Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Motivation and
Job Satisfaction
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of the topic, you should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
X" INTRODUCTION
If I ask you why you choose to work, you will probably show me a strange face
or give me a blunt reaction. That is not surprising. Most people work because
they do not have a choice! Most people work because they have bills to pay and
to put food on table to survive. Some people are fortunate enough to love what
they do (at work!), and most people work only to get the pay cheque by the end
of the month.
But what motivates people to work other than a pay cheque? Can it be more than
just monetary? How about a sense of satisfaction at work? Most importantly so,
how do organisations motivate their people to increase their commitment to the
organisation? All these questions are more prevalent in the modern workplace
especially when workers are now better aware of their rights and are paying
more attention to work-life balance.
Motivation is a major issue in organisations. I-O psychologists have conducted a
lot of research on issues of workers motivation, job satisfaction, organisational
commitment or loyalty and job involvement. As a result of these studies,
numerous motivational theories have been proposed. In general terms,
motivational theories are categorised into:
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(a)"
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ACTIVITY 6.1
Like most people, do you work because you have to or because you
want to? If given a choice, how would you make your working life more
enjoyable?
6.1
Content theories of motivation are concerned with the importance of work, the
challenges, growth opportunities and responsibilities work provides for
employees (Schultz & Schultz, 2010). This theory emphasises the specific needs
necessary in the job that motivate and direct human behaviour. These theories
include:
(a)"
6.1.1
The need for achievement is what drives a successful executive. The area of
achievement motivation has been subject to intense research by David
McClelland and his colleague in the 1950s (Atkinson & Feather, 1966). According
to this theory, workers who have high needs for achievement tend to get great
satisfaction from accomplishing certain goals at work and they are usually
motivated to excel in whatever task they undertake (Schultz & Schultz, 2010).
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They enjoy a work environment where they can assume responsibility for
solving problems;
(b)" They take calculated risks and set moderate and achievable goals; and
(c)"
Numerous research findings have positively linked high needs for achievement
and worker success (Schultz & Schultz, 2010). In a study conducted by Chen
(2008), a research programme involving 200 employees in Taiwan found three
main factors important in achievement motivation, namely, perseverance,
competition and level of control at task. Overall, achievement-motivation theory
provides a thorough explanation for the motivation of some workers and is
considered to be one of the most widely applied motivational theories in the
workplace (Schultz & Schultz, 2010).
Figure 6.1 depicts a motivational quote about achievement.
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6.1.2
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Physiological Needs
Refers to basic human needs including food, water, air, sleep and the drives
of sex and activity.
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(c)"
According to Maslow, these needs should be fulfilled from lowest to highest and
not everyone will be able to achieve all these needs in their lifetime. Maslows
theory, although popular, has received little scientific support. Its complexities
make it difficult to test scientifically. However, his concept of self-actualisation is
popular with managers and executives (Schultz & Schultz, 2010).
6.1.3
Motivator-Hygiene Theory
Also known as the two-factor theory of motivation, this theory deals with both
motivation and job satisfaction. This theory, proposed by Frederick Herzberg
(see Figure 6.3), has inspired organisations to re-look their existing jobs to
increase workers motivation (Herzberg, 1974).
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According to his theory, there are two types of needs: motivator needs and
hygiene needs. Motivator needs create job satisfaction whereas hygiene needs
create job dissatisfaction. Motivator needs which are high level needs motivate
workers to high performance. They are internal to the work itself and include
nature of the individual work tasks, level of responsibilities, achievement,
recognition, advancement opportunity, career development and growth.
Motivator needs are similar to Maslows concept of self-actualisation (Schultz &
Schultz, 2010).
Hygiene needs, or lower level needs, produce job dissatisfaction. Opposite to
motivator needs, hygiene needs are external to the work itself and include
features of the work environment such as organisational policy, supervision,
working condition, salary and benefits, interpersonal relationships, and so on. If
these needs are not satisfied, job dissatisfaction can occur. However, if these
needs are satisfied, it may not necessarily result in job satisfaction. Hygiene
needs are similar to Maslows concept of physiological, safety and belonging
needs (Schultz & Schultz, 2010).
As a result of this theory, Herzberg believed in order to motivate workers,
attention should be given to the internal job factors (as discussed before). If an
existing job position does not provide enough opportunity for workers to be
most effective, the existing job should be re-designed. This effort is called job
enrichment; where the job is expanded to provide more autonomy for the
workers to plan, perform and evaluate their work (Schultz & Schultz, 2010).
Herzberg suggests the following four ways to enrich a job in organisations:
(a)"
(b)" Create complete or natural work units whenever possible allow workers
to complete one unit of work rather than half of it.
(c)"
(d)" Encourage workers to take on new and more challenging projects and to
become good in a particular task.
These four suggestions not only aim to increase the workers autonomy but also
aim to expand their level or knowledge and skills needed to perform a particular
job (Schultz & Schultz, 2010).
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6.1.4
Greg R. Oldham
Richard Hackman
Richard Hackman and Greg R. Oldham (see Figure 6.4) developed the job
characteristics theory of motivation after the job enrichment movement which
resulted from Herzbergs research. According to Hackman and Oldham (1976),
there are certain job factors that influence worker satisfaction and attendance.
However, these job factors do not influence every worker the same way, for
example, in term of individual needs for growth. It is found that workers with
higher needs for growth are more affected by job characteristics (than workers
with lower needs for growth).
In addition, the presence of certain job characteristics causes workers to feel
positively when they perform well at their job. Under this condition, they are
motivated to continue to perform well (because it will lead to good feelings)
(Schultz & Schultz, 2010).
As a result of numerous studies, Hackman and Oldham identified five core job
characteristics (refer to Figure 6.5):
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Skill Variety
Refers to the extent to which workers use their skills on the job. The more
challenging the job, the more meaningful it will be.
Task Significance
Refers to the importance of the job or task to the workers and consumers
well-being (the work of an aircraft engineer affects the lives of more people
than a postal clerk).
(d)" Autonomy
Refers to the amount of authority, freedom or independence given to
workers in scheduling and organising their work.
(e)"
Feedback
Refers to the amount of information workers receive about their job
performance.
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In general, the focus of these five areas is to grant workers greater responsibility
(and accountability). This theory (similar to the others) postulates that by
providing greater responsibility to workers through job-redesign and jobenrichment, greater job satisfaction and motivation to workers can be provided
(Schultz & Schultz, 2010).
Table 6.1 summarises the content theories of motivation.
Table 6.1: Summary of Content Theories of Motivation
Content Theories of
Motivation
Achievement motivation
theory
Motivator-hygiene theory
Job-characteristic theory
Description
x"
x"
x"
x"
x"
x"
x"
x"
x"
x"
6.2
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6.2.1
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Valence-Instrumentality-Expectancy (VIE)
Theory
Victor H. Vroom (see Figure 6.6), creator of the VIE theory, suggests that people
make decisions based on the expectancy that certain rewards will follow if they
behave in a certain manner (Vroom, 1964). Vroom argues that workers will work
hard if they know their behaviour will lead to greater pay offs or benefits. They
will be motivated to work hard if they expect this behaviour to lead to positive
outcome such as a pay increase or promotion in the workplace (Schultz &
Schultz, 2010).
Workers must decide whether or not a certain behaviour will have a high
probability of leading to a particular outcome (for example, good
attendance) expectancy.
(b)" Workers must determine whether or not the outcome will lead to another
outcome (for example, will good attendance lead to better bonus pay-out)
instrumentality.
(c)"
Workers must decide whether or not those outcomes are sufficient enough
to motivate them to behave in certain ways valence.
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The VIE theory received a lot of research support as it agrees with common sense
and personal experience. It is likely we will work hard for the reward if we
assume the reward to be something valuable to us (Schultz & Schultz, 2010).
6.2.2
Equity Theory
Benevolent People
Satisfied when under-rewarded, and feel guilty when being equally
rewarded or over-rewarded.
Entitled People
Satisfied only when over-rewarded. They feel everything they receive is
due and they feel distressed when equally rewarded or under-rewarded.
Overall, not all research supports the equity theory (refer to Figure 6.7). There is
some research that links perceived inequity with heightened sense of resentment,
absenteeism, turnover and burnout (Schultz & Schultz, 2010).
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6.2.3
89
Edwin Locke, the founder of goal setting theory suggests that workers primary
motivation to work is defined by their desire to achieve certain goals (Locke,
1968). These goals represent what we intend to achieve in the near future
(Schultz & Schultz, 2010). For example, you may set a goal that in three years
time you wish to graduate with first class honours. Setting challenging and
specific goals can drive and motivate people to perform in more effective ways
(Schultz & Schultz, 2006).
Research has shown having goals leads to better work performance than not
having any and having specific goals are more motivating than having general
goals. It is also worth noting that goals that are too difficult to achieve may be
worse than not having goals at all (Schultz & Schultz, 2010).
An important aspect in goal setting theory is individual goal commitment
defined as the strength of a persons determination to achieve the goals (Schultz
& Schultz, 2010). There are three factors that influence goal commitment:
(a)"
Internal factors Refers to cognitive (thinking) factors such as selfadministered rewards and expectations of success.
In general, goal setting theory has received considerably positive support from
research and has been shown to be one of the most practical theories of
motivation (Locke & Latham, 2002).
Figure 6.8 depicts the SMART model commonly used in goal setting.
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Description
x"
x"
x"
Equity theory
x"
x"
x"
Goal-setting theory
x"
x"
x"
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6.3
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JOB SATISFACTION
Imagine job satisfaction as the quality of life at work. A lot of times people work
not because of satisfaction, but because they do not have a choice. Job satisfaction
refers to the positive or negative feelings a person has towards his or her job
(Schultz & Schultz, 2010). It is one of the most researched areas in the field of I-O
psychology.
There are numerous factors that can influence job satisfaction, ranging from an
assigned or personalised parking space to work overload and the sense of
fulfilment at work (Schultz & Schultz, 2006). In addition, personal factors such as
age, health, length of job experience, emotional stability, social status, leisure
activities and so on can also affect job satisfaction. A research by Wang (2007)
found that job satisfaction affects the well-being of individuals even after they
have retired from work. According to Wang (2007), those who reported high
levels of job satisfaction also reported greater health before and after retirement.
Interestingly, based on studies on twins, I-O psychologists suggested work
attitude and satisfaction may have an underlying genetic basis (Schultz &
Schultz, 2010). With that, it is generally accepted that life satisfaction is positively
correlated with job satisfaction. However, it is not clear which one causes the
other.
As a result of that, I-O psychologists began to undercover some interesting facts
about job satisfaction by researching personal characteristics and on-the-job
behaviour. In the following section, we will discuss each characteristic in detail.
6.3.1
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Age
In general, the level of job satisfaction increases with age. In other words,
the older you get, the more likely you are to feel satisfied with your job
(Schultz & Schultz, 2010). Most of the dissatisfaction is reported by younger
workers. A study conducted by Westerman and Yamamora (2007) found
that Baby Boomers (born between 1946 and 1964) reported a higher level of
job satisfaction than the Gen X and Gen Y (born in 1970 onwards).
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Many young people feel disappointed with their first job because they do
not have sufficient challenges and responsibilities (Schultz & Schultz, 2006).
However, how does age increase relate to increase in job satisfaction?
Researchers argue it can be due to three possibilities:
(i)"
(ii)" A sense of dissatisfaction may grow in older workers, but due to the
age factor they may be less likely to quit their jobs in search of more
satisfaction. As a result of that, less dissatisfaction is reported from
the surveys.
(iii)" Older workers may have greater opportunities to find fulfilment on
the job than younger workers. With years of experience under their
belt, it may usually bring a greater sense of accomplishment with
increased confidence, competence, self-esteem and responsibility.
Figure 6.10 outlines job satisfaction and the aged worker from a newspaper
excerpt.
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(b)" Gender
Research in this area yields inconsistent and contradictory results. In other
words, there is no clear indication that gender differences influence job
satisfaction (Schulz & Schultz, 2010). Detailed research yields, however,
that it may not be gender that influences job satisfaction. For example,
females are typically paid lesser than males. In order to gain better pay or
higher promotion, females may have to work harder than males to gain
comparable rewards (Schultz & Schultz, 2006). These factors can obviously
influence ones satisfaction at work.
Figure 6.11 shows the increasing number of female employees at work who
are potentially victims of glass ceiling.
(c)"
Race
In the American context, more Caucasian than non-Caucasian workers
report satisfaction at work. Although a large number of non-Caucasian
workers (African-American especially) are thriving middle class people,
there is also a large number of people who are unemployed, employed
irregularly or too discouraged to seek employment (Schultz & Schultz,
2010). Under such circumstances, the primary concern for workers is not
satisfaction but finding a job that pays decently.
In the Malaysian context, surveys conducted by Ranstad in 2012 found that
62 per cent of workers in Malaysia considered good salary as more
important than job satisfaction. Therefore, the link between race and job
satisfaction is poorly established and receives little or no empirical support.
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Job Experience
In the early years of your career, you may feel satisfied with your job as the
challenges and environment are new. As the years pass, satisfaction may
slowly wane off if no regular feedback about your work is provided. Such
situation may tend to escalate into job dissatisfaction.
Research, however, shows that job satisfaction appears to increase after a
number of years of experience (similar to age, as previously discussed).
(f)"
Use of Skills
Overall, workers are happy and satisfied if they have the opportunities to
exercise their skills (Schultz & Schulz, 2010). One of the most common
complaints of graduates is the lack of opportunity to use the skills they
acquired during college training.
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(i)"
Personality
Research shows people with higher emotional stability are more satisfied
with their work. In addition, happier people rate themselves higher in job
satisfaction, show higher level of work performance and earn higher pay
than those who are less happy (Boehm & Lyubomirsky, 2008).
Alienation and locus of control are two facets of personality found to be
linked to job satisfaction. In detail, workers who reported lower levels of
alienation and a higher locus of control are more likely to feel satisfied with
their work than those who are alienated at work. In addition, two
dimensions of Type A personality are linked to job satisfaction, namely:
(i)
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(ii)
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(j)"
Job control
Numerous researches support the notion that the greater control workers
have at work, the greater the job satisfaction (Schultz & Schultz, 2010). In a
study of 3,125 workers in Japan, those who reported low levels of control at
work have four times the risk of committing suicide. A similar study
conducted in England yielded similar results, where workers with higher
control of their work reported better health and higher levels of job
performance and job satisfaction (Bond & Bunce, 2003).
6.3.2
Productivity
Extensive research conducted in looking at job performance and job
satisfaction found a significant relationship between the two factors. In
other words, the higher the reported job satisfaction, the higher the job
performance (Judge, Thoresen, Bono & Patton, 2001).
Most research in this area was conducted in terms of the individual worker.
In contrast, I-O psychologists also conducted similar research in terms of
work teams or department and found similar results.
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Absenteeism
Absenteeism is costly for organisations. In monetary terms, absenteeism
cost businesses $30 billion a year in America. In a research conducted in
Australia, workers who believe organisations that were not fulfilling their
obligation in terms of providing job security, promotion opportunity and
pay increase are likely to take additional days off (Deery, Iverson & Walsh,
2006).
One way to reduce absenteeism is through programme of rewards and
recognition for good attendance records. This has been reported from a
study conducted by Markham, Scott and McKee (2002) in a garment factory.
(d)" Turnover
Similar to absenteeism, turnover is also costly to organisations. Every time
someone quits, money has to be spent on recruitment and re-training.
Research has found a strong relationship between organisational loyalty
and turnover. The more loyal the worker is towards the organisation, the
less likely he or she will quit.
Interestingly, age does not predict turnover (although younger people are
likely to quit) (Schultz & Schultz, 2010). When there is low unemployment,
turnover is higher. One possible explanation for this is that good economy
is usually accompanied by low unemployment. In good economical times,
people may perceive that it is easier to find jobs in the hope of increasing
their job satisfaction.
In contrast when the economy is poor, involuntary turnover due to
redundancy or downsizing will have a negative impact not only on the
layoff workers, but also on the workers remaining in the organisation (it
might damage their morale or cause fear due to low job security).
ACTIVITY 6.2
In groups, discuss why you think absenteeism happens.
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SELF-CHECK 6.1
1.
2.
Motivator-hygiene (two factor) theory deals with both motivation and job
satisfaction.
Hackman and Oldham identified five core job characteristics, namely skill
variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback.
Under these models, there are three theories, namely valenceinstrumentality-expectancy theory, equity theory and goal-setting theory.
Job satisfaction increases with age, and has no significant relationship with
gender.
On-the-job behaviour such as absenteeism and turnover are very costly to the
organisation.
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Equity theory
Motivator-hygiene theory
Pro-social behaviours
Two-factor theory
Job congruence
Valence-instrumentality-expectancy
theory
Job enrichment
Job satisfaction
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performance relationship: A qualitative and quantitative review.
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Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of foal
setting and task motivation: A 35-years odyssey. American Psychologist, 57,
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Mayer, D., Nishii, L., Schneider, B., & Goldstein H. (2007). The precursors and
products of justice climates: Group leader antecedents and employee
attitudinal consequences. Personnel Psychology, 60, 929963.
Mukhtar Usmani. (2010). Frederick Herzbergs biography. Retrieved from
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ONeil, B., & Mone, M. (1998). Investigating equity sensitivity as moderator of
relations between self-efficacy and workplace attitudes. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 83, 805816.
Peterson, D. (2014). Fifteen seconds of justice. Retrieved from
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Randstad. (2012). Malaysian employees say salary is more important than job
satisfaction: Randstad workmonitor. Retrieved from http://www.randstad.
com.my/about-randstad/the-world-of-work/malaysian-employees-saysalary-is-more-important-than-job-satisfaction
Schultz, D., & Schultz, S. E. (2006). Psychology and work today (9th ed.). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Schultz, D., & Schultz, S. E. (2010). Psychology and work today (10th ed.). Upper
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Sinicki,
A.
(2014).
What
is
equity
theory?
Retrieved
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from
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