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AbstractIn the M. S. thesis titled Solving the Odd Perfect Number Problem: Some Old and New Approaches and
completed in 2008 [2], the author conjectured that the inequality
q k < n holds for an odd perfect number N given in the Eulerian
form N = q k n2 . In this paper, the authors original approach is
re-set in a more rigorous framework, thereby revealing additional
information about the structure of an odd perfect number.
In particular, we give some sufficient conditions for Sorlis
Conjecture that k = ordq (N ) = 1 to be true.
Index TermsAbundancy Index, Perfect Number, OPN Conjecture, Sorlis Conjecture, Euclid-Euler Heuristics
I. I NTRODUCTION
Perfect numbers are positive integral solutions to the
number-theoretic equation (N ) = 2N , where = 1 is the
sum-of-divisors function. Euclid derived the general form for
the even case; Euler proved that every even perfect number
(EPN) is given in the Euclidean form M = 2p1 (2p 1).
(Numbers of the form 2m 1 are called Mersenne numbers,
and Mersenne primes Mp = 2p 1 give rise to EPNs.)
On the other hand, it is still an open question to determine
existence (or otherwise) for an odd perfect number (OPN).
Euler proved that every OPN is given in the Eulerian form
N = q k n2 where q k 1 (mod 4) and gcd(q, n) = 1.
(Analogously, we call q the Euler prime of the OPN N , and
the component q k will be called the Eulers factor of N .)
As of 2010, only 47 EPNs are known (13 of which were
found by the distributed computing project GIMPS [9]),
while no single example of an OPN has been found. (Pascal
Ochem and Michael Rao of CNRS, France are currently
orchestrating an effort to push the lower bound for an OPN
from the previously known 10300 to a significantly improved
101500 [http://www.lri.fr/ochem/opn/].) Pace Nielsen has
also obtained the lower bound: (N ) 9, for the number of
(N )
distinct prime factors of N ; and the upper bound: N < 24
([9], [10]).
In the Ph. D. dissertation [7] titled Algorithms in
the Study of Multiperfect and Odd Perfect Numbers and
completed in 2003, Ronald Sorli conjectured that the exponent
k = ordq (N ) on the Euler prime q for an odd perfect number
N given in the Eulerian form N = q k n2 is one (i.e. we can
drop k).
N = q k n2 =
qj j
j=1
(x)
x
q
q1
and the fact that q 1 (mod 4), we know that q 5 consequently, we have:
1 < I(q k ) <
5
= 1.25
4
2
I(q k )
q+1
q
p
8
2
2
<p
=
= I(n2 ) < I(n)
k
5
I(q )
I(q k )
q
Per WolframAlpha, 85 1.264911.
Remark II.1. When Conjecture II.1 was formulated in 2008,
the author was under the naive impression that the divisibility
constraint gcd(q, n) = 1 induced an ordering property
for
q
N
k
the Euler prime-power q and the component n = qk , in the
sense that the related inequality q k < n2 followed from the
result I(q k ) < I(n2 ). (Indeed, the author was able to derive
the [slightly] stronger result q k < (q k ) 23 n2 [2]).
The author also obtained the following results in the same
year (2008):
Lemma II.2. Let N be an OPN given in the Eulerian form
N = q k n2 , with q k 1 (mod 4) and gcd(q, n) = 1.
2
4q+2
and
Then we have the following bounds L(q) = 3qq(q1)
U (q) =
3q 2 +2q+1
q(q+1)
2
2(q 1)
q
< 2= <
< I(n2 ) < 2
q1
q
2
Also, observe from Lemma II.1 that:
s
r
5
8
2
2
I(q k ) < <
<p
=
k
4
5
I(q k )
I(q )
p
I(q k )
32
<
2 1.259921.
2(q 1)
2
2q
< I(n2 ) =
k
q
I(q )
q+1
2(q 1)
q
<
q1
q
we get:
Notice that:
q+1
q
2
and then use factor/sigma chains to loop until you get the
contradiction U 1 (u) 6= q.
Remark II.4. Note that, from Lemma II.2,
L(q) =
q2
3q 2 4q + 2
=3
q(q 1)
q(q 1)
U (q) =
3q 2 + 2q + 1
q1
=3
q(q + 1)
q(q + 1)
and
i=1
pi i (pi i )
then
= i,
M
for i = 1, 2.
(Observation, Dris 2011)
(E-5) There are infinitely
many EPNs.
(EPN Conjecture)
(E-6) The density of EPNs
is zero. (Kanold)
(E-7) 1 < I(Mp ) 87
for p 3.
Mp +1
2
7
4 I(Mp ) = I( 2 ) < 2
In particular, q
q
Mp +1
8
7
<
7
4 < I(
2 ) < 2.
qj j (qj j )
2
then
< j,
N
3
for all j, 1 j (N ).
(Theorem, Dris 2008 [2])
(O-5) There do not exist
any OPNs.
(OPN Conjecture)
(O-6) The density of OPNs
is zero. (Kanold)
(O-7) 1 < I(q k ) < 45
for q 5.
2
8
2
5 < I(q k ) = I(n ) < 2
In particular,
q
5
8
<
4
5 < I(n) < 2.
rl l has a component
l=1
q<
N = q k/2 n
6 k/2
(see Theorem 4.2.5) gives
us 2 q
< n. Together, these
We give here three sufficient conditions for Sorlis Conjecture to be true. (In that direction, recall that the components q k
and n2 of the OPN N = q k n2 are related via the inequality
q k < n2 , as mentioned in Remark II.1. Also, observe that
gcd(q, n) = 1 forces q 6= n and q k 6= n.)
Theorem IV.1. Let N be an OPN given in the Eulerian form
N = q k n2 , with q k 1 (mod 4) and gcd(q, n) = 1.
B. Initial Lemmas
Lemma V.1. 1 < 1 < 1.25
1.6 < 1 < 2 < 2.85 < 1 + 1 < 3
2 4 1000
< 3 + 4
Lemma V.3. 2.2493653 <
5
Proof: Use the Arithmetic Mean-Geometric Mean Inequality.
Lemma V.4. 3 6= 4
(q k )
(n)
=
. Thus,
n
qk
q k (q k ) = n(n). But gcd(q, n) = 1. Consequently, q k |(n)
and n|(q k ) by Euclids Lemma.
q Therefore, 3 , 4 N. This
contradicts Lemma V.2: 1 < 85 < 1 3 = 3 4 < 2.
Lemma V.5.
11
3
2 + 2
1
3
(q k )
1 + 3
qk
3
3
=
=
=
<
=
=
4
3
(n)
3 + 4
n
1
4
qk
I(q k ) q k 2 I(q k ) q k 2
3
1
= nn
=
=
4
n
I(n)
n
3
I(n)
qk
Furthermore, we have:
1
I(q k )
1
5 10
8 10
3
I(n)
<
=
<
<
<
=
<2
2
I(n)
3
16
25
1
I(q k )
2 k 2
1
3
(q k )
q
=
<
4
3
(n)
n
qk
Case 1: If 3 < 4 , then
< 2 < 1.4142136.
n
2 4 40
qk
Case 2: If 4 < 3 , then 1.0059467 <
< .
5
n
Finally, observe that 3 6= 1, because otherwise (q k ) = n
which contradicts (q k ) k + 1 2 (mod 4).
We consider two cases:
Case A: 3 < 1
qk
n
2
3 3
3
=
<
=
1 4
1 4
1
1
3
=
4
1
1
qk
n
qk
1
<
< 1 by Lemma V.1.
n
1
q
q
Furthermore, since 85 < 3 4 , then 3 < 1 < 85 < 4 .
qk
Case 1 of Theorem V.1 then gives
< 2.
n
Thus,
Consequently, we have:
k 2
q
I(n)
<2
<
n
I(q k )
We therefore get the explicit numerical bound:
qk
< 2 < 1.4142136
n
Case 2: 4 < 3 This means that:
k 2
3
I(q k )
q
1<
=
4
n
I(n)
Thus, we have:
k 2
I(n)
q
8 10
<
<
25
I(q k )
n
We now get the absolute bound:
s
8 10
qk
2 4 40
=
<
5
25
n
WolframAlpha gives the rational approximation:
2 4 40
1.005946744
5
These findings are summarized in the following theorem:
qk
n
Thus,
2
3
3 3
>
=
=
1 4
1 4
1
1
3
=
4
1
1
qk
n
1
qk
4
>
> by Lemma V.1.
n
1
5
4
qk
4
<
< 2.
bound 1000
<
.
Hence,
4
5
5
n
Under Case
2 of Theorem V.1, we obtain the improved
2 4 40
qk
lower bound
< .
5
n
All of the preceding calculations are summarized in the
following theorem:
Theorem V.2. Let N = q k n2 be an OPN with Eulers factor
q k . Then we have:
q
qk
8
Case A: If 3 < 1, then
5 < 4 and n < 1.
Case B: If 1 < 3 , then we have:
Case
B.1: If 3 < 4 , then 1 < 3 <
2 and
1000
qk
4
< 4 < 2. Also, 5 <
< 2.
5
n
4
qk
2 40
Case B.2: If 4 < 3 , then
< .
5
n
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
N = q k n2 =
qj j
j=1
where
qk1
(mod 4)