Journal of Materials Processing Technology 94 (1999) 36 40

Influence of microstructure on the mechanical behaviour of welded

316 L SS joints
E. Zumelzu a,*, J. Sepulveda a, M. Ibarra b
a

Instituto de Materiales y Procesos Termomecanicos, Uni6ersidad Austral de Chile, Casilla 567, Valdi6ia, Chile
b
Indura S.A., Casilla 2542, Santiago, Chile
Received 16 January 1998

Abstract
This work was carried out in order to study the mechanical behaviour of welded joints of AISI 316 L considering the effect of
the amount of ferrite, phase changes and chemical heterogeneity. The base materials were standard coupons of 316 L SS weldment
prepared using welding procedures SMAW and GMAW, electrodes type E 308 L-16 and E 316 L-16, and type ER 316 L
continuous weld metal, respectively. This study can be a practical guide in the selection of materials in order to determine the most
adequate welding procedures and to anticipate the functionality of welded joints. 1999 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Microstructure; Mechanical behaviour; Welded joints

1. Introduction
Austenitic stainless steels have been used widely,
given their excellent high-temperature and corrosion
resistance properties [1,2]. In this sense, stainless steel
welds exhibit a series of phenomena that can influence
the behaviour of welded joints. Thus, for example, the
following situations have been commonly observed during the weld cycle: (a) segregation during solidification;
(b) distribution of elements during phase changes; and
(c) precipitation of secondary phase particles [3 6].
On the other hand, the use of fusion welding for
manufacturing can cause localised variations in the
composition of materials, which can alter the stability
of the passivation layer and its corrosion performance
[7,8]. In addition, from the metallurgical and microstructural point of view, the formation of delta
ferrite is an important parameter to take into account,
which must be controlled due to its influence on the
mechanical behaviour of weldings [9,10].
Austenitic stainless steel weldments often present hot
microflawing and cracking, especially when under extreme mechanical demands, at a high tensile stress, or
in cryogenic uses [11]. To limit the extension of mi* Corresponding author. Fax: +56-63-221033.

croflawing in weldment, it is necessary to control the

chemical composition of the weld metal and the welding procedure employed in order to determine the
amount of ferrite in the deposit. The necessary ferrite
level to eliminate flawings is dependent on the composition of the deposit; however, the presence of ferrite can
be prejudicial because of its susceptibility to attack in a
corrosive medium [12].
The relative chemical composition and morphology
of ferrite, as well as the welding process employed, are
important aspects that influence its presence in different
quantities in the matrix. Thus, for example, a high
thermal contribution during the welding process, high
temperatures in weld passes, and high contraction levels
of weldments can result in flawing despite having adequate amounts of ferrite in the deposit [5].
Ferrite is a phase that it is out of balance in the weld
deposit, resulting in the addition of a magnetic phase
and decreasing the linear coefficient of thermal expansion. Also, it is a well known fact that it limits the risk
of hot cracking in austenitic stainless steels and increases the tensile stress [6].
Therefore, the aim of the present work is to study the
effect of the amount of ferrite and phase changes on the
mechanical properties of AISI 316 L (316 L SS) stainless steel welds, using AWS E 308 L-16 and AWS E 316

0924-0136/99/$ - see front matter 1999 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.
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E. Zumelzu et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 94 (1999) 3640

37

Table 1
Chemical composition of 316 L SS and weld metals
Materials

SS 316 L
AWS E 308 L-16
AWS E 316 L-16
AWS ER 316 L

Chemical composition wt.%

C

Mn

Cr

Ni

Mo

Si

Cu

Nb

0.028
0.026
0.028
0.025

1.611
0.548
0.60
1.80

16.543
18.619
19.10
18.90

11.091
9.819
12.80
11.20

2.043
0.061
2.35
2.10

0.654
0.843
0.82
0.70

0.08
0.06
0.05
0.05

0.021
0.020
0.030
0.030

0.007
0.003
0.002
0.02

0.005
0.012

L-16 as electrodes for the electric arc process and type

AWS ER 316 L continuous filler metal for MIG
weldings.
In this regard, fusion welding involves fundamental
technological aspects that should be considered in the
design and manufacturing stages of stainless steel products in an attempt to predict their service behaviour. In
consequence, this study can be a practical guide in the
selection of materials in order to determine the most
adequate welding procedures and to anticipate the
functionality of welded joints.

Finally, statistical evaluations of the chemical composition of the base steel and weld metal (Table 1) in
joints were made. Thus, the concept of chemical heterogeneity was introduced, to evaluate its influence on the
behaviour of the weldings under study. That is to say,
the relative changes of the Cr, Mn, Ni and Mo
containing base metal were compared with respect to
the weld metal as a percentage variation. Such relative
variation is a consequence of the systems heterogeneity, when considering the average of the participating
chemical components, obtaining in this way an index
for this parameter.
3. Experimental results and discussion

2. Material and methods

AISI 316 L stainless steel was selected as working
material for this study. The characteristics of this steel
and the chemical composition of the weld metals used
are indicated in Table 1.
Coupons were butt welded leaving a 4-mm gap
3001006 mm in size. 24 standard coupons of 316
L SS weldment were prepared using manual arc
(SMAW) and MIG (GMAW) welding procedures, electrodes type E 308 L-16 and E 316 L-16, and type ER
316 L continuous weld metal, respectively. Both the
high (HTC) and low thermal contributions (LTC) were
controlled and automated by means of a computer so
as to ensure satisfactory and optimal-quality welded
joints and the chemical heterogeneity of the materials;
the latter aspects being evaluated through END trials.
Proof-stress coupons were tested in a Universal
UED-40 device and prepared according to the ANSI/
AWS B4.0-85 standard used for cross-section welded,
flat test pieces [13,14]. The hardness test was made
cross-sectional to the welding bead, and several points
were measured on the ends and centre of coupons.
The experimental assessment of ferrite on weldments
was accomplished by means of the MP3 Ferriscope, a
magnetic instrument based on the principle of permeability. Five measurements, on the welding surface
along the longitudinal axis of the deposit, were
recorded for every coupon. Furthermore, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) techniques were used in order
to characterise the morphology of the weldings.

For weld deposits, it was verified that the ferrite

measured experimentally always proved to be lower
than that determined theoretically by the Schaeffler
Delong diagram, due to it being an imbalanced phase,
varying in its composition at different points on the
welded joint. Despite these variations, the amounts of
ferrite found in each case are, as reported in the literature [6,15], in a range in which they should not lead to
hot microflawing in the coupons.

Fig. 1. Evaluation of weld metals and welding processes with regard

to the thermal contribution and the ferrite percentage in 316 L SS
welded joints.

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E. Zumelzu et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 94 (1999) 3640

Fig. 2. Evaluation of weld metals and welding processes with regard

to the tensile strength and the ferrite percentage in 316 L SS welded
joints.

Fig. 1 indicates the quantities of ferrite obtained

according to the variations in thermal contribution for
the two welding processes with the different weld
metals used. Both E 316 L-16 and ER 316 L weld
metals have a significantly higher percentage of ferrite
content than the type E 308 L weld metal, with any
thermal contribution applied to the weldment. Furthermore, type E 316 L-16 weld metal using the SMAW
procedure shows a greater ferrite variation at a higher
thermal contribution, quite a different situation to that
observed with the other materials; a factor that, however, did not influence the tensile strength, as seen in
Fig. 2.
On the other hand, it was possible to determine that
base steel had a tensile strength of 650 MPa and this,
when compared to experimental results, was not
achieved by any other weldment. Only type E 316 L-16
weld metal, using the SMAW procedure with a high
thermal contribution and a ferrite content ranging from
5 to 7%, could approximate this figure; it must be
pointed out that tensile strength was influenced strongly
by the filler metal, the welding process and the amount
of ferrite.
If the designer is interested in having a good surface
hardness in the welded joint, as shown by the results in
Fig. 3, it is highly recommended to use weld metals
with a high thermal contribution; type E 316 L-16
obtained outstanding results in combination with the
SMAW procedure and the same ferrite range as that
used in the tensile strength tests.
As the data in Fig. 4 shows, if the concept of
chemical heterogeneity is incorporated, a decrease in
heterogeneity causes a greater tensile strength and an
increase in the percentage of ferrite content in the
weldments. In this sense, types E 316 L-16 and ER 316

Fig. 3. Evaluation of weld metals and welding processes with regard

the to hardness and the ferrite percentage in 316 L SS welded joints.

L weld metals are those showing the best mechanical

performance in fusion welding.
The distribution coefficient in weldments is a factor
viewed as the balance of individual elements between
the solid and liquid states, and this can vary significantly depending on the element and the primary solidification phase on cooling at the joints. Thus, for
example, chromium and molybdenum are rejected from
the solid, leading to the formation of primary austenite,
and in welded metals they solidify as ferrite; however,
exactly the opposite occurs with nickel.
Joints welded with electrode type E 308 L-16, using
the SMAW procedure and a low thermal contribution,
are normally characterised by a cellular solidification
mode, Fig. 5, a microstructure that switches to a acicular one upon applying electrode type E 316 L-16, Fig.
6, due to a higher cooling rate and for being closer to

Fig. 4. Chemical heterogeneity found in welded joints of 316 L SS

base metal/weld metal versus average ferrite percentage.

E. Zumelzu et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 94 (1999) 3640

Fig. 5. Morphology of cellular primary austenite solidification mode

on welding bead. Ferrite between cells. LTC, 2.2% ferrite (SEM, X
180).

the surface of the joint. The morphology of delta ferrite

obtained in the welded joint is illustrated clearly in Fig.
7.
Upon changing to the GMAW procedure and type
ER 316 L continuous weld metal, a microstructure
influenced by the segregation of its elements was obtained, Fig. 8, which equally allowed transformations
of the austenitic phase. Fig. 9 characterises the solidification of delta ferrite, determined by the chemical
composition and heterogeneity of the weld metal.

39

Fig. 7. Area close to the HAZ on the top of the welding bead; the
formation of austenitic dendritic crystals and primary ferrite during
subsequent solid-state transformation. LTC, 6.7% ferrite (SEM, X
366).

1. The influence of the thermal contribution on the

appearance of ferrite showed discrepancies depending
on the weld metal and the welding process employed.
Greater amounts of ferrite in 316 L SS welded joints
were found when a greater thermal contribution was
provided, and a significant 50% variation was obtained
when using type E 316 L-16 weld metal and the SMAW
process.
2. A direct correlation was observed between the
thermal contribution and the tensile strength. However,

the effect of ferrite on the strength was also determined

by the chemical composition of the weld metal and
variations of the welding speed, which affected the
solidification mode and promoted the formation of
primary austenite, influencing the mechanical performance of the weldment.
The tensile strength of welded joints was quite uniform in all coupons and did not represent a problem,
unless the fusion procedure defects on the welding bead
were not detected by quality control. This study showed
that an increase in chemical heterogeneity was related
to a decrease in ferrite percentage in the welding bead.
3. The best mechanical results for weldments composed of 316 L SS base metal were obtained with type
E 316 L-16 weld metal, under the conditions of the low
thermal contribution of15 KJ/cm and 5% of ferrite in
the welded joint.
4. It was evident through SEM analyses that the
ultimate weld microstructure in joints is determined by
the solidification mode and the subsequent solid-state
transformation. Fusion welding generates variations in
composition that alter both the metallurgical and mechanical stability of the welded joint, which compels the

Fig. 6. Details of delta ferrite formation distributed in austenitic

matrix on welding bead. HTC, 3.3% ferrite (SEM, X 3740).

Fig. 8. Microstructure of the welded joint, ferrite in austenitic matrix.

HTC, 9% ferrite (SEM, X 2070).

4. Conclusions

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E. Zumelzu et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 94 (1999) 3640

Fig. 9. Microstructural morphology of the welded joint. Segregation

on solidification with re-formation of austenite as a result of Ni
presence at the joint. LTC, 8.3% ferrite (SEM, X 957).

designer to control the type of weld metal used and the

energy of the welding arc in order to obtain the desired
properties under service conditions.
The combination of mechanical trials and microstructural characterisation (SEM) are adequate tools
to evaluate and predict the behaviour of welded joints
under service conditions.

Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by the D&R Unit of Universidad Austral
de Chile to this project (PMM/OEA-UACH C.I. 96/9).

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