SPSS in Research Part 2 by Prof. Dr. Ananda Kumar

PROF. DR. ANANDA KUMAR PALANIAPPAN, Ph.
D
Faculty of Education, University of Malaya,
50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Tel: 603-79675046 (Off)
603-79675010 (Fax)
Email: anandak@um.edu.my,
ananda4989@yahoo.com
Outline
Brief
overview of SPSS Part I workshop

Instrument Validity and Reliability
Factor Analyses and Interpretation
Multiple Regression
Types of Research
Research
Qualitative
Quantitative
Historical
Experimental
Non-experimental
Ethnography
Grounded
Theory
Action
Research
Case Study
Descriptive
Phenomenology
Correlational
Causal
Comparative
3
Steps in Educational Research
1) Identify the problem area / the need for investigation

2) Write the statement of the problem in either
(a) Question
Form [e.g. Do children from kindergarten perform better at school
compared to children who have no kindergarten experience?]
(b) Hypothesis [e.g. There is no significant difference in academic
achievement between children with kindergarten experience and
children without kindergarten experience]
3) Decide which research design is most appropriate.
4) Review studies in the variables indicated in the research questions /
hypothesis (a) to form a conceptual framework for the research (b)
information required to design instruments

(Contd.)
5) define the variables involved in operational terms [e.g.

Academic achievement are grades assigned by teachers; or
Intelligence is the score obtained in Cattles Culture Fair
Intelligence Test]
6) Design instruments to measure the variables involved
7) Pilot test the instruments to ascertain (I) whether it is
suitable for the sample under study (2) Internal
Reliabilities (Item Analyses), Test Reliablities and Test
Validities.
8)Administer the instruments and score based on a
predetermined score sheet.
5

(Contd.)
9) Analyse the data using SPSS

10) Interpret the analyses and answer the research question
or reject/accept the hypotheses
11) State any assumptions or limitations in the study.
Pilot Study- Reliability and

Validation of Instrument
Ascertain Reliability:
(A) INTERNAL CONSISTENCY: (1) Item Analysis Index of discriminability (2) Split-half reliability (3)
Kuder-Richardson reliability (for dichotomous data) (4)
Cronbach Alpha (for ordinal data) SPSS- Data EditorStatistics-Scale-Reliability Analysis - Model (Alpha, Splithalf, Guttman, Parallel)
(B) STABILITY: (1)Test-retest reliability (2) Alternate
Forms reliability - use SPSS-Data Editor-StatisticsCompare Means-Paired-Samples t-test.
Ascertain Validity: (1) Content Validity - (use Expert
testimony) (2) Construct Validity SPSS Data Editor
Analyze Data Reduction (3) Criterion-related Validity/
Concurrent Validity- Use correlation (4) Predictive
Validity Use correlation
7
Validity
Content Validity - if the instrument tests all aspects that

should be tested (Ascertained using Expert testimony)
Construct Validity - if the test measures what it is
supposed to measure (Ascertained using Factor Analysis)
Criterion-related Validity/ concurrent validity - if the
test scores are closely related to another test which
measures similar construct (Ascertained using Pearson
Correlation)
Predictive Validity - if the instrument can predict
correctly a particular outcome (Ascertained using Pearson
Correlation)
METHODS OF ESTIMATING RELIABILITY

Type of
Reliability Measure
Procedure
Test-retest method
Measure of stability
Give the same twice to the same

group with any time interval
between tests from several
minutes to several years
Equivalent-Forms
Method
Measure of equivalence
Give two forms of the test to

the same group in close
succession
Test-retest with
equivalence forms
Measure of stability
and equivalence
Give two forms of the test to the

same group with increased time
interval between forms
Split-half method
Measure of internal
consistency
Give test once. Score two equivalent

halves test (e.g. odd items and even time)
Kuder-Richardson
method
Measure of internal
consistency
Give test once. Score total test and

apply Kuder-Richardson formula
9
DESIGNING INSTRUMENTS
Should
be suitable for the population under study

Should sample the universe of data pertaining to
the variable measured
Should be reliable
Should be reliably scored
10
Outline of SPSS Part 1

Types
of Data
How to enter data and examine data
How to explore data for normality
What analyses / statistics to use
How to run these analyses
How to COMPUTE and RECODE
11
Outline
How
to SELECT cases
How to interpret results and report using
APA format
How to create and edit tables and place in
other applications
12
Exercise 1
Start your SPSS for Windows now. You will get the
Data Editor Window. Study the menu bar and the
options available in each menu.
Then,
1. Open the data file call PRACTICE.
2. Run some simple frequency analyses on the
following variables:
a) sex
b) race
c) region
d) happy
3. From the results in your Output Navigator
describe the respondents in this study
13
Types of Measurement Scales and their

Statistical Analyses
Measurement
Scale
Nominal
Ordinal
Characteristics
Type of Data
Simple
Classification
in
Categories without any order
e.g Boy / Girl
Happy / Not Happy
Muslim / Buddhist / Hindu
Nonparametric
Has order or rank ordering

e.g. Strongly agree, agree,
undecided, disagree, strongly
Nonparametric
Statistical
Tests
Chi-square
Spearmans rho
Mann-Whitney
Wilcoxon
disagree
(LIKERT SCALE)
14

Measurement
Scale
Interval
Ratio
Characteristics
Do not have true 0 points. Has
order as well as equal distance
or interval between judgements
(Social Sciences) e.g. IQ score
of 95 is better than IQ 85 by 10
IQ points
Have true 0 points. Has high
order, equal distance between
judgements, a true zero value
(Physical Sciences) e.g.age, no.
of children, 9 ohm is 3 times 3
ohm and 6 ohm is 3 times 2
ohm But IQ 120 is more
comparable to IQ 100 than to IQ
144, although ratio
IQ 120 /100 = 144 /120 = 1.2
Type of Data
Parametric
Parametric
Statistical
Tests
COMPARISON:
t-tests
ANOVA
RELATIONSHIP:
Pearson r
COMPARISON:
t-tests
ANOVA
RELATIONSHIP:
Pearson r
15

Higher
order of measurement --> lower

order e.g. Interval ---> ordinal, nominal
But not ordinal, nominal ----> interval
16
Refer to the handout provided.

Exercise 1
Indicate in the spaces provided in
Table 1 the level of measurement of the
corresponding variables
17
Data Collection
Identify
the population to be studied

Choose sample randomly or by stratified
random sampling
The accuracy of the findings of a research
depends greatly on (1) how the sample is
chosen (2) whether the correct
instruments are used
(3) the reliability
and validity of the instruments
18
Entering & Editing Data

Open
SPSS by double clicking at the SPSS icon or

START - PROGRAM - SPSS
Define variable
Enter data
Adding labels for variables and value labels
Inserting new cases
Inserting new variables
Adding Missing Value codes
Examining Data by running FREQUENCY
19
Refer to the handout provided.

Exercise 2:
Enter data given in the handout
then answer the questions
20
Exploring Data Graphically

To
check normality graphically and decide on

its appropriate analyses
1) By displaying data
Histogram
Boxplot
Stem-and-leaf
2)
Plot
By Statistical Analyses
Descriptive
Statistics
M - Estimators
Kolmogorov-Sminov Test
Shapiro-Wilk
21
Histogram
Histogram
i
14
R
12
Frequenc y
T
10
t
d
r
r
8
M
5
6
M
0
S
4
9
2
4
9
3
4
0
10.0
12.5
15.0
17.5
20.0
0
CHILD REARING PRACTICES
6
Std. Dev = 3.89

Mean = 18.0
N= 41.00
22.5
25.0
S
K
M
M
22
Checking Normality Skewness

Skewness
measures the symmetry of the

sample distribution
Skewness = Statistic
Standard Error
If Skewness < -2 or > +2, reject normality
If
-2 < Skewness < 2 ---> Normal

distribution
23
Mean
Negatively Skewed
Median
If Ratio is negative
If Mean < Median
22
Boxplot
20
18
Negatively skewed
16
14
12
10
CRA
8
35
6
N=
13
22
MALE
FEMALE
SEX
24
Median
Positivity Skewed
Mean
If Ratio is positive
If Mean > Median
25
Checking Normality - Kurtosis

Kurtosis
measures the spread of the data

Kurtosis = Statistic
Standard Error
If Kurtosis < -2 or > +2 reject normality
If
-2 < Kurtosis < 2 ---> Normal

distribution
26
Kurtosis
Large
Positive value = tails of the

distribution are longer than those of a
normal distribution
Normal Graf
27
Kurtosis
Negative
value of Kurtosis indicates shorter

tails (Box like distribution)
Normal Graf
28
Values more than 3 box-lengths from 75th

percentile
Boxplot
Values more than 1.5

box-lengths from 75th
percentile (outliers)
30
Largest observed value that isnt

outlier
75th Percentile
20
Median
25th Percentile
Smallest observed value that isnt
outlier
10
Slightly positively
skewed
0
N=
41
CHILDREARINGPRACTI
29
Descriptive Statistics
Fig.1. Boxplot comparisons of the creativity scores of

Malaysian and American students
Elaboration > Fluency > Flexibility > Originality
30
Example: Boxplots for more than one variable / time series
31
Stem-and-Leaf Plot
CHILD
REARING
Frequency
1.00
2.00
8.00
11.00
3.00
8.00
4.00
3.00
1.00
Stem
Each
width:
leaf:
32
Testing Normality of data

collected
All data must be tested for normality before analyzing

them statistically.
Normality - if the data samples the population
representatively, it will be normally distributed - where the
mean and median are approximately equal
Type of analysis depends on the normality of data and the
level of measurement of data
- Normally distributed data - use Parametric Tests like ttests, ANOVA, Pearson r.
- Non-normally distributed data - use Non-parametric
Tests like Chi-square, Spearmans rho, Mann-Whitney,
Wilcoxon
33
To show Normality of Data

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34
Data Editor - Analyze - Descriptive Statistics - Explore
R
E
M
A
A
a
K
S
9
1
d
3
2
S
0
0
*
*
S
S
3
5
d
3
2
S
1
1
*
T
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Not sig. at p < .01.

Data is normally distributed
35
BoxPlot for Male and Female parents

22
20
18
16
14
12
10
Slightly Negatively
Skewed
CRA
Slightly Positively
Skewed
35
6
N=
SEX
13
22
MALE
FEMALE
36
Detrended Normal Q-Q Plot

of CRA
Normal Q-Q Plot of CRA
Detrended Normal Q-Q Plot of CRA
For SEX= MALE
For SEX= MALE

.4
1.5
1.0
.2
.5
-.0
Dev from Normal
Expected Normal
0.0
-.5
-1.0
-1.5
6
10
12
14
16
18
20
-.2
-.4
-.6
6
22
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
Observed Value
Observed Value
Detrended Normal Q-Q Plot of CRA
For SEX= FEMALE
For SEX= FEMALE

.2
2.0
1.5
.1
1.0
0.0
.5
-.1
Dev from Normal
Expected Normal
0.0
-.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
6
Observed Value
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
-.2
-.3
-.4
6
Observed Value
10
12
14
16
18
37
20
22
Exercise
Open the data file PRACTICE and check the normality of
the Age data of the respondents using
a) Histogram
b) Boxplot
c) Stem-and-leaf
d) E-estimators
e) Kolmogorov-Sminov & Shapiro Wilk
f) Normal Q-Q Plot
g) Detrended Normal Q-Q Plot
38
Testing equality of variance

Levernes Test (SPSS-DataEditor-Analize-Explore
-Plots(Leverne)
e
t
i
f
f
i
Mothers
Notg
C
Fathers
Sig.
R
P
If Leverne Statistic is highly significant (p < .001), the groups do not

have equal variance
If Leverne Statistic is not significant (p > .001), the groups have
equality of variance and t-tests analyses can be undertaken
39
Exercise
You wish to compare the ages of male and
female respondents using the t-test. To use
the t-test, you must make sure the variances in
the age of male and female respondents are
similar. How are you going to do it? Can
you use the t-test to compare the ages of male
and female respondents in the sample?
40
Compute Data
SPSS data editor - Transform - Compute -
Please try exercise 3.
41
RECODE
SPSS Data Editor - Transform - Recode - into different variable
/ into same variable
42
Recode (contd)
Please try exercise 4
43
Select cases
SPSS Data Editor - Data - Select cases-
44
Select cases
Please try Exercise 5

45
To Analyze & Report Demographic Data

ANALYSE DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS EXPLORE
46
Source: Palaniappan, A. K. (2009). Penyelidikan Pendidikan dan SPSS.

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Pearson.
47
Source:
American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication Manual
of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
48
Source:
49
Sample APA Reporting of Demographic

Information for 4 Subsamples
50
GOLDEN TABLE
51
Parametric Statistical Analyses

(Degree of Association/ Relationship)
SPSS Data Editor - Statistics - Correlate - Bivariate -
52

(Degree of Association/ Relationship)
Pearson Product-moment Correlation
H
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53
Presenting Correlation Table

Table 1
Pearson Product Moment Correlations between SAM,
WKOPAY and CRA Scores
CRA
SAM
WKOPAY
SAM
.20
1.00
.38*
WKOPAY
.29
.38*
1.00
N of Cases: 165
1- tailed Signif: * - .01
** - .001
54
Effect size for correlation
55
Reporting Product Moment Correlations
Table 1 presents the inter-correlations among Creative Child Rearing Practices

(CRA), Something About Myself (SAM) and What Kind of Person Are You?
(WKOPAY) scores. The correlation coefficient between CRA and SAM scores
is .20 which is not significant at p < .05 and with small effect size. This
indicates that parents who perceive themselves as creative based on their past
creative performances do not engage in creative child rearing practices.
The correlation coefficent between CRA and WKOPAY scores is also not
significant (r = .29, p > .05) with small effect size. This indicates that parents
who perceive themselves as creative based on their personality characteristics,
also do not engage in creative child rearing practices.
56
Report
There
is a significant correlation between SAM

and WKOPAY (r = .375, p < .05) with small
effect size. The correlation is positive, indicating
that an increase in SAM scores will result in an
increase in WKOPAY scores. Results also show
that 14% (r squared) of the variance of SAM
scores is explained by WKOPAY scores. About
86% of the variance in SAM is unaccounted for.
57
Sample of Correlation Report
Creed, P. A. & Lehmann, K. (2009). The relationship between core self-evaluations, employment commitment and
well-being in the unemployed. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 310315.
58
Sample of Correlation Table
Creed, P. A. & Lehmann, K. (2009). The relationship between core self-evaluations, employment commitment and
well-being in the unemployed. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 310315.
59
Means and SDs

for the Upper
Group
Means and SDs

for the Lower
Group
Source:
60
An example of a Scatter Plot (Palaniappan, 2007)

Graphical Representation of the Relationship Between Individualism
and Overall Expressivity Endorsement
Zimbabwe
Canada
Australia
0.51
Denmark
Overall Expressivity Endorsement
USA
New Zealand
Belgium
Mexico
0.48
India
Brazil
Netherlands
Hungary
Portugal
Poland
People's Republic of China

Japan
Turkey
South Korea
0.45
Malaysia
Lebanon
Germany
Israel
Croatia
Russia
Italy
Switzerland
Indonesia
0.42
Hong Kong
0.39
20
40
60
Individualism
80
100
61
t - tests
Paired
t-tests
Grouped t-tests
62
Assumptions of t-tests
1)
Data must be interval or ratio

2) Data must be obtained via random
sampling from population
3) Data must be normally distributed
63

( comparisons - t-tests )
SPSS Data Editor - Compare means - Independent Sample t test
64

( comparisons - t-tests )
t
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a
Presentation of t-test results

Table 2
T-tests comparisons of CRA scores by gender
Father
(n =13)
Mother
(n =12)
t-value p < .05
Effect
Size
Mean
15.06
14.36
5.38
.18
SD
4.05
3.63
NS
66
Effect Size
__
___
X 1 X 2
EffectSize
s1 s2
2
Example:
X1 = 15.08
X2 = 14.36
EffectSize
s1 = 4.05
s2 = 3.63
15.08 14.36 0.72
.1875
4.05 3.63
3.84
2
Result: Effect Size (Cohens d) = .1875 (Small effect size)

Note: Effect size ~ .5 (medium);
~ .8 (high)
67
Effect Size measured by Cohens d
Effect size (Cohens d), Eta Squared and Interpretation

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Effect Size (Cohens d)
Eta Squared, 2
Interpretation
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------0.2 <= d <0.5
.01 <= 2 < .06
Small
0.5 <= d < .8
.06 <= 2 < .14
Moderate
d <= .8
2 => .14
Large
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
68
Report
The mean CRA scores of fathers and mothers are
15.08 and 14.36 and the standard deviations are 4.05
and 3.63 respectively. These scores are subjected to
t-test analysis. The Levenes Test for equality of
variance indicates that the variances are similar. The
t-value obtained is .54 which is not significant at p <
.05. The effect is .18.
These results indicate that fathers and mothers do
not differ in their child rearing practices. The effect
size indicates that parents gender has only a small
effect on their creative child-rearing practices.
69
See handout for a clearer page (article page # 971)

Palaniappan, A K. (2000). Sex differences in Creative Perceptions of Malaysian
Students, Perceptual and Motor Skills, 91, 970 - 972.
70
Sample F test for 2 group - comparison
71
Paired t-test
Assumptions
1) Normality of the population difference of

scores this is ascertained by ensuring the
normality of each variable separately.
2) the other assumptions similar to group t test
a) Data must be interval or ratio
b) Data must be obtained via random
sampling from population
c) Data must be normally distributed
72
Exercise
1)
Is there a significant difference in the

highest year of education between the
respondents mother and father?
2) Is there a significant difference in the
highest year of education of respondent and
his/her spouse?
73

( comparisons - Oneway ANOVA )
SPSS Data Editor - Compare Means - One-way ANOVA -
74

( comparisons - Oneway ANOVA )
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Understanding the ANOVA table

Variations among the sample means
F = ------------------------------------------Variance within the samples
Between groups sum of squares / df 1
Between mean square
F = --------------------------------------------- = -------------------------Within groups sum of squares / df 2
Within mean square
Between mean square is computed by subtracting the mean of the observations (the overall
mean) from the mean of each group, squaring each difference, multiplying each square by the
number of cases in its group, and adding the results for each group together. The total is called
between-group sum of squares
Within-group sum of squares is computed by multiplying each group variance by the number
of cases in the group minus 1 and add the results for all groups.
Mean square column reports sum of squares divided by its respective degree of freedom.
F ratio is the ratio of the two mean squares.
76
Presentation of One-way ANOVA results

Table 3
One-way ANOVA for CRA scores by WKOPAY groups
Source
df
Sum of
Squares
Mean of
Squares
F
Ratio
Between Gps
31.145
15.573
.632
Within Grps
38
936.660
24.649
Total
40
967.805
F
Probability
.537
Multiple Range Test

Scheffe Procedure
No groups are significantly different at the .05 level
77
Interpreting F
If
the F value is significant, then the groups

are significantly different
To ascertain which groups are significantly
different, perform the Scheffe test.
F (Groups -1, No. of Participants Groups) = F Value
78
Report
Results
show that the three groups do not

differ significantly on CRA scores
(F (2, 38) = .632, p >.05). This represents an
effect size of 3.22% [{31 / (31 + 937)} x
100] which indicates that only 3.22% of the
variance of CRA scores was accounted for
by the 3 groups.
(do the same for SAM)
79
Effect Size
Is the degree to which the phenomena exists (Cohen, 1988)
Sum of Squares between Groups

Effect Size = ------------------------------------------- x 100
Total Sum of Squares
80
Bonferonni Correction for

Multiple Comparisons
For
multiple comparisons, Bonferonni

corrections must be made
If the overall level of significance is set at p
< .05 and the number of comparisons
involved is 10, then the level of significance
for each comparison must be .05/10 which
is .005.
81
Table for Post-hoc Comparisons
82
Power of a test
Power of a statistical test is the probability of observing a

treatment effect when it occurs.
It is the probability that it will correctly lead to the
rejection of a false null hypothesis (Green, 2000)
The statistical power is the ability of the test to detect an
effect if it actually exists (High, 2000)
The statistical power is denoted by 1 , where is the
Type II error, the probability of failing to reject the null
hypothesis when it is false.
Conventionally, a test with a power greater than .8 level
(or = < .2) is considered statistically powerful.
= is the probability of rejecting the true null hypothesis (Type I error)

= is the probability of not rejecting the false null hypothesis (Type II error)
83
There are four components that

influence the power of a test:
1) Sample size, or the number of units (e.g., people)

accessible to the study
2) Effect size, the difference between the means, divided
by the standard deviation (i.e. 'sensitivity')
3) Alpha level (significance level), or the probability that
the observed result is due to chance
4) Power, or the probability that you will observe a
treatment effect when it occurs
Usually, experimenters can only change the sample size
(population) of the study and/or the alpha value
84
Other ways to calculate Sample size and

Confidence Interval
85
To calculate Sample Size or

Power
http://www.stat.ubc.ca/~rollin/stats/ssize/n2.
html
http://www.downloadforge.com/Windows/
Mathematics/Download/GPower-319.html
86
Sample size and Effect size Table
87
Sample size and Effect size Table
88
ANOVA (1-way)
To
compare 3 groups or more on a

dependent variable.
Same assumptions as T-tests apply
Analyze Compare Means One-way
ANOVA
Do Exercise 10A, page 11.
89
Sample APA Table for One-way ANOVA
Source: Palaniappan, A. K. (2009). Penyelidikan Pendidikan dan SPSS.

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Pearson.
90
91
2 way, 3 - way ANOVA

Statistics - General Linear Model - GLM General Factorial
92

( Comparisonof more than 2 groups on interval data
- ANOVA - Simple Factorial) Table 2
a
O
V
e
M
M
m
e
a
q
u
S
d
u
a
F
i
f
a
g
C
M
(
C
R
1
1
6
3
2
8
2
S
1
1
2
1
2
2
3
s
3
7
4
1
4
0
0
w
1
4
6
1
6
4
8
2
(
C
8
7
5
3
5
2
1
S
3
7
3
1
3
7
0
g
S
6
3
7
1
7
3
5
g
s
4
6
9
1
9
0
7
w
3
S
g
5
9
2
1
2
8
4
g
M
0
2
8
7
1
7
1
R
3
7
1
To
1
4
4
a
.
C
R
93
b
.
A
2 way ANOVA, 3 - way ANOVA

Do
exercise on p.11
94
ANCOVA
Try
exercise on ANCOVA on page 10.
95
Presentation of Three-way ANOVA results

Table 4
Analysis of Variance using CRA scores as the dependent variable
Source of Variation
Main Effects
Sex
SAM grps
WK grp
Sum of
Squares
DF
Mean
Squares
Signif.
of F
14.916
.192
12.994
3.346
3
1
1
1
4.972
.192
12.994
3.346
.318
.012
.830
.214
.812
.913
.370
.648
2-way Interactions
32.025
Sex x SAM grps
8.403
Sex x WK grps
15.077
SAM grps x WK grps 13.149
3
1
1
1
10.675
8.403
15.077
13.149
.682
.537
.963
.840
.571
.470
.335
.367
3 way Interactions
2.472
Sex x SAM grps x WK
grps
Model
55.588
Residual
422.583
Total
478.171
2.472
.158
.894
.507
,821
7
27
34
7.941
15.651
14.064
96
Reporting ANOVA Simple

Factorial
As shown in Table 2, there is no significant differences between fathers
and mothers with respect to Child Rearing Practices ( F = .12, p > .05).
The results also show that WK groups (F = .83, p > .05) and SAM
Groups (F = .24, p > .05) also do not have significant effects on CRA
Scores. There are also no significant two-way interactions or three-way
Interactions between sex, WK groups and SAM groups.
The results indicate male parents do not differ from female parents
in their child rearing practices. Their creative perceptions also do
not affect their child rearing practices.
97
Sample Report of an Experimental Research
Dalton, J. J. & Glenwick, J. S. (2009). Effects of Expressive Writing

on Standardized Graduate Entrance Exam Performance and Physical
Health Functioning.The Journal of Psychology,143(3), 279292 98
Part II
Factor
Analysis
Reliability Item Analysis
Multiple Regression
One-way Repeated Measures ANOVA
Multivariate ANOVA (MANOVA)
Discriminant Analysis
Testing for Moderating Effects of a Variable
99
FACTOR ANAYSIS
Factor
analysis is undertaken to ascertain how

may factors are measured by the items you have
constructed. This is sometimes called Data
Reduction.
To do this, you need to enter the data item by item
in your datafile. Using Factor Analyses you will
be able to tell which items are strongly correlated
and lump together to form a factor. By looking at
these items you will be able to give a collective
name to represent these items or Factor.
SPSS will be able to tell how many factors there
are and how many items fall in each factor.
100
FACTOR ANALYSIS
Data
are entered item by item in the datafile

In Factor Analyses you will be able to tell which
items are strongly correlated and lump together to
form a factor. By looking at these items you will
be able to give a collective name to represent these
items or Factor.
SPSS will indicate how many factors there are and
how many items fall in that factor.
101
Assumptions for Factor Analysis
There must be at least [X variables (items) x 5]

respondents or more than 200 respondents to run Factor
Analysis reliably.
There must be linear relationship between the variables or
items
There should not be any outliers for each variable.
The correlations among the items must be more than .3 in
order to factorizable.
To be factorizable, the Bartletts test of sphericity must be
significant and large.
To be factorizable, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO)
measure of Sampling Adequacy must be more than .6
To ensure sampling adequacy, the anti-image correlation
matrix is used. Variables with sampling adequacy below .5
(see the diagonal of the anti-image correlation matrix)
should be excluded from Factor Analysis.
102
FACTOR ANAYSIS
Exercise
19
Using the datafile Datafile for Item
Analysis and Factor Analysis run a factor
analysis of all 20 items and determine how
many factors there are. By looking at the
items that fall within each factor, can you
give a common name to represent all the
items in each factor?
103
Factor Analysis Output

KMO and Bartl ett's Test
Kaiser-Mey er-Olkin Measure of Sampling
Adequacy .
Bart lett 's Test of
Sphericity
Approx. Chi-Square
df
Sig.
.466
7478.285
3741
.000
The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy is less

than .6 (should be more than .6, the higher the better) so the
variables are marginally factorizable.
The Bartletts Test of Sphericity is significant p < .05. This indicates

that the variables are related and therefore factorizable.
104
Factor Analysis - KMO

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy = is the
statistic that indicates the proportion of variance in your
variables that might be caused by underlying factors.
High values (close to 1.0) generally indicate that a
factor analysis may be useful with your data. If the value
is less than 0.6, the results of the factor analysis probably
won't be very useful
105
ITEM ANALYSIS
Item
analysis is undertaken to ascertain to what

extend the items measuring a certain construct are
correlated. Items that are closely correlated
indicate high internal consistency or reliability of
the test. The measure of internal consistency or
reliability is given by Cronbach Alpha.
If the items are ordinal (eg likert scale), SPSS will
give the Cronbach Alpha. But if the items are
dichotomous, you will need to use KuderRichardson 20 which also obtained by requesting
Cronbach Alpha.
106
Item Analysis
Exercise 19
Use
the data file in your desktop icon called

SPSS WORKSHOP, use the data file called
Datafile for Item Analysis and Factor
Analysis run the Item Analysis and
ascertain the best Cronbach Alpha
107
Sample Factor Analysis table
108
Multiple Regression
Bivariate
Multiple Regression
Aca Ach = Constant + b Motivation
Multivariate
Multiple Regression
Aca Ach = Constant + b1 Motivation + b2 Creativity + b3 Selfconfidence
109
Multiple Regression - Assumptions

1) Ratio of cases to independent variables:
20 times more cases than predictors
2) Variables must be normally distributed check graphically or statistically
(e.g. Box-plot, Histogram, skewness and kurtosis, Kolmogorov-Smirnof or
Shipiro Wilk)
3) IV must be linearly related to DV (Use Scatter-plot for Bivariate
Regression). For Multitivariate Use Residual Scatter Plot between
Standarized residuals (Y-axis) and Standardized Predicted value (X-axis) if
linearly related points in scatter plot are evenly distributed on both sides of
0 value of the Standardized Predicted value (X-axis).
4) No multicollinearity IVs must not be significantly correlated (use Pearson
correlation Matrix to check / Tolerance = 1 R2 (must be more than .1) / VIF
(Variance Inflation Factor) = 1/Tolerance (must be less than 10) [R is the
correlation coefficient between the 2 IVs or predictors which should not be
more than .7. If more than .7, omit 1 of the IV or combine the IVs]
5) No multivariate outliers use Mahalanobis Distance to ascertain this. Use
Chi-square value at p < .001 and df (= no of IVs) from Chi-square table to
determine which data is outlier in the MAHAL column produced in the 110
Datafile.
Residuals are the differences between the predicted DV

calculated from the predictors and the obtained DV
obtained from the study.
Normality: These residuals must be normally distributed
about the predicted DV scores
Linearity: These residuals should have a straight-line
relationship with the predicted DV scores
Homoscedasticity: The variance of the residuals about
predicted DV scores should be the same for all predicted
scores
Normality, Linearity and Homoscedasticity can be checked
using the residuals scatterplots generated by SPSS.
111
Example of Scatterplot between Std Residual and Std Predicted Value

Scatterplot
Dependent Variable: Highest Year of School Completed

4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-4
-3
-2
-1
Regr ession Standardized Predicted Value
112
Collinearity Statistics Tolerance

is the statistic used to determine how
much the independent variables are linearly
related to one another (Multicollinear)
-Tolerance is the proportion of a variable's
variance not accounted for by other independent
variables in the model and is given by 1 R2,
where R is the correlation coefficient between the
2 IVs or predictors.
Tolerance level must be more than .1
Tolerance
113
Collinearity Statistics - VIF

Variance Inflation Factor
- is the reciprocal of the Tolerance
VIF should be less than 10
VIF
114
Durbin-Watson
Gives
a measure of autocorrelations in the

residuals (or errors) in the values or observations
in the multiple regression analyses
If the Durbin-Watson value is between 1.5 and
2.5, then the observations or values are
independent there are no systematic trend in
the errors of the observation of the values (there
should not be a systematic trend in the errors)
115
Multivariate Outlier an
example
It is usual to find a person who is 15 years old and will

not be a outlier when you plot a histogram for age
(univariate)
It is also common to find a person earning a salary of
RM10,000 a month and this person may not be an outlier
when you plot a histogram for salary (univariate)
However, if you combine both age and salary
(multivariate) a person who is 15 years old earning
RM10,000 may become an outlier called multivariate
outlier
You need to get rid of multivariate outlier using
Mahalanobis Distance before you run your multiple
regression
116
What havoc a multivariate outlier can do to your results?

It can change your R from .08 to .88!
117
Checking for multivariate outliers =

use Mahalanobis Distance
No of Independent
Variables
Critical Chi-square
Value to determine
Multivariate
Outliers
13.82
16.27
18.47
20.52
22.46
24.32
118
Methods for Selecting Variables

Selection starting from the constant
term, variable is added to the equation or
regression model if it results in the largest
significant (at p < .05 for e.g.) increase in multiple
R2 .
Backward Selection all variables are put into
the equation or regression model. At each step, a
variable is removed if this removal results in only
a small insignificant change in R2.
Stepwise variable Selection most commonly
used method for model building. Is a combination
of Forward Selection and Backward Selection.
Variables already in the model can be removed if
they are no longer significant predictors when new
variables are added to the regression model.
119
Forward
Types of Regression Analyses

Standard
Multiple Regression
Sequential / Hierarchical Multiple
Regression
Statistical / Stepwise Multiple Regression
120
Coding for Dummy Variables

Example:
dichotomous
Male 1
Female - 2
Need to convert to dummy variable
Male - 1
Female - 0
to study the effect of gender on the DV
Gender
if r = sig + , male has higher significant effect on DV

if r = sig - , female has higher significant effect on DV
121
Using PRACTICE data file

Research Question:
1) To what extent do PAEDU and MAEDU
predict EDUC?
2) To what extent do PAEDU, MAEDU and
SEX predict EDUC?
3) To what extent do PAEDU, MAEDU,
SIBS and SEX predict EDUC?
122
Results of Mul Reg for Research Question 2

educ
paeduc
maeduc
sexdummy
Mean
13.54
11.01
11.02
.4245
St d. Dev iation
2.797
4.117
3.409
.49452
N
973
973
973
973
Correlati ons
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (1-tailed)
educ
paeduc
maeduc
sexdummy
educ
paeduc
maeduc
sexdummy
educ
paeduc
maeduc
sexdummy
educ
1.000
.450
.429
.112
.
.000
.000
.000
973
973
973
973
paeduc
.450
1.000
.672
.102
.000
.
.000
.001
973
973
973
973
maeduc
.429
.672
1.000
.065
.000
.000
.
.021
973
973
973
973
sexdummy
.112
.102
.065
1.000
.000
.001
.021
.
973
973
973
973
123
Results of Mul Reg for Research Question 2 (contd)

Model Summaryd
Change Statistics
Model
1
2
3
R
.450a
.481b
.486c
R Square
.203
.232
.236
Adjusted
R Square
.202
.230
.234
St d. Error of
the Estimate
2.499
2.454
2.448
R Square
Change
.203
.029
.004
F Change
246.937
36.704
5.670
df 1
1
1
1
df 2
971
970
969
Sig. F Change
.000
.000
.017
DurbinWat son
1.738
a. Predictors: (Const ant), paeduc

b. Predictors: (Const ant), paeduc, maeduc
c. Predictors: (Const ant), paeduc, maeduc, sexdummy
d. Dependent Variable: educ
ANOVAd
Model
1
Regression
Residual
Total
Regression
Residual
Total
Regression
Residual
Total
Sum of
Squares
1541.572
6061.733
7603.305
1762.582
5840.724
7603.305
1796.560
5806.745
7603.305
df
1
971
972
2
970
972
3
969
972
Mean Square
1541.572
6.243
F
246.937
Sig.
.000a
881.291
6.021
146.361
.000b
598.853
5.993
99.934
.000c
a. Predictors: (Const ant), paeduc

b. Predictors: (Const ant), paeduc, maeduc
c. Predictors: (Const ant), paeduc, maeduc, sexdummy
d. Dependent Variable: educ
124
Multiple Regression Results

Coefficientsa
Model
1
2
(Constant)
paeduc
(Constant)
paeduc
maeduc
(Constant)
paeduc
maeduc
sexdummy
Unstandardized
Coeff icients
B
Std. Error
10.178
.229
.306
.019
9.254
.272
.201
.026
.189
.031
9.142
.275
.196
.026
.189
.031
.380
.160
Standardized
Coeff icients
Beta
.450
.295
.230
.288
.231
.067
t
44.499
15.714
34.077
7.768
6.058
33.250
7.574
6.085
2.381
Sig.
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.017
95% Confidence Interval for B

Lower Bound Upper Bound
9.729
10.627
.268
.344
8.721
9.787
.150
.251
.128
.250
8.602
9.681
.145
.246
.128
.250
.067
.693
Collinearity Statistics
Tolerance
VIF
1.000
1.000
.548
.548
1.826
1.826
.544
.548
.990
1.837
1.826
1.011
a. Dependent Variable: educ
125
Reporting Results of Mul Reg for Research Question 2
Table XX
Standard Multiple Regression of PAEDUC, MAEDUC and SEXDUMMY on EDUC
Variables
EDUC
PAEDUC
MEADUC
p < .05
.20
.29
7.57
Sig
PAEDUC
.45
MEADUC
.43
.67
.20
.19
.23
6.09
Sig
SEXDUMMY
.11
.10
.07
.38
.07
2.38
Sig
Intercept = 9.14
Means
SD
13.54
11.01
11.02
2.80
4.12
3.41
R = .49
R2 = .24
Adjusted R 2 = .23
126
Reporting Multiple Regression Results
A standard multiple regression was performed between respondents

level of education, EDUC as the dependent variable and fathers level
of education (PAEDUC), mothers level of education (MAEDUC) and
respondents gender (SEXDUMMY). The assumptions were evaluated
using SPSS EXPLORE.
Table XX displays the correlations between the variables, the
unstandardized regression coefficients, B, and intercept, the standardized
Regression, , R2 and adjusted R2.
R for regression was significant, F (3, 969) = 99.93, p < .05.
with R2 =.24.
The adjusted R2 of .23 indicates that more than one-fifth of the variability
of EDUC is predicted by the three predictors.
The regression equation is:
EDUC = 9.14 + .380 + .20 (PAEDUC) + .19 (MAEDUC) + .380 (SEXDUMMY)
127
Multiple Regression
Try
exercise on Linear Regression and

Multiple Regression on page 26.
128
Using Dummy Variable to check

moderating effect of variable
129
Hierarchical Multiple Regression

Is
used when there is a need to control for certain

variables
For example, if we wish to study how PEADUC
and MEADUC predict EDUC while controlling
for Age of the respondent and the number of
siblings (SIBS)
We enter Age and SIBS in the first batch of
variables and then enter PEADUC and MEADUC
in the second batch as predictors of EDUC
130
Coeffi ci entsa
Model
1
(Constant)
Age of Respondent
Number of Brothers
and Sisters
(Constant)
Age of Respondent
Number of Brothers
and Sisters
Highest Year School
Complet ed, Father
Highest Year School
Complet ed, Mother
Unstandardized
Coef f icients
B
St d. Error
15.528
.263
-.038
.005
St andardized
Coef f icients
Beta
-.226
t
59.086
-7.463
Sig.
.000
.000
-.238
-7.842
Correlations
Zero-order
Part ial
Part
Collinearity Statistics
Tolerance
VI F
-.254
-.233
-.225
.986
1.014
.000
-.264
-.244
-.236
.986
1.014
.000
.165
-.254
-.045
-.039
.786
1.272
-.233
.030
9.855
-.007
.512
.005
-.044
19.230
-1.391
-.126
.029
-.128
-4.387
.000
-.264
-.140
-.122
.900
1.111
.219
.028
.303
7.825
.000
.463
.244
.217
.516
1.938
.137
.033
.159
4.098
.000
.419
.131
.114
.513
1.948
a. Dependent Variable: Highest Year of School Completed
131
Model Summaryc
Change Statistics
Model
1
2
R
.347a
.502b
R Square
.120
.252
Adjusted
R Square
.118
.249
St d. Error of
the Estimate
2.802
2.586
R Square
Change
.120
.132
F Change
66.311
85.238
df 1
2
2
df 2
971
969
Sig. F Change
.000
.000
a. Predictors: (Constant), Number of Brot hers and Sisters, Age of Respondent

b. Predictors: (Constant), Number of Brot hers and Sisters, Age of Respondent, Highest Year School Completed, Father, Highest
Year School Completed, Mother
c. Dependent Variable: Highest Year of School Completed
APA Report:
Hierarchical Multiple Regression was used to assess the ability of PAEDUC and
MAEDUC in predicting EDUC while controlling for Age and Sibs,
Age and Sibs were entered at Step 1 (Model 1) explaining 12% of the
variance in EDUC. On entering PAEDUC and MAEDUC at Step 2
(Model 2), the total variance explained was 25.2%, F(4, 969) = 81.53,
p < .001)
PEADUC and MEADUC explained 13.2% of the variance on EDUC
after controlling for Age and SIBS, R squared change = .13,
F change (2, 969) = 85.24.
In the final model, only Sibs, PAEDUC and MAEDUC were
statistically significant, with PAEDUC having a higher sig effect on
EDUC than MAEDUC or SIBS.
132
Exercise
1)
Are PAEDUC and MAEDUC significant

predictors of SIBS if we control for Age and
EDUC? Report your findings in the APA
format.
133
Binary Logistic Regression

Used
when you want to predict a binary

criterion (dependent) variable.
Eg. of binary dependent variable
0 No diabetes, 1 Has diabetes
0 No default, 1 defaults
0 Does not graduate, 1 - graduates
134
Assumption of binary logistic regression
Dependent variable must be binary (1 for the desired

outcome and 0 for the other outcome) for binary logistic
regression
Dependent variable must be ordinal for Ordinal or
Multinormial logistic regression.
Does not need to make many of the assumptions of linear
regression. Eg does not need to satisfy conditions of
linearity, normality, homoscedasticity and measurement
level.
Does not need a linear relationship between the dependent
and independent variables.
Can handle all types of relationships because it uses nonlinear log transformation to predict odds-ratio.
135
Assumption of binary logistic regression

Independent
variables do not need to be

multivariate normal.
Residuals do not need to be multivariate normally
distributed.
Can use both ordinal and nominal independent
variables, in fact all predictors can be nominal.
There should be no multicollinearity among IVs.
Needs bigger sample size about 30 for each IV.
136
Eg of Research Question: Do EDUC, PAEDUC and

MAEDUC predict HAPPYrec (1 = happy, 0 = not
happy)
Record HAPPY to HAPPYrec. (Happy 1 and 2 recode to 1

and Happy 3 record to 0)
In SPSS: Analyze Regression Binary Regression.
Enter HAPPYrec into Dependent box.
Enter EDUC, PAEDUC and MAEDUC into Covariates
box.
Click Save check Probabilities and Group membership
(In the datafile, the respondents will be classified into
groups)
Click Options select Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness-of-fit
(to test to what extent the model fits the data) and Iteration
History.
137
In the Output:
A) Step 1: is like the test of the null hypothesis when there
are no predictors in the equation. The prediction is 90.7%
accurate.
The predictors are

all not sig.
138
In step 2:
Is similar to R squared =
% of variance explained
by the predictors 1.8 %
only.
Sig. there is sig

difference between model
and data. model does
not fit the data.
All 3 predictors are not

sig. not included in the
model.
139
B) Step 2: when the predictors are entered,

The percentage
accuracy is still
90.7%
All 3 predictors are

not sig. not
included in the model.
140
One-way Repeated Measures

ANOVA
This
analysis is used to compare one sample on

three or more variables.
Click Analyze General Linear Model
Repeated Measures
You will get the Repeated Measures Define
Factors Dialogue box.
Example of Research Question: Are there
significant differences in Health1, Health2 and
Health3?
141
One-way Repeated Measures

ANOVA
In Within-Subject Factor Name: box, type Health which is measured at 3

different times, (assuming).
In the Number of Levels: type 3
Click Add.
Click Define and in the Repeated Dialogue Box click the 3 variables: Health1,
Health2 and Health3.
If you want to compare this between male and female, click on the Between
subjects variable in this case Sex and move it to Between-subjects Factors
box.
Click on Options, then Display and click on Descriptive stats, Estimates of
effect size, Homogeneity tests and power, then Continue.
Click on Plots, then click on Within group variable (in this case Health) and
move it to the box labeled Horizontal Axis.
In the Separate Lines box, click on the grouping variable (i.e. Race)
Click Add
Click Continue and OK.
142
OUTPUT:
Mean
Ill Enough to Go
to a Doctor
Counselling f or
Mental Problems
Inf ertility , Unable
to Hav e a Baby
Std. Dev iat ion
1.45
.498
1009
1.94
.233
1009
1.97
.183
1009
Multi variate Testsc

Ef f ect
health
Pillai's Trace
Wilks' Lambda
Hotelling's Trace
Roy 's Largest Root
Value
.508
.492
1.034
1.034
F
Hy pothesis df
b
520.785
2.000
b
520.785
2.000
b
520.785
2.000
b
520.785
2.000
Error df
1007.000
1007.000
1007.000
1007.000
Sig.
.000
.000
.000
.000
Part ial Eta

Squared
.508
.508
.508
.508
Noncent .
Paramet er
1041.570
1041.570
1041.570
1041.570
Observ ed
a
Power
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
a. Computed using alpha = .05

b. Exact st atistic
c.
Design: Intercept
Within Subjects Design: health
143
Test equality of Variance or Sphericity

Mauchly's Test of Sphericityb
Measure: MEASURE_1
Epsilon
Within Subject s Ef f ect Mauchly 's W
health
.666
Approx.
Chi-Square
408.769
df
2
Sig.
.000
Greenhous
e-Geisser
.750
Huy nh-Feldt
.751
Lower-bound
.500
Tests the null hy pot hesis t hat the error cov ariance matrix of the ort honormalized transf ormed dependent v ariables is
proportional to an identity matrix.
a. May be used t o adjust the degrees of f reedom f or the av eraged test s of signif icance. Correct ed tests are display ed in
the Tests of Within-Subjects Ef f ects table.
b.
Mauchlys W sig at p < .05, there is sig difference in variance

among the 3 measures so statistical correction must be made
choose Hunyh-Feldt correction F value = 810.81 which is Sig
with df = 1.50 and 1513.40.
If Mauchlys W is NOT sig at p < .05, read F value in the
Sphericity Assumed row.
Design: Intercept
Within Subject s Design: health
Measure: MEASURE_1
Source
health
Error(health)
Sphericity Assumed
Greenhouse-Geisser
Huy nh-Feldt
Lower-bound
Sphericity Assumed
Greenhouse-Geisser
Huy nh-Feldt
Lower-bound
df1
Ty pe I II Sum
of Squares
171.779
171.779
171.779
171.779
213.555
213.555
213.555
213.555
Tests of Wi thin-Subjects Effects
df
2
1.500
1.501
1.000
2016
1511.651
1513.402
1008.000
Mean Square
85.889
114.546
114.413
171.779
.106
.141
.141
.212
df2
F
810.813
810.813
810.813
810.813
Sig.
.000
.000
.000
.000
Part ial Eta

Squared
.446
.446
.446
.446
Noncent.
Parameter
1621.626
1215.939
1217.347
810.813
Observ ed
a
Power
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
Effect Size
144
Check Assumptions of Equality of

Error Variance and Equality of
Covariances Matrices
the output check the Levenes Test of
Equality of Error Variance. If not sig at
p =.05, then assumption of homogeneity of
variances is not violated.
Then check Boxs Test of Equality of
Covariance Matrices. If sig at p = .001, then
assumption of equality of Covariance is
violated.
In
145
Tests of Wi thin-Subjects Effects

Measure: MEASURE_1
Source
HEALTH
HEALTH * RACE
Error(HEALTH)
Sphericity Assumed
Greenhouse-Geisser
Huy nh-Feldt
Lower-bound
Sphericity Assumed
Greenhouse-Geisser
Huy nh-Feldt
Lower-bound
Sphericity Assumed
Greenhouse-Geisser
Huy nh-Feldt
Lower-bound
Ty pe I II Sum
of Squares
35.625
35.625
35.625
35.625
1.496
1.496
1.496
1.496
212.059
212.059
212.059
212.059
df
2
1.497
1.501
1.000
4
2.993
3.003
2.000
2012
1505.710
1510.448
1006.000
Mean Square
17.813
23.802
23.727
35.625
.374
.500
.498
.748
.105
.141
.140
.211
F
169.004
169.004
169.004
169.004
3.548
3.548
3.548
3.548
Sig.
.000
.000
.000
.000
.007
.014
.014
.029
Part ial Eta

Squared
.144
.144
.144
.144
.007
.007
.007
.007
Noncent.
Parameter
338.008
252.953
253.749
169.004
14.193
10.621
10.655
7.096
Observ ed
a
Power
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
.871
.788
.789
.660
Within Subject Table shows F is sig at p <.05.

There is a sig difference in Health
146
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

Measure: MEASURE_1
Transf ormed Variable: Av erage
Source
Intercept
RACE
Error
Ty pe III Sum
of Squares
2178.266
.698
123.821
df
1
2
1006
Mean Square
2178.266
.349
.123
F
17697.670
2.836
Sig.
.000
.059
Partial Eta
Squared
.946
.006
Noncent.
Parameter
17697.670
5.672
Observ ed
a
Power
1.000
.557
If compared between subjects (Race White, Black and Others)

RACE line shows F is not sig at p < .05. See Plot to
Confirm this.
Estimated Marginal Means of MEASURE_1
2.1
2.0
1.9
Estimated Marginal Means
1.8
1.7
Race of Respondent
1.6
1.5
White
1.4
Black
1.3
Other
1
HEALTH
147
Pairwise Comparisons
Estimated Marginal Means of MEASURE_1
Measure: MEASURE_1
2.0
Estimated Marginal Means
1.9
(I) health
1
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
3
1.4
1
(J) health
2
3
1
3
1
2
Mean
Dif f erence
(I-J)
Std. Error
-.494*
.017
-.516*
.016
.494*
.017
-.023*
.009
.516*
.016
.023*
.009
Sig.
.000
.000
.000
.016
.000
.016
95% Conf idence Interv al f or

a
Dif f erence
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
-.526
-.461
-.548
-.485
.461
.526
-.041
-.004
.485
.548
.004
.041
health
Based on estimated marginal means

*. The mean dif f erence is signif icant at the .05 lev el.
a. Adjustment f or multiple comparisons: Least Signif icant Dif f erence (equiv alent to no
adjustments).
APA style report:

There are sig differences in the health measures,
F (1.50, 1513.40) = 810.00, p < .05 with a moderate effect size
(Eta squared = .45). LSD (Least Sig Difference) comparisons reveal
that Health3 is significantly higher than Health2 and Health 1 while
Health2 is significantly higher than Health1.
148
Exercise: Try exercise 23 on p. 12 (SPSS Module Part 2/Advanced)
Exercise 23 (additional Q)
1. Are there significant differences in EDUC, MAEDU
and PAEDU?
2. Are there significant differences in EDUC,
PRESTIG80 and OCCAT80?
3. Assuming hlth1, hlth2 and hlth3 are interval data,
are there significant differences in these 3 variables?
For each analysis, write a report using the APA style.
149
Formulate a research question

based on your study which will
require One-way repeated
measures ANOVA
150
MULTIVARIATE ANOVA
(MANOVA)
MANOVA
is used when you wish to

compare two or more dependent variables
(INTERVAL DATA) among a grouping
independent variable (NOMINAL DATA),
e.g. REGION.
For example, you wish to check whether
respondents in the various locations
(REGION) (IV) defer in the level of EDUC,
MAEDU and PAEDU (several DVs).
151
Assumptions of MANOVA
Sample size each subgroup n > 30.
2) Linearity between DVs. Can be tested using
Scatter-plots among pairs of the DVs across IV
groups. (Click Graph Legacy Dialogues
Scatter/Plot Matrix Scatter Define send all
dependent var to Matrix variable box, IV to row box
continue, OK)
3) Univariate and Multivariate Normality Test
univariate normality using skewness and kurtosis (or
Kolmogorov-Smirnov) or use EXPLORE in
descriptive statistics (Box Plot). Test Multivariate
Normality using Mahalanobis Distance in Multiple
Regression Analysis (use ID as the Dependent
variable and the predictors as independent variable)
152
1)
Univariate test of equality of variance Use

Levenes test in Output to test this. If Levenes
test is not significant at p < .05 there is equality
of variance among each DV.
5) Homogeneity of variance covariance
matrices Use the Boxs M test. If Boxs M is
not significant at p < .001 (you need to set at .001
because Boxs M test is very sensitive), it means
that there is homogeneity of variance-covariance).
6) Multicollinearity - use Pearson r (consider
removing one of the DV pairs with r > .8)
4)
153
MULTIVARIATE ANOVA
(MANOVA)
General Linear Model Multivariate
Send the DV to the Dependent variables box
The independent variable to the Fixed Factor box.
Click Options, click REGION and enter it into
Display Means
Click Compare Main Effects and click Bonferroni
and check Descriptive Statistics and Homogeneity
tests.
Click Continue and OK.
Analyze
154
Highest Year of
School Completed
Highest Year School

Complet ed, Mother
Highest Year School

Complet ed, Father
Region of the
Unit edEast
States
North
South East
West
Total
North East
South East
West
Total
North East
South East
West
Total
Mean
13.53
13.33
13.75
13.54
11.20
10.59
11.10
11.02
11.04
10.69
11.22
11.01
St d. Dev iation
2.719
3.060
2.679
2.797
3.218
3.466
3.633
3.409
3.838
4.421
4.282
4.117
a
Box's Test of Equality of Covariance Matrices
Box's M
F
df 1
df 2
Sig.
26.711
2.215
12
2786265
.009
Tests the null hy pot hesis t hat the observ ed cov ariance
matrices of the dependent v ariables are equal across groups.
a. Design: Intercept+region
N
454
239
280
973
454
239
280
973
454
239
280
973
The Boxs M tests the homogeneity of

the variance-covariance matrices at
p < .001.
Boxs M is not significant at p < .001,
so there are no sig diff in the
variance-covariance homogeneity of
variance
155
a
Levene's Test of Equality of Error Variances
F
Highest Year of
School Completed
Highest Year School
Complet ed, Mother
Highest Year School
Complet ed, Father
df 1
df 2
Sig.
1.529
970
.217
4.363
970
.013
5.416
970
.005
Tests the null hy pothesis that t he error v ariance of the dependent v ariable
is equal across groups.
a. Design: Intercept+region
The univariate tests for homogeneity

of variance for each DV shows that
for EDUC (not sig at p < .05), there is
no sig diff in var there is equality
of var.
For MAEDU and PAEDU sig diff
no equality of variance need to
Interpret the F for MAEDU and PAEDU
at higher Alpha level say p < .01
Multi variate Tests
Pillai's trace
Wilks' lambda
Hotelling's trace
Roy 's largest root
Value
.008
.992
.008
.006
F
Hy pothesis df
1.323
6.000
b
1.322
6.000
1.321
6.000
1.800c
3.000
Error df
1938.000
1936.000
1934.000
969.000
Sig.
.243
.244
.244
.146
Each F tests the multiv ariat e ef f ect of Region of the United States. These tests are
based on the linearly independent pairwise comparisons among the estimated
marginal means.
b. Exact st atist ic
c. The statistic is an upper bound on F that y ields a lower bound on t he
signif icance lev el.
These Multivariate Tests test whether

there is sig group (REGION) diff
on the linear combination of the DVs.
Pillais Trace (most robust of statistic
against Violation of assumptions) is
NOT sig at p < .05 so no sig
Multivariate Effect for REGION.
No need to interpret the univariate
between-subject (REGION).
156
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

Source
Corrected Model
Intercept
region
Error
Total
Corrected Total
Dependent Variable
Highest Year of
School Completed
Highest Year School
Complet ed, Mother
Highest Year School
Complet ed, Father
Highest Year of
School Completed
Highest Year School
Complet ed, Mother
Highest Year School
Complet ed, Father
Highest Year of
School Completed
Highest Year School
Complet ed, Mother
Highest Year School
Complet ed, Father
Highest Year of
School Completed
Highest Year School
Complet ed, Mother
Highest Year School
Complet ed, Father
Highest Year of
School Completed
Highest Year School
Complet ed, Mother
Highest Year School
Complet ed, Father
Highest Year of
School Completed
Highest Year School
Complet ed, Mother
Highest Year School
Complet ed, Father
Ty pe I II Sum
of Squares
b
23.697
df
Mean Square
Sig.
Part ial Eta

Squared
Noncent .
Paramet er
Observ ed
a
Power
11.848
1.516
.220
.003
3.033
.324
29.951
2.586
.076
.005
5.172
.517
38.095
19.047
1.124
.325
.002
2.248
.249
165616.187
165616.187
21194.722
.000
.956
21194.722
1.000
108579.532
108579.532
9375.498
.000
.906
9375.498
1.000
109037.361
109037.361
6433.135
.000
.869
6433.135
1.000
23.697
11.848
1.516
.220
.003
3.033
.324
59.902
29.951
2.586
.076
.005
5.172
.517
38.095
19.047
1.124
.325
.002
2.248
.249
7579.609
970
7.814
11233.765
970
11.581
16440.855
970
16.949
186109.000
973
129423.000
973
134366.000
973
7603.305
972
11293.667
972
16478.950
972
59.902
a. Computed using alpha = . 05
As shown in Pillais
Trace test that
multivariate tests are
not sig, (using Bonferroni Correction,
alpha = .05/3 = .017). There are no
significant EDUC, MAEDU and PAEDU
differences by REGION
b. R Squared = . 003 (Adjusted R Squared = .001)

c. R Squared = . 005 (Adjusted R Squared = .003)
d. R Squared = . 002 (Adjusted R Squared = .000)
157
APA report
MANOVA was undertaken to investigate Region differences in
PAEDUC, MAEDUC, EDUC. All assumptions relating to normality,
linearity, univariate and multivariate outliers (Mahalanobis Distance
within required limits) , homogeneity of variance covariance
matrices (Boxs M was not sig at p <. 05) and multicollinearity were
satisfied. There were no region differences in PAEDUC, MAEDUC
and EDUC, F (6, 1938) = 1.32, p > .05.
Note:
(If F is significant, you will need to state Pillais trace and effect size
partial eta squared. Check the mean scores of the DV that is significant
for the 3 regions to check which two regions this DV is significantly
different)
158
Another example of MANOVA output

Statistical assumptions of the analyses are met, and descriptive
statistics are reported in Table xx. A one-way between-groups
MANOVA partially supported the first hypothesis of
there being a difference in procrastination types between
students and white-collar workers, Pillais Trace=.05,
F(3, 181) = 3.2, p=.03, p 2 = .05, power =.73.
159
Another eg of MANOVA table with Tukey

Jin Hwang, YoungHo Kim (2011). Adolescents physical activity and its
related cognitive and behavioral processes, Biology of Sports, 28, 19-22. (ISI TIER 4)
160
DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS
Is
used when you wish to find out, for example,

students with which personality characteristics or
interests (Independent Scale data) will be choosing
which career (Dependent Nominal data).
So the independent variable will be the students
personality characteristics or interests e.g.
extrovert, creative, etc (Scale Data) and the
dependent variable will be the choice of the career
e.g. Medicine or Architecture (Nominal Data)
161
Assumptions
1. The data must be multivariate normal. Test Multivariate Normality

using Mahalanobis Distance in Multiple Regression Analysis. (If each
DV is normally distributed and the groups are of equal sample sizes
indicates multivariate normality)
Homogeneity of variance covariance matrices Use the Boxs M
test. If Boxs M is not significant at p < .001 (you need to set at .001
because Boxs M test is very sensitive), it means that there is
homogeneity of variance-covariance.
3. Multicollinearity and singularity - Use Pearson r to check this.
(Singularity refers to a situation when one variable is perfectly
correlated to another variable)
4. Use EXPLORE boxplot to remove outliers (Go to EXPLORE
click Plots (in Display box) enter IVs (predictors) into Dependent
list and factor var or DV (Scale var) into Factor List.
162
To
analyze click :
CLASSIFY DISCRIMINANT
Lets say you wish to find out if you classify
students into Happy, Pretty Happy and Not So
Happy (assume Nominal Variable - HAPPY)
using the information from the Age, EDUC and
Prestig80.
ANALYZE
163
Move the dependent variable (e. g Career) to Grouping

Variable. Click Define Range to indicate how many
different types of Career you wish to study and indicate the
Maximum and Minimum number.
Click independent variables (e.g. Personality variables) to
the independents box.
Click Use Stepwise Method.
Click STATISTICS, and select Means, Univariate
ANOVAs, Boxs M and Unstandardized Function
Coefficients and Total Covariance Matrix and Separate
Group Covariance. Click Continue.
Click CLASSIFY and select Summary table, click
Continue.
164
Click METHOD button Wilks Lambda selected as

default as statistic that will be used for the addition and
subtraction of variables to and from the discriminant
functions. The criteria set for entry and removal are 3.84
and 2.71 respectively. [Or check the lower radio button to
set using the F values i.e. at .05 and .01]
Click SAVE to get Discriminant Analysis: Save dialogue
box which give Discriminant Scores and Predicted Group
Membership in the Data File.
If you wish to analyze for Male students only, you can use
Selection Variable and click 1 for male in the Value Box.
Then click OK to execute the Discriminant Analysis
165
OUTPUT
Group Statistics
General Happiness
Very Happy
Pret ty Happy
Not Too Happy
Total
Age of Respondent
Highest Year of School
Complet ed
R's Occupational
Prest ige Score (1980)
Age of Respondent
Complet ed
R's Occupational
Age of Respondent
Complet ed
R's Occupational
Age of Respondent
Complet ed
R's Occupational
Valid N (list wise)

Unweighted
Weighted
441
441.000
Mean
47.28
Std. Dev iat ion

17.766
13.52
2.987
441
441.000
45.19
12.883
441
441.000
44.82
17.422
814
814.000
12.87
2.914
814
814.000
42.22
12.925
814
814.000
46.66
17.329
147
147.000
12.28
2.835
147
147.000
40.35
13.653
147
147.000
45.79
17.547
1402
1402.000
13.01
2.952
1402
1402.000
42.96
13.080
1402
1402.000
No of
respondents
in each
group
166
Tests of Equality of Group Means
Age of Respondent
Completed
R's Occupational
Wilks'
Lambda
.996
F
3.018
.983
.985
df 1
2
df 2
1399
Sig.
.049
12.109
1399
.000
10.823
1399
.000
There is sig diff

among the 3 group
(Happy, Pretty Happy
Not so Happy) on the
3 IVS (AGE, EDUC,
PRESTIG80) at p < .05
Variabl es in the Analysi s

St ep
1
2
Highest Year of
School Completed
Highest Year of
School Completed
Age of Respondent
Wilks'
Lambda
Tolerance
F to Remov e
1.000
12.109
.929
15.166
.996
.929
6.042
.983
Variables Not in the Analysis

St ep
0
Age of Respondent
Complet ed
R's Occupational
Age of Respondent
R's Occupational
R's Occupational
Tolerance
1.000
Min.
Tolerance
1.000
F to Enter
3.018
Wilks'
Lambda
.996
1.000
1.000
12.109
.983
1.000
1.000
10.823
.985
.929
.929
6.042
.975
.737
.737
3.146
.979
.716
.665
1.993
.972
High Tolerance value

means that IVs can contribute
to the discrimination.
F to Remove tests the sig of
the decrease in discrimination
if the variable is removed.
Since Prestig80 has F less than
2.71 (default) i.e. 1.993, it is
removed from prediction.
167
Ei genvalues
Function
1
2
Eigenv alue % of Variance

.024a
91.1
a
.002
8.9
Cumulat iv e %
91.1
100.0
Function 1 has
The highest
% of variance
Canonical
Correlation
.152
.048
a. First 2 canonical discriminant f unctions were used in t he

analy sis.
Wi lks' Lambda
Test of Function(s)
1 through 2
2
Wilks'
Lambda
.975
.998
Chi-square
36.038
3.244
df
4
1
Sig.
.000
.072
Wilks Lambda
is sig for Function
1 and 2.
Structure Matrix
Function
1
Complet ed
R's Occupational
a
Age of Respondent
.837*
-.547
.509*
-.160
.305
.952*
Pooled within-groups correlations between discriminating

v ariables and standardized canonical discriminant f unctions
Variables ordered by absolute size of correlat ion wit hin f unction.
*. Largest absolute correlation between each v ariable and
any discriminant f unct ion
a. This v ariable not used in the analy sis.
168
Classification Resultsa
Original
Count
General Happiness
Very Happy
Pret ty Happy
Not Too Happy
Ungrouped cases
Very Happy
Pret ty Happy
Not Too Happy
Ungrouped cases
Predicted Group Membership

Not Too
Very Happy Pret ty Happy
Happy
214
105
148
310
227
329
47
39
77
5
1
6
45.8
22.5
31.7
35.8
26.2
38.0
28.8
23.9
47.2
41.7
8.3
50.0
Total
467
866
163
12
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
a. 34.6% of original grouped cases correctly classif ied.
The success rate of

predicting HAPPY using
EDUC, AGE and
PRESTIG80 is 34.6%
Those in Not Too Happy

were most accurately
classified (47.2%) followed
by those in Very Happy (45.8%).
Pretty Happy is least successfully
classified (26.2%)
Those not classified in Very Happy
tend to be classified as Pretty Happy
than in Not Too Happy
169
Note:
if we click Save and Predicted

Group Membership you will get a column
in the datafile with the predicted group each
respondent will belong to!
170
Testing for Moderating Effects of

a Variable
Use
Multiple Regression with the

Moderating Variable as Dummy Variable.
Eg. If sex is the moderating variable,
RECODE Male = 1 and Female = 0 to see if
there is any difference in the DV when
gender changes from 0 to 1.
171
Testing for Mediation

You
can test mediation effect of a variable

online:
http://www.people.ku.edu/~preacher/sobel/s
obel.htm
172
To conduct the Sobel test
173
Testing Mediating Effects of a Variable
Use Partial Correlations

Go to ANALYZE CORRELATE PARTIAL
174
RESULTS:
Descriptive Statisti cs
Mean
Standard Ov erall
350.4529
Creativ ity Regular
Std Ov erall Achiev ement 150.1848
Raw I Q
114.7419
Std. Dev iation
50. 82975
465
23. 97305
24. 32108
465
465
Correlations
Control Variables
-none- a
Raw I Q
Standard Ov erall
Creativ ity Regular
Correlat ion
Signif icanc e (2-tailed)
df
Std Ov erall Achiev ement Correlat ion
df
Raw I Q
Correlat ion
df
Standard Ov erall
Correlat ion
Creativ ity Regular
df
Std Ov erall Achiev ement Correlat ion
df
a. Cells cont ain zero-order (Pearson) c orrelations.
Standard
Ov erall
Creativ ity
Regular
1. 000
.
0
.178
.000
463
.178
.000
463
1. 000
.
0
.127
.006
462
Std Ov erall
Achiev ement
.178
.000
463
1. 000
.
0
.340
.000
463
.127
.006
462
1. 000
.
0
Raw I Q
.178
.000
463
.340
.000
463
1. 000
.
0
175
Bootstrapping
Is the process of taking sub-samples from the original

sample (taken from the population) with replacement.
With replacement means the same data can be sampled
multiple times.
The subsamples (data collected) is assumed to be a perfect
replica of the population.
Bootstrapping allows you to obtain a range of values that
better represent the real value in the population.
This is used in calculating the Confidence Interval, CI.
Researchers quantify the precision of their estimate using
Confidence Intervals.
Confidence Intervals provide more information than Null
Hypothesis Significance Testing (NHST). So should use
both.
176
Eg. Null Hypothesis testing show that a difference of

means of 5 is significant.
If the 95% confidence interval of the difference of the
means ranges from 7 to 10, then we can say with 95%
confidence that the means are significantly different.
But if the confidence interval ranges from 3 to 8, there is a
possibility that the difference in the population can go as
low as 3 which will NOT be significantly different.
177
178
Group Statistics
Respondent's Sex
Bootstrapa
Statistic
Bias
Std. Error
95% Confidence Interval

Lower
Upper
633
Mean
13.23
.00
.12
12.99
13.47
Std. Deviation
3.143
.001
.097
2.948
3.336
Male
Std. Error Mean
.125
877
Highest Year of School Completed
Mean
12.63
.00
.10
12.43
12.83
Std. Deviation
2.839
.002
.082
2.667
3.000
Female
Std. Error Mean
.096
a. Unless otherwise noted, bootstrap results are based on 1000 bootstrap samples
Exercise on Bootstrapping
Similar to earlier exercise use bootstrapping to confirm the
whether there is a significant difference between Male and Female
respondents level of education (EDUC).
Discuss the results.
179
Non-parametric tests
do not require a normal distribution

do not require equal group variances
used with variables that are ordinal or nominal
e.g. Chi-square for determining relationship between
nominal - nominal data or nominal - ordinal data
(SPSS-Data Editor-Statistics-Summarize-Crosstabs)
e.g Spearman Rank- Order correlation for seeking
relationship between ordinal - ordinal data
e.g. Mann-Whitney U-test to compare 2 different
groups on a ordinal/interval data
180
Non-parametric tests
Kruskall-Wallis
Test (To compare > 2 different
groups)
Fiedman Test (To compare same group > 2
times)
181
Analysis and Reporting of

Inferential Statistics
Chi-square,
Mann-Whitney U-test, Kruskall
Wallis
182
Non - Parametric Statistical Analyses

(Degree of Association) - Chi-square
SPSS Data Editor - Statistics - Summarize - Crosstabs
183

(Degree of Association) Chi-square
Chi-square:
used to find the degree of

association between 2 nominal variables
C
CR - CREATIVE
CHILDREARING
o
w
o
i
.
1
T
y
i
g
d
a
l
a
P
2
2
C
L
2
1
L
1
1
A
N
a
3
184
5
Effect Size for Chi-square
If df = 1, use
2
N
where (Phi) is the effect size. Can range from -1 to + 1. Higher value
indicating stronger relationship. is similar to r 2 is the
percentage of the variance accounted for.
If df > 1 (for tables bigger than 2 x 2), use Cramers V given by
2
dfN
where df is the smaller of the 2 dfs.

185
Interpretation of Phi and Cramers

V.
For df = 1 (phi)
.10 to .30 Small
.31 to .50 Medium
.51 and up Large.
For df = 2
.07 to .21 Small.
.22 to .35 Medium.
.36 and up Large
For df = 3
06 to .17 Small
.18 to .29 Medium
.30 and up Large
186
Reporting Cross Tabulations / Chi-square Analysis

df = (No of rows 1)(No of columns 1)
2 (df, N = sample size) = 12.47, p <.05.
Descriptive:
Sixteen low, 8 average and 9 high creative
parents answered no while 1 average and 8 high creative
parents answered yes on item 29. The chi-square analyses
reveal a significant association between parents creativity
and their responses, 2 (2, N = 41) = 12.47, p <.05, V = .55) .
Cramers V indicates the effect size is large.
Interpretation:
The results show that creative parents do answer differently
on item 29 with the creative parents significantly answering Yes
on the item compared to the non-creative parents.
187
Non - Parametric Statistical Analyses (Relationship)
C
r
o
w
o
i
.
2
3
3
1
7
3
8
T
9
6
1
NS
y
i
g
d
a
l
f
a
P
2
0
C
L
2
1
L
1
1
A
N
a
1
5
(Effect size = Cramers V for 2 x 3 table)

FINDING:
There is no relationship between item 30 and the
childrearing practices, , 2 (2, N = 16) = 4.09, p > .05, V = .31)
188
Non-Parametric Statistical Analyses (Relationship)
C
r
o
w
v
o
t
c
s
1
2
5
8
5
2
4
4
8
6
T
6
9
6
1
y
i
g
d
a
l
f
a
P
2
6
C
L
2
6
L
1
2
A
N
NS
a
1
5
(Effect size = Cramers V for 2 x 3 table)

FINDING:
189
2
There is no relationship between SAM and CR , (2, N = 16) = 2.24, p > .05, V= .23)
Exercise 5
Chi-square
ANALYZE -> DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS CROSSTABS
1.
Is sex of respondents related to region?

2. Is race related to region?
3. Is there a relationship between the level
of general happiness (happy) and sex of the
respondents?
4. Is perception of life related to general
happiness (happy)?
190
ISI paper Chi-square Example
191
Non - Parametric Statistical Analyses (Comparison
of Groups on ordinal data) Mann-Whitney U Test

SPSS Data Editor - Nonparametric Tests - 2 Independent sample
192

(Comparison of 2 Groups on ordinal
data)
Mann-Whitney U-Test
a
a
n
I
S
0
e
m
U
a
N
n
S
n
W
0
A
M
Z
4
F
A
9
(
T
NS
FINDING:
Fathers (Md = , n=15) and mothers (Md= , n=26) do not
differ in the variable Artistry
(U =194.50, z = -.01, p > .05)
E
b
[
S
a
G
S
b
N
t
193
Effect size for Mann-Whitney

Given
by
z
N
Where r is the effect size. z and N can be obtained from the

output.
Use Cohens (1988) criteria to interpret the effect size.
Effect size (Cohens d), Eta Squared and Interpretation

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Effect Size (Cohens d)
Eta Squared, 2
Interpretation
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------0.2 <= d <0.5
.01 <= 2 < .06
Small
0.5 <= d < .8
.06 <= 2 < .14
Moderate
d <= .8
2 => .14
Large
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------194
Exercise 6
Mann Whitney U-test
ANALYZE -> NONPARAMETRIC -> 2 INDEPENDENT SAMPLES
1.
How do older people (age over 50) and

younger people (age 50 and below) differ
in their perception of
a) their general happiness (happy)
b) their perception of life (life)?
195
Wilcoxon Matched Pair Signed Ranks
Used when the same sample is compared on two different

nominal or ordinal variable.
196
N
FI KIR
IKUT
Mean
2.40
2.38
120
120
St d. Dev iation
1.111
.979
Minimum
1
1
Maximum
4
4
Ranks
N
IKUT - FIKIR Negativ e Ranks
Positiv e Ranks
Ties
Total
a. IKUT < FIKIR
b. IKUT > FIKIR
c. IKUT = FIKIR
45a
49b
26c
120
25th
1.00
2.00
Percent iles
50th (Median)
2.00
2.00
75th
3.00
3.00
Test Statisticsb
Mean Rank
50.04
45.16
Sum of Ranks
2252.00
2213.00
IKUT - FIKIR
Z
-.076a
Asy mp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.939
a. Based on positiv e ranks.
b. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test
Effect Size:
Wilcoxon analysis is used to ascertain whether there is
r
significant differences between students perception on
IKUT and the importance to follow instructions, FIKIR.
.076
r
.005 The results show that there is no significant differences
240
between IKUT (Md = 2.00) and FIKIR (Md = 2.00),
z = -.076, p > .05, r = .005.
z
N
197
Exercise 7 (Wilcoxon)
1)
Are there significant differences between

HAPPY and LIFE among the respondents?
198

(Comparison of more than 2 Groups
on ordinal data)
Kruskal- Wallis One-way ANOVA (Mean ranks)
Research Question:
Is there a significant difference between respondents from
different regions on perception of life (LIFE)
ANALYZE -> NONPARAMETRIC -> K INDEPENDENT SAMPLES
199

(Comparison of more than 2 Groups on
ordinal data) (contd.)
South East is ranked
highest in LIFE
Ranks
Region of the
UnitedEast
States
Is Lif e Exciting or Dull North
South East
West
Total
N
433
267
280
980
Mean Rank
497.30
511.12
460.32
Test Statisticsa,b
Is Lif e Exciting
or Dull
Chi-Square
6.247
df
2
Asy mp. Sig.
.044
p value is significant
at p < .05
a. Kruskal Wallis Test

b. Grouping Variable: Region of the Unit ed States
FINDING:
There are significant differences in the perception of LIFE
between the three regions, 2 (2, N = 980) = 6.25, p <.05.
200
Holms sequential Bonferroni for multiple

Non-parametric comparisons
To find out which group is significantly different from

which group, use Holms sequential Bonferroni Method.
Step 1: Set the family (usually set at family = .05)
Step 2: How many pair-wise comparisons, Nc ? Use
formula: Nc =Ng (Ng -1) /2 where Ng = no of groups
Step 3: Rank the comparisons based on p values from
smallest to largest.
Step 4: Evaluate the first comparison using 1 = family /Nc
Step 5: If p < 1,, reject null hypothesis and compare the
next pair. If p > 1 , do not reject null hypothesis and
declare all comparisons not significant.
201
Step 6: Evaluate the second comparison using 2 = family

/Nc 1.
Step 7: if p < 2 , reject the null hypothesis and compare
the next pair. If p > 2 , do not reject the null hypothesis
and declare the rest of the comparisons not significant
Step 8: Evaluate the third comparison using
3 = family /Nc 2.
Step 9: If p < 3,, reject the null hypothesis and compare the
next pair. If p > 3 , do not reject the null hypothesis and
declare the rest of the comparisons not significant.
AND SO ON
202
Holms sequential Bonferroni for multiple

Non-parametric comparisons
1- exciting
2- routine
3 - dull
Ranks
Region of the
States
Is Lif e Exciting or Dull United
North East
South East
West
Total
N
433
267
280
980
Mean Rank
497.30
511.12
460.32
Rank the
comparisons
based on p
values from
smallest to
largest
Comparison
Mann-Whitney p value (Holms Correction, )
---------------------------------------------------------------------------NE vs W
56048.00
.05
(.017)
NSig
If p > 1 , do not
reject null
hypothesis and
declare all
SE vs W
33502.00
.48
(.05)
comparisons not
significant.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
NE vs SE
56178.00
.17
(.025)
Results of Holms sequential Bonferroni Comparison:

NE (Mean rank = 497.30) do not find life significantly more exciting then SE
(Mean rank = 511.12). There are also not significant differences between
NE and W as well as between SE and W.
203
Effect size for Kruskal-wallis

FI KIR
Ranks
Ras
Median
Ras A
71
2.00
Ras B
31
2.00
Ras C
18
2.00
120
2.00
Total
FIKIR
RAS
Ras A
Ras B
Ras C
Total
N
71
31
18
120
Test Statisticsa,b
Mean Rank
63.83
57.08
53.25
Chi-Square
df
Asy mp. Sig.
FIKIR
1.854
2
.396
a. Kruskal Wallis Test
Effect size is given by Eta squared,
b. Grouping Variable: RAS
N 1
2 = 1.854 / (120 1) = .016.
Kruskall Wallis comparison of the three races on perception
was not significant, 2 (2, N 120) = 1.854, p > .05, 2 = .02.
204
ISI paper Kruskal - Wallis Example
Source:
Rubie-Davies, C . M. 2007. Classroom interactions: Exploring
the practices of high- and low-expectation teachers. British Journal of
Educational Psychology, 77, 289-306.
205
206
Exercise 8 Kruskal-Wallis
Is
there significant differences in HAPPY

among the Whites, Blacks and Others?
207
Friedmans ANOVA
To
compare three different nominal or

ordinal variables from a single group
208
Ranks
Percent iles
Valid
Minimum
Maximum
25
50
75
FI KIR
120
1.00
2.00
3.00
KERJA
120
2.00
3.00
4.00
POPULAR
118
2.00
2.00
3.00
Test Statisticsa
N
Chi-Square
df
Asy mp. Sig.
118
3.247
2
.197
a. Friedman Test
FI KIR
KERJA
POPULAR
Mean Rank
1.96
2.12
1.92
Test Statistics
N
Kendall's Wa
Chi-Square
df
Asy mp. Sig.
118
.014
3.247
2
.197
a. Kendall's Coef f icient of Concordance
Friedmans ANOVA Effect Size is given by:
2
N (k 1)
In this example, k = 3 and N = 118.

W = 3.247 / (120)(3 1) = 0.014.
Using Cohens (1988) criteria, W = .01
indicates a small effect size.
209
Exercise 9 Friedmans ANOVA

1)
Are there significant differences between

HAPPY, LIFE and HELPOTH among the
respondents?
210
GOLDEN TABLE
211
212

SPSS in Research Part 2 by Prof. Dr. Ananda Kumar

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SPSS in Research Part 2 by Prof. Dr. Ananda Kumar

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PROF. DR. ANANDA KUMAR PALANIAPPAN, Ph.

overview of SPSS Part I workshop

Steps in Educational Research

1) Identify the problem area / the need for investigation

Steps in Educational Research

5) define the variables involved in operational terms [e.g.

Steps in Educational Research

9) Analyse the data using SPSS

Pilot Study- Reliability and

Content Validity - if the instrument tests all aspects that

METHODS OF ESTIMATING RELIABILITY

Give the same twice to the same

Give two forms of the test to

Give two forms of the test to the

Give test once. Score two equivalent

Give test once. Score total test and

be suitable for the population under study

Outline of SPSS Part 1

Types of Measurement Scales and their

Has order or rank ordering

Types of Measurement Scales and their

Types of Measurement Scales and their

order of measurement --> lower

Refer to the handout provided.

the population to be studied

Entering & Editing Data

SPSS by double clicking at the SPSS icon or

Refer to the handout provided.

Exploring Data Graphically

check normality graphically and decide on

Std. Dev = 3.89

Checking Normality Skewness

measures the symmetry of the

-2 < Skewness < 2 ---> Normal

If Mean > Median

Checking Normality - Kurtosis

measures the spread of the data

-2 < Kurtosis < 2 ---> Normal

Positive value = tails of the

value of Kurtosis indicates shorter

Values more than 3 box-lengths from 75th

Values more than 1.5

Largest observed value that isnt

Fig.1. Boxplot comparisons of the creativity scores of

Elaboration > Fluency > Flexibility > Originality

Example: Boxplots for more than one variable / time series

Testing Normality of data

All data must be tested for normality before analyzing

To show Normality of Data

Data Editor - Analyze - Descriptive Statistics - Explore

Not sig. at p < .01.

BoxPlot for Male and Female parents

Detrended Normal Q-Q Plot

Normal Q-Q Plot of CRA

Detrended Normal Q-Q Plot of CRA

Normal Q-Q Plot of CRA

For SEX= MALE

For SEX= MALE

Dev from Normal

Detrended Normal Q-Q Plot of CRA

Normal Q-Q Plot of CRA

For SEX= FEMALE

For SEX= FEMALE

Dev from Normal