propel it forward. As such,
vehicles need some other technology for propulsion. A linear motor (propulsion coils) mounted
in the track is one solution. Over long distances where the cost of propulsion coils could be
prohibitive, a propeller or jet engine could be used.
Stability
Earnshaw's theorem shows that any combination of static magnets cannot be in a stable
equilibrium. However, the various levitation systems achieve stable levitation by violating the
assumptions of Earnshaw's theorem. Earnshaw's theorem assumes that the magnets are static
and unchanging in field strength and that the relative permeability is constant and greater than
unity everywhere. EMS systems rely on active electronic stabilization. Such systems constantly

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measure the bearing distance and adjust the electromagnet current accordingly. All EDS
systems are moving systems (no EDS system can levitate the train unless it is in motion).
Because Maglev vehicles essentially fly, stabilisation of pitch, roll and yaw is required by
magnetic technology. In addition to rotation, surge (forward and backward motions), sway
(sideways motion) or heave (up and down motions) can be problematic with some technologies.
If superconducting magnets are used on a train above a track made out of a permanent magnet,
then the train would be locked in to its lateral position on the track. It can move linearly along the
track, but not off the track. This is due to the Meissner Effect.
Guidance
Some systems use Null Current systems (also sometimes called Null Flux systems); these use
a coil which is wound so that it enters two opposing, alternating fields, so that the average flux in
the loop is zero. When the vehicle is in the straight ahead position, no current flows, but if it
moves off-line this creates a changing flux that generates a field that pushes it back into line.
However, some systems use coils that try to remain as much as possible in the null flux point
between repulsive magnets, as this reduces eddy current losses.
Evacuated tubes
Some systems (notably the swissmetro system) propose the use of vactrainsmaglev train
technology used in evacuated (airless) tubes, which removes air drag. This has the potential to
increase speed and efficiency greatly, as most of the energy for conventional Maglev trains is
lost in air drag.
One potential risk for passengers of trains operating in evacuated tubes is that they could be
exposed to the risk of cabin depressurization unless tunnel safety monitoring systems can
repressurize the tube in the event of a train malfunction or accident. The Rand Corporation has
designed a vacuum tube train that could, in theory, cross the Atlantic or the USA in 20 minutes.
Power and energy usage
Energy for maglev trains is used to accelerate the train, and may be regained when the train
slows down ("regenerative braking"). It is also used to make the train levitate and to stabilise the
movement of the train. The main part of the energy is needed to force the train through the air
("air drag"). Also some energy is used for air conditioning, heating, lighting and other
miscellaneous systems.The maglev trains are powered on electromagnetism.
At very low speeds the percentage of power (energy per time) used for levitation can be
significant. Also for very short distances the energy used for acceleration might be considerable.
But the power used to overcome air drag increases with the cube of the velocity, and hence
dominates at high speed (note: the energy needed per mile increases by the square of the
velocity and the time decreases linearly.).
Advantages and disadvantages Compared to conventional trains
Major comparative differences exist between the two technologies. First of all, maglevs are not
trains, they are non-contact electronic transport systems, not mechanical friction-reliant rail
systems. Their differences lie in maintenance requirements and the reliability of electronic
versus mechanically based systems, all-weather operations, backward-compatibility, rolling
resistance, weight, noise, design constraints, and control systems.
Maintenance Requirements Of Electronic Versus Mechanical Systems: Maglev
trains currently in operation have demonstrated the need for nearly insignificant
guideway maintenance. Their electronic vehicle maintenance is minimal and more
closely aligned with aircraft maintenance schedules based on hours of operation, rather

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than on speed or distance traveled. Traditional rail is subject to the wear and tear of
miles of friction on mechanical systems and increases exponentially with speed, unlike
maglev systems. This basic difference is the huge cost difference between the two
modes and also directly affects system reliability, availability and sustainability.
All-Weather Operations: Maglev trains currently in operation are not stopped, slowed,
or have their schedules affected by snow, ice, severe cold, rain or high winds. This
cannot be said for traditional friction-based rail systems. Also, maglev vehicles
accelerate and decelerate faster than mechanical systems regardless of the slickness of
the guideway or the slope of the grade because they are non-contact systems.
Backwards Compatibility: Maglev trains currently in operation are not compatible with
conventional track, and therefore require all new infrastructure for their entire route, but
this is not a negative if high levels of reliability and low operational costs are the goal. By
contrast conventional high speed trains such as the TGV are able to run at reduced
speeds on existing rail infrastructure, thus reducing expenditure where new
infrastructure would be particularly expensive (such as the final approaches to city
terminals), or on extensions where traffic does not justify new infrastructure. However,
this "shared track approach" ignores mechanical rail's high maintenance requirements,
costs and disruptions to travel from periodic maintenance on these existing lines. The
use of a completely separate maglev infrastructure more than pays for itself with
dramatically higher levels of all-weather operational reliability and almost insignificant
maintenance costs. So, maglev advocates would argue against rail backward
compatibility and its concomitant high maintenance needs and costs.
Efficiency: Due to the lack of physical contact between the track and the vehicle,
maglev trains experience no rolling resistance, leaving only air resistance and
electromagnetic drag, potentially improving power efficiency.
Weight: The weight of the electromagnets in many EMS and EDS designs seems like a
major design issue to the uninitiated. A strong magnetic field is required to levitate a
maglev vehicle. For the Transrapid, this is about 56 watts per ton. Another path for
levitation is the use of superconductor magnets to reduce the energy consumption of the
electromagnets, and the cost of maintaining the field. However, a 50-ton Transrapid
maglev vehicle can lift an additional 20 tons, for a total of 70 tones, which surprisingly
does not consume an exorbitant amount of energy. Most energy use for the TRI is for
propulsion and overcoming the friction of air resistance. At speeds over 100 mph, which
is the point of a high-speed maglev, maglevs use less energy than traditional fast trains.
Noise: Because the major source of noise of a maglev train comes from displaced air,
maglev trains produce less noise than a conventional train at equivalent speeds.
However, the psychoacoustic profile of the maglev may reduce this benefit: a study
concluded that maglev noise should be rated like road traffic while conventional trains
have a 5-10 dB "bonus" as they are found less annoying at the same loudness level.
Design Comparisons: Braking and overhead wire wear have caused problems for the
Fastech 360 railed Shinkansen. Maglev would eliminate these issues. Magnet reliability
at higher temperatures is a countervailing comparative disadvantage (see suspension
types), but new alloys and manufacturing techniques have resulted in magnets that
maintain their levitational force at higher temperatures.

As with many technologies, advances in linear motor design have addressed the limitations
noted in early maglev systems. As linear motors must fit within or straddle their track over the
full length of the train, track design for some EDS and EMS maglev systems is challenging for
anything other than point-to-point services. Curves must be gentle, while switches are very long

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and need care to avoid breaks in current. An SPM maglev system, in which the vehicle is
permanently levitated over the tracks, can instantaneously switch tracks using electronic
controls, with no moving parts in the track. A prototype SPM maglev train has also navigated
curves with radius equal to the length of the train itself, which indciates that a full-scale train
should be able to navigate curves with the same or narrower radius as a conventional train.
Control Systems: EMS Maglev needs very fast-responding control systems to maintain
a stable height above the track; multiple redundancy is built into these systems in the
event of component failure and the Transrapid system has still levitated and operated
with fully 1/2 of its magnet control systems shut down. Other maglev systems not using
EMS active control are still in the experimental stage, except for the Central Japan
Railway's MLX-01 superconducting EDS repulsive maglev system that levitates 11
centimeters above its guideway.
Compared to aircraft
For many systems, it is possible to define a lift-to-drag ratio. For maglev systems these ratios
can exceed that of aircraft (for example Inductrack can approach 200:1 at high speed, far higher
than any aircraft). This can make maglev more efficient per kilometre. However, at high cruising
speeds, aerodynamic drag is much larger than lift-induced drag. Jet transport aircraft take
advantage of low air density at high altitudes to significantly reduce drag during cruise, hence
despite their lift-to-drag ratio disadvantage, they can travel more efficiently at high speeds than
maglev trains that operate at sea level (this has been proposed to be fixed by the vactrain
concept). Aircraft are also more flexible and can service more destinations with provision of
suitable airport facilities.
Unlike airplanes, maglev trains are powered by electricity and thus need not carry fuel. Aircraft
fuel is a significant danger during takeoff and landing accidents. Also, electric trains emit little
direct carbon dioxide emissions, especially when powered by nuclear or renewable sources, but
more than aircraft if powered by fossil fuels.
1.6 FUEL CELL VEHICLES
A Fuel cell vehicle or Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV) is a type of hydrogen vehicle which
uses a fuel cell to produce electricity, powering its on-board electric motor. Fuel cells in vehicles
create electricity to power an electric motor using hydrogen and oxygen from the air.
Efficiency
Fuel cell efficiency is limited because "the energy required to isolate hydrogen from natural
compounds (water, natural gas, biomass), package the light gas by compression or liquefaction,
transfer the energy carrier to the user, plus the energy lost when it is converted to useful
electricity with fuel cells, leaves around 25% for practical use... For comparison, the 'well-towheel' efficiency is at least three times greater for electric cars than for hydrogen fuel cell
vehicles."
The efficiency of the vehicle's engine does not take into account the efficiency at which
hydrogen is produced, stored, and transported today. Fuel cell vehicles running on compressed
hydrogen may have a power-plant-to-wheel efficiency of 22% if the hydrogen is stored as highpressure gas, and 17% if it is stored as liquid hydrogen. In addition to the production losses,
some of the electricity used for hydrogen production, comes from thermal power, which only has
an efficiency of 33% to 48% resulting in emission of carbon dioxide.
Codes and standards

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Fuel cell vehicle is a classification in FC Hydrogen codes and standards and fuel cell codes and
standards other main standards are Stationary fuel cell applications and Portable fuel cell
applications.
Hybrid fuel combustion vehicle
To promote the demand side for hydrogen (to promote the creation of more hydrogen filling
stations), hybrid fuel combustion vehicles like the Mazda RX-8 Hydrogen RE on Hynor and the
Premacy Hydrogen RE Hybrid running on hydrogen or another fuel have been introduced.
Description and purpose of fuel cells in vehicles
All fuel cells are made up of three parts: an electrolyte, an anode and a cathode. Fuel cells
function similarly to a conventional battery, but instead of recharging, they are refilled with
hydrogen. Different types of fuel cells include Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells,
Direct Methanol Fuel Cells, Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells, Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells, Solid
Oxide Fuel Cells, and Regenerative Fuel Cells.
As of 2009, motor vehicles used most of the petroleum used in the U.S. and produced over 60%
of the carbon monoxide emissions and about 20% of greenhouse gas emissions in the United
States. In contrast, a vehicle fueled with pure hydrogen emits few pollutants, producing mainly
water and heat, although the production of the hydrogen would create pollutants unless the
hydrogen used in the fuel cell were produced using only renewable energy.
Hybrid Vehicle engines

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