Antenna (radio)

An antenna (or aerial) is a transducer designed to transmit or receive electromagnetic waves.

In other words, antennas convert electromagnetic waves into electrical currents and vice versa.
Antennas are used in systems such as radio and television broadcasting, point-to-point radio
communication, wireless LAN, radar, and space exploration. Antennas are most commonly
employed in air or outer space, but can also be operated under water or even through soil and
rock at certain frequencies for short distances.

Physically, an antenna is simply an arrangement of one or more conductors, usually called

elements in this context. In transmission, an alternating current is created in the elements by
applying a voltage at the antenna terminals, causing the elements to radiate an
electromagnetic field. In reception, the inverse occurs: an electromagnetic field from another
source induces an alternating current in the elements and a corresponding voltage at the
antenna's terminals. Some receiving antennas (such as parabolic and horn types) incorporate
shaped reflective surfaces to collect EM waves from free space and direct or focus them onto
the actual conductive elements.

Antennas were used in 1888 by Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894) to prove the existence of
electromagnetic waves predicted by the theory of James Clerk Maxwell.

Antennas have practical uses for the transmission and reception of radio frequency signals such
as radio and television. In air, those signals travel very quickly and with a very low transmission
loss. The signals are absorbed when moving through more conductive materials, such as
concrete walls or rock. When encountering an interface, the waves are partially reflected and
partially transmitted through.

Here we are using radio frequency antenna.

Radio frequency antenna types

 Isotropic radiator : It is a purely theoretical antenna that radiates equally in all

directions. It is considered to be a point in space with no dimensions and no mass. This
antenna cannot physically exist, but is useful as a theoretical model for comparison with
all other antennas. Most antennas' gains are measured with reference to an isotropic
radiator, and are rated in dBi (decibels with respect to an isotropic radiator).
 Dipole antenna: It is simply two wires pointed in opposite directions arranged either
horizontally or vertically, with one end of each wire connected to the radio and the
other end hanging free in space. Since this is the simplest practical antenna, it is also
used as a reference model for other antennas; gain with respect to a dipole is labeled as
dBd. Generally, the dipole is considered to be Omni-directional in the plane
perpendicular to the axis of the antenna. The Yagi-Uda antenna is a directional variation
 of the dipole with parasitic elements added which are functionality similar to adding a
reflector and lenses (directors) to focus a filament light bulb.
 Horn is used where high gain is needed, the wavelength is short (microwave) and space
is not an issue. Horns can be narrow band or wide band, depending on their shape. A
horn can be built for any frequency, but horns for lower frequencies are typically
impractical. Horns are also frequently used as reference antennas.
 The Patch antenna consists mainly of a square conductor mounted over a ground plane.
Another example of a planar antenna is the Tapered Slot Antenna (TSA), as the Vivaldi-
antenna.

Different parameters of an antenna are:

Resonant frequency

Impedance

Gain

Aperture

Radiation pattern

Polarization

Efficiency

Bandwidth

Ceramic capacitor
In electronics ceramic capacitor is a capacitor constructed of alternating layers of metal and
ceramic, with the ceramic material acting as the dielectric. The temperature coefficient
depends on whether the dielectric is Class 1 or Class 2. A ceramic capacitor (especially the class
2) often has high dissipation factor, high frequency coefficient of dissipation.
 A ceramic capacitor is a two-terminal, non-polar device. The classical ceramic capacitor is the
"disc capacitor". This device pre-dates the transistor and was used extensively in vacuum-tube
equipment (e.g., radio receivers) from about 1930 through the 1950s, and in discrete transistor
equipment from the 1950s through the 1980s. As of 2007, ceramic disc capacitors are in
widespread use in electronic equipment, providing high capacity & small size at low price
compared to other low value capacitor types.

Ceramic capacitors come in various shapes and styles, including:

 disc, resin coated, with through-hole leads

 multilayer rectangular block, surface mount
 bare leadless disc, sits in a slot in the PCB and is soldered in place, used for UHF
applications
 tube shape, not popular now

HF use

Ceramic capacitors are suitable for moderately high-frequency work (into the high hundreds of
megahertz range, or, with great care, into the low gigahertz range), as modern ceramic caps are
fairly non-inductive compared to the other major classes of capacitors (film and electrolytic).
Capacitor technologies with higher self-resonant frequencies tend to be expensive and esoteric
(typically, mica or glass capacitors).

Sample self-resonant frequencies for one set of C0G and one set of X7R ceramic capacitors are:

10
pF

15
50
C0G (Class 1)
M
Hz

X7R (Class 2)
Crystal oscillator
A crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to
create an electrical signal with a very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz
wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters
and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits designed around
them were called "crystal oscillators".

Operation
A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern
extending in all three spatial dimensions.

Almost any object made of an elastic material could be used like a crystal, with appropriate transducers, since all objects
have natural resonant frequencies of vibration. For example, steel is very elastic and has a high speed of sound. It was
often used in mechanical filters before quartz. The resonant frequency depends on size, shape, elasticity, and the speed of
sound in the material. High-frequency crystals are typically cut in the shape of a simple, rectangular plate. Low-frequency
crystals, such as those used in digital watches, are typically cut in the shape of a tuning fork. For applications not needing
very precise timing, a low-cost ceramic resonator is often used in place of a quartz crystal.

When a crystal of quartz is properly cut and mounted, it can be made to distort in an electric field by applying a voltage to
an electrode near or on the crystal. This property is known as piezoelectricity. When the field is removed, the quartz will
generate an electric field as it returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result is that a quartz
crystal behaves like a circuit composed of an inductor, capacitor and resistor, with a precise resonant frequency. (See RLC
circuit.)

Quartz has the further advantage that its elastic constants and its size change in such a way that the frequency
dependence on temperature can be very low. The specific characteristics will depend on the mode of vibration and the
angle at which the quartz is cut (relative to its crystallographic axes). [5] Therefore, the resonant frequency of the plate,
which depends on its size, will not change much, either. This means that a quartz clock, filter or oscillator will remain
accurate. For critical applications the quartz oscillator is mounted in a temperature-controlled container, called a crystal
oven, and can also be mounted on shock absorbers to prevent perturbation by external mechanical vibrations.

Quartz timing crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to tens of megahertz. More than two
billion (2×109) crystals are manufactured annually. Most are small devices for consumer devices such as wristwatches,
clocks, radios, computers, and cellphones. Quartz crystals are also found inside test and measurement equipment, such as
counters, signal generators, and oscilloscopes.

Electrical model
Electronic symbol for a piezoelectric crystal resonator.

A major reason for the wide use of crystal oscillators is their high Q factor. A typical Q value for a quartz oscillator ranges
from 104 to 106, compared to perhaps 102 for an LC oscillator. The maximum Q for a high stability quartz oscillator can be
estimated as Q = 1.6 × 107/f, where f is the resonance frequency in megahertz.

One of the most important traits of quartz crystal oscillators is that they can exhibit very low phase noise.

Buzzer
The buzzer introduced herein
operate on an innovative principle utilizing natural
oscillation of piezoelectric ceramics. Today, buzzers are used in many ways such as home
appliances, OA equipment, audio equipment telephones,
etc. And they are applied widely, for example, in alarms,
speakers, telephone ringers, receivers, transmitters,
beep sounds, etc.

Operation :Basically, the sound source of a piezoelectric sound

component is a piezoelectric diaphragm. A piezoelectric
diaphragm consists of a piezoelectric ceramic plate

Oscillating System
which has electrodes on both sides and a metal plate
(brass or stainless steel, etc.).
A piezoelectric ceramic plate is attached to a metal plate
with adhesives.

Applying D.C. voltage between electrodes of a

piezoelectric diaphragm causes mechanical distortion
due to the piezoelectric effect. For a misshaped
piezoelectric element, the distortion of the piezoelectric
element expands in a radial direction. And the
piezoelectric diaphragm bends toward the direction
shown in Fig.2 (a). The metal plate bonded to the
piezoelectric element does not expand. Conversely,
when the piezoelectric element shrinks, the piezoelectric
diaphragm bends in the direction shown in Fig.2 (b).
Thus, when AC voltage is applied across electrodes, the
bending shown in Fig.2 (a) and Fig.2 (b) is repeated as
shown in Fig.2 (c), producing sound waves in the air.

Electrolytic capacitor
An electrolytic capacitor is a type of capacitor that uses an ionic conducting liquid as one of its plates with a larger
capacitance per unit volume than other types. They are valuable in relatively high-current and low-frequency electrical
circuits. This is especially the case in power-supply filters, where they store charge needed to moderate output voltage and
current fluctuations in rectifier output. They are also widely used as coupling capacitors in circuits where AC should be
conducted but DC should not.

Electrolytic capacitors can have a very high capacitance, allowing filters made with them to have very low corner
frequencies.

Construction
Aluminum electrolytic capacitors are constructed from two conducting aluminum foils, one of which is coated with an insulating
oxide layer, and a paper spacer soaked in electrolyte. The foil insulated by the oxide layer is the anode while the liquid electrolyte
and the second foil act as cathode. This stack is then rolled up, fitted with pin connectors and placed in a cylindrical aluminium casing.
The two most popular geometries are axial leads coming from the center of each circular face of the cylinder, or two radial leads or
lugs on one of the circular faces.

Modern capacitors have a safety valve, typically either a scored section of the can, or a specially designed end seal to vent the hot
gas/liquid, but ruptures can still be dramatic. An electrolytic can withstand a reverse bias for a short period, but will conduct
significant current and not act as a very good capacitor. Most will survive with no reverse DC bias or with only AC voltage, but circuits
should be designed so that there is not a constant reverse bias for any significant amount of time. A constant forward bias is
preferable, and will increase the life of the capacitor.

Resistor
Polarized Variable
Capacitor
Capacitor Capacitor
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its terminals that is proportional to the
electric current through it in accordance with Ohm's law:

V = IR

Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most electronic equipment.
Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity
alloy, such as nickel/chrome).

The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, maximum working voltage and the power rating.
Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the
value below which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied
voltage. Critical resistance depends upon the materials constituting the resistor as well as its physical dimensions; it's
determined by design.

Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated circuits. Size, and position of leads (or
terminals) are relevant to equipment designers; resistors must be physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating
their power.

Series and parallel resistors

Main article: Series and parallel circuits

Resistors in a parallel configuration each have the same potential difference (voltage). To find their total equivalent
resistance (Req):
The parallel property can be represented in equations by two vertical lines "||" (as in geometry) to simplify equations. For
two resistors,

The current through resistors in series stays the same, but the voltage across each resistor can be different. The sum of the
potential differences (voltage) is equal to the total voltage. To find their total resistance:

A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series can be broken up into smaller parts that are either one or the
other. For instance,
8-bit Microcontroller with 8K Bytes In-System Programmable Flash AT89S52

Description
The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K
bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using
Atmel’s high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-
standard 80C51 instruction set and pinout. The on-chip Flash allows the program
memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer.
By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on
a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful microcontroller which provides a
highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications.
The AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes
of RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a
six-vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator,
and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation
down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes.
The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and
interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM contents
but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset.

Memory Organization
MCS-51 devices have a separate address space for Program
and Data Memory. Up to 64K bytes each of external
Program and Data Memory can be addressed.
Program Memory
If the EA pin is connected to GND, all program fetches are
directed to external memory.
On the AT89S52, if EA is connected to VCC, program
fetches to addresses 0000H through 1FFFH are directed to
internal memory and fetches to addresses 2000H through
FFFFH are to external memory.
Data Memory
The AT89S52 implements 256 bytes of on-chip RAM. The
upper 128 bytes occupy a parallel address space to the
Special Function Registers. This means that the upper 128
bytes have the same addresses as the SFR space but are
physically separate from SFR space.
When an instruction accesses an internal location above
address 7FH, the address mode used in the instruction
specifies whether the CPU accesses the upper 128 bytes
of RAM or the SFR space. Instructions which use direct
addressing access of the SFR space.
For example, the following direct addressing instruction
accesses the SFR at location 0A0H (which is P2).
MOV 0A0H, #data
Instructions that use indirect addressing access the upper
128 bytes of RAM. For example, the following indirect
addressing instruction, where R0 contains 0A0H, accesses
the data byte at address 0A0H, rather than P2 (whose
address is 0A0H).
MOV @R0, #data