Electonics Final Handouts

Electronics Engineering
Review Course
ELECTRONICS
MAPUA
ECE REVIEW
Science dealing with the development and application of devices and system involving the
flow of electrons in a vacuum, in gaseous media, in plasma and/or in semiconductors.
Application of Electronics:
1. Communication Electronics
2. Electric Power
3. Digital Electronics
Basic Electrical Components:
1. Active devices that can be used for amplification, rectification or change energy from
one another.
a. semiconductor
b. electron tubes
c. visual display devices
2. Passive
a. Resistors limits the flow of current or divide the voltages in the circuit.
b. Capacitor concentrates the electric field of voltage applied to a dielectric
c. Inductor concentrates the magnetic field of electric current in the coil.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Review Course
Atom the smallest particle of an element that retains the characteristics of the element
BOHR MODEL
Figure 1-1. - The composition of a simple helium atom.
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Subatomic Particles:
MASS
Electrons
9.1 x 10-31kg
Protons
1.67 x 10-27kg
Neutrons
1.67 x 10-27 kg
N107 MIT, Muralla St., Intramuros, Manila
(02) 247-5000 local 2100 or (02)524-5572
CHARGE
1.67 x 10-19 C
1.67 x 10-19 C
none
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Review Course
Atomic number number of protons

Atomic Mass number of protons and neutrons
SHELL & SUBSHELL AROUND THE NUCLEUS
SHELL
Numerical Literal
Subshells
Capacity
s2
2 e-
s2, p6
8 e-
s2, p6, d10
18 e-
s2, p6, d10, f14
32 e-
Figure 1-5. - Energy level diagram.
ELECTRICAL CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

CONDUCTOR
A material that easily conducts electric current
Number of valence electrons is 1-3
INSULATOR
A material that DOES NOT conducts electric current under normal conditions
Number of valence electrons is 5-8
Valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms.
SEMICONDUCTOR
A material that is between conductors and insulators in its ability to conduct electrical
current
Number of valence electrons is 4
Neither a good conductor nor a good insulator in its pure form
ENERGY BANDS
TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR
1. Intrinsic Semiconductor semiconductor in its pure (elemental) form.
a. Silicon
b. Germanium
Figure 1-4. - The energy arrangement in atoms.
Figure 1-7. - A two-dimensional view of a silicon cubic lattice.

Conduction Electrons free electrons or electrons in the conduction band
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Hole vacancy left by the electron in the valence band or the absence of electron
Electron-Hole Pair for every electron raised to the conduction band by external energy, there is
one hole left in the valence band
Recombination occurs when a conduction-band electron loses energy and falls back into a hole in
the valence band.
Electron Current movement of free electrons in a semiconductive materials.
Hole Current movement of holes in a semiconductive material
2. Extrinsic Semiconductor semiconductor with impurities
Doping The process of adding impurities to an intrinsic semiconductor.
a. Pentavalent atoms atoms with 5 valence electrons.
1. Arsenic (As)
2. Phosphorus (P)
3. Bismuth (Bi)
4. Antimony (Sb)
b. Trivalent atoms atoms with 3 valence electrons
1. Aluminum (Al)
2. Boron (B)
3. Indium (In)
4. Galium (Ga)
a. N-Type Semiconductor doped with pentavalent atom
Figure 1-9. - Germanium crystal doped with arsenic.
b. P-Type Semiconductor doped with trivalent atom

Figure 1-11. - Germanium crystal doped with indium.
PN JUNCTION
The boundary between two different types of semiconductive material

Formed when a piece of intrinsic silicon is doped so that half is n-type and the other half is
p-type
Figure 1-13. - The PN junction barrier formation.
DEPLETION REGION
The area near a pn junction on both sides that has no majority carriers
Region that is depleted of carriers.
BARRIER POTENTIAL
The potential difference of the electric field across the depletion region
The amount of energy required to move electrons through the electric field
Typically equal to0.7V for Silicon and 0.3V for Germanium at 25oC
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BIASING THE PN JUNCTION

Application of external dc voltage across the pn junction
FORWARD BIAS is the condition that allows current through a pn junction
Figure 1-14. - Forward-biased PN junction.
Dynamic Resistance the nonlinear internal resistance of a semiconductive material.

DIODE MODELS
The Ideal Diode Model
REVERSE BIAS - is the condition that prevents current through the pn junction
Figure 1-15. - Reverse-biased PN junction.
A simple switch, FB is like a closed (on) switch, RB is like an open (off) switch
Barrier potential, forward dynamic resistance and the reverse current are all neglected
IF
VR
THE DIODE
A semiconductor device that allows the flow of current in one direction only.
A single pn junction device with conductive contacts and wire leads connected to each region
anode
cathode
VB
VF
The Practical Diode Model

Adds the barrier potential to the ideal switch model
When FB acts like a closed switch in series with a small voltage.
When diode is reverse bias it acts like an open switch
IF
Figure 1-16. - PN junction diode characteristic curve.
VR
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VB
VF
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The Complex Diode Model
Consist of the barrier potential, the small dynamic resistance (rd) and the large internal
reverse resistance (rR)
When FB acts like a closed switch in series with the barrier potential voltage and the small
forward dynamic resistance (rd).
When diode is reverse bias it acts like an open switch in parallel with the large internal
reverse resistance (rR).
IF
Slope due to low
forward
0.7
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1.
2.
3.
Small reverse
current due to high
4.
IR
5.
6.
7.
Review Questions
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Which of the following is currently being

used to describe the atomic structure?
a. JJ Thomsons model
b. Rutherfords model
c. Bohrs model
d. Armstrongs model
Which of the following subatomic
particles, according to Bohrs model, is
smallest?
a. proton
b. electron
c. neutron
d. magnetron
____ is 1800 times as heavy as _____.
a. electron, proton
b. proton, neutron
c. neutron, proton
d. proton, electron
Which of the following statements is
true?
a. electron has a unit charge of +1
b. proton has a unit charge of -1
c. neutron has a unit charge of 0
d. none of the above.
Which determines the atomic number of
an element?
a. number of electrons
b. number of protons
c. number of neutrons
d. number of protons and neutrons
Which determines the atomic mass of
an element?
a. number of electrons
b. number of protons
c. number of neutrons
d. number of protons and neutrons
1H3 is an example of a Hydrogen atom.
Which statement is true?
a. Hydrogen has an atomic number of
3
b. Hydrogen has an atomic mass of 1
c.
Hydrogen has number of protons

equals 3
d. Hydrogen has number of neutrons
equals 2
8. Atoms with same atomic number but
different atomic mass is called
a. isotopes
b. isobars
c. cation
d. anion
9. 18Ar40 and 20Ca40 atoms are considered
as
a. isotopes
b. isobars
c. cation
d. anion
10. 3rd quantum number is also known as
a. K-shell
b. L-shell
c. M-shell
d. N-shell
11. How many subshells are there in Nshell?
a. 5 subshells
b. 4 subshells
c. 3 subshells
d. 2 subshells
12. f-subshell is the 4th subshell. What does
f means?
a. false
b. factual
c. fundamental
d. finite
13. f-subshell can accommodate maximum
of ____ electrons.
a. 14
b. 10
c. 8
d. 6
14. L-shell can accommodate maximum of
____ electrons.
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a. 14
b. 10
c. 8
d. 6
15. Valence electrons are found at the
_____
a. innermost shell
b. outermost shell
c. outermost subshell
d. nucleus
16. A silicon atom has an atomic number of
14. Determine the number of its valence
electrons.
a. 1
b. 4
c. 6
d. 8
17. An atom is mechanically, chemically,
and electrically stale if the number of
valence electrons is 8. This is known as
a. Octet Rule
b. skin effect
c. Mongols Rule
d. none of the above
18. Which of the following atoms are
considered to be most stable?
a. atoms at Group I in the periodic
table of elements
b. atoms at Group IV in the periodic
table of elements
c. atoms at Group V in the periodic
table of elements
d. atoms at Group VIII in the periodic
table of elements
19. _____ are materials where atoms have
valence electrons equal to 4.
a. insulator
b. conductor
c. semiconductor
d. semi-insulator
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20. Additional amount of energy required to

elevate an electron from valence band
to conduction band.
a. energy gap
b. band gap
c. both a and b
d. neither a and b
21. Energy exerted by electrons is best
presented in
a. joules
b. AV
c. electronvolts
d. watts
22. A positively charged atom is sometimes
called
a. Isotope
b. anion
c. acceptor atom
d. cation
23. What causes the current to be much
denser near the surface of a conductor
than its center?
a. skin effect
b. dense effect
c. permeance
d. resistance effect
24. Why is the resistance of a conductor
different for RF current than for DC?
a. Because of higher voltage
b. Because of skin effect
c. Because the insulation conducts
current a radio frequencies
d. Because conductors are non-linear
devices
25. The process in which a high velocity
beam of electrons or ions is made to
strike a metal surface and the impinging
ions gives sufficient energy to enable
them to overcome the barrier and
escape.
a. thermionic emission
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b. photoelectric emission
c. secondary emission
d. high field emission
26. The electrons emitted by a heated
conductor come from what source?
a. An external battery
b. An external ac source
c. Both 1 and 2 above
d. The conductor itself
27. What is another name for thermionic
emission?
a. The gap effect
b. The heat effect
c. The Edison effect
d. The Fleming effect
28. Electrons emitted by a hot filament are
able to cross the gap between the
filament and the plate. What force
enables them to do this?
a. Magnetic repulsion
b. Inductive reactance
c. Thermionic emission
d. Electrostatic attraction
29. Name the two series circuits that are
associated with a diode electron tube.
a. The plate and anode circuits
b. The plate and filament circuits
c. The battery and filament circuits
d. The filament and cathode circuits
30. When an ac voltage is applied across
the plate and filament of a diode, the
current measured will represent what
type of waveform?
a. Pulsating dc
b. Dc
c. Pulsating ac
d. Ac
31. A filament that uses a one-moleculethick
layer of barium and strontium is
classified as what type of filament?
a. Tungsten
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32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
b. Oxide-coated
c. Tungsten-strontium
d. Thoriated-tungsten
Which of the following ac filament
voltages is most likely to be considered
a common voltage?
a. 1.5 volts
b. 3.0 volts
c. 6.3 volts ( 5.0, 12.6)
d. 9.0 volts
An ac directly heated filament has which
of the following advantages?
a. Even spacing relative to the plate
b. Even emission across the filament
c. Constant emission throughout the
ac cycle
d. Rapid heating effect
An indirectly heated cathode always
uses what material for its emitting
surface?
a. An oxide coating
b. A thorium coating
c. A tungsten coating
d. A graphite coating
What is the principal advantage of an
indirectly heated cathode over a directly
heated cathode?
a. It is larger
b. It is immune to ac heater current
variations
c. It reaches an operating
temperature more quickly
d. It has a lower operating
temperature
Electron tubes are identified by a
number preceded by which of the
following letter designations?
a. T
b. V
c. ET
d. VT
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37. The getter in an electron tube serves
what purpose?
a. It protects the plate from
overheating
b. It allows the cathode to emit more
electrons
c. It helps to produce a better vacuum
d. It anchors the tube elements in the
base
38. Most amplifier circuits are designed to
operate with the grid negative in relation
to the cathode. This is done to avoid
which of the following problems?
a. Excessive grid current
b. Excessive plate current
c. Distortion on small signals
d. Distortion on large negative signals
39. Overdriving can be considered a form of
distortion for which of the following
reasons?
a. The output is not in phase with the
input
b. The output does not have the same
polarity as the input
c. The output is not a faithful
reproduction of the input
d. The output does not have the same
amplitude as the input
40. The amplification factor for an electron
tube is identified by what electronic
symbol?
a. Ar
b. Vg
c. gm
d.
41. Transconductance is identified by what
electronic symbol?
a.
b. gm
c. rgk
d. tc
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42. In a triode, what interelectrode

capacitance has the greatest effect on
tube operation?
a. Cpg
b. Cgk
c. Cpk
d. Csg
43. Interelectrode capacitance (Cpg)
affects the gain of a triode stage
because of what electronic feature?
a. Blocking
b. Feedback
c. Transit time
d. Phase inversion
44. The _____ grid in an electron tube is
where the input signal is usually applied
a. screen
b. control
c. bias
d. suppression
45. Which of the following undesirable
characteristics is/are associated with
tetrode operation?
a. The plate is isolated from the
electron stream
b. The plate emits secondary
emission electrons
c. The output is noisy
d. Both 2 and 3 above
46. Generally, tetrodes have a lower
transconductance than triodes. This is
caused by what feature of a tetrode?
a. The plate is isolated from the
electron stream
b. The screen grid draws current from
the electron steam
c. Secondary emission limits the
amount of current the plate can
draw from the electron stream
d. The screen grid is operated at a
negative potential relative to the
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plate and electrons are repelled
from the plate
47. Which terminal of the tetrode is nearest
to its anode?
a. Screen grid
b. Cathode
c. Suppressor grid
d. Control grid
48. What is the purpose of screen grid?
a. To reduce interelectrode
capacitance
b. To increase amplification factor
c. To decrease secondary emission
current
d. To turn off the vacuum tube
49. It was developed permanently to
eliminate the grid to plate capacitance of
a vacuum tube.
a. tetrode
b. diode
c. pentode
d. diode
50. It is usually connected to the cathode
thus having substantially negative
potential to overcome the effects of the
secondary emission.
a. suppressor
b. screen
c. control
d. plate
51. How do you call an eight element
vacuum tubes?
a. octode
b. pentode
c. hexode
d. heptode
52. How many grids do a heptode has?
a. 7
b. 3
c. 5
d. 6
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53. _____ is an orderly pattern of combined

silicon atoms.
a. covalent bond
b. valence orbit
c. semiconductor
d. crystal
54. An intrinsic electronic semiconductor
behaves as ____ at absolute
temperature.
a. A variable resistor
b. A conductor
c. A superconductor
d. An insulator
55. An intrinsic electronic semiconductor
behaves as ____ above room
temperature.
a. A variable resistor
b. A conductor
c. A superconductor
d. An insulator
56. The amount of time between the
creation of a hole and its disappearance
is called
a. doping
b. lifetime
c. recombination
d. thermal energy
57. A hole in the semiconductor is defined
as
a. a free electron
b. an incomplete part of an electron
pair bond
c. a free proton
d. a free proton
58. This happens when a free electron
returns to the valence shell.
a. Hole
b. Ionization
c. Recombination
d. Lifetime
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59. Semiconductor whose electron and hole
concentrations are equal.
a. doped semiconductor
b. extrinsic semiconductor
c. intrinsic semiconductor
d. equal semiconductor
60. Arsenic and phosphorus are examples
of
a. pentavalent impurity
b. trivalent impurity
c. free electrons
d. holes
61. Arsenic and phosphorus when added to
a semiconductor creates
a. bound electrons
b. valence electrons
c. free electrons
d. holes
62. Which is not a trivalent atom?
a. Al
b. Bi
c. In
d. B
63. Which of the following refers to an
electron in the conduction band?
a. Electrons driven by photons
b. Electrons that loses its charge easily
c. Those electrons with lower energy
than those in the valence band
d. Those electrons with higher energy
than those in the valence band
64. The valence electron of a copper atom
experiences what kind of attraction
toward the nucleus?
a. none
b. weak
c. strong
d. impossible to say
65. The valence electron of a conductor is
also called a
a. bound electron
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b. free electron
c. nucleus
d. proton
66. What happens to the resistance of the
copper wire when it is heated?
a. increases
b. remains the same
c. decreases
d. becomes zero
67. When the temperature of an extrinsic
semiconductor increases the
pronounced effect is on
a. majority carriers
b. minority carriers
c. junction capacitance
d. majority and minority carriers
68. A semiconductor has _____
temperature coefficient of resistance.
a. negative
b. positive
c. zero
d. either positive or negative
69. A pn junction is formed by
a. the recombination of electrons and
holes
b. ionization
c. the boundary of a p-type and an ntype material
d. the collision of a proton and a
neutron
70. The depletion region is created by
a. ionization
b. diffusion
c. recombination
d. all of the above
71. The arrow in the schematic symbol for a
diode points which way?
a. Towards the cathode
b. In the direction of current flow
c. Towards the anode
d. Towards the magnetic north
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72. As you increase the doping level of a
crystal diode its barrier potential _____.
a. destabilizes
b. decreases
c. increases
d. stabilizes
73. With the rise in temperature of a PN
junction, which of the following will
increase?
a. width of the depletion layer
b. junction barrier of the voltage
c. reverse leakage current
d. all of the above
74. What happens to the width of the
depletion region of a pn junction when
the doping level is increased?
a. increases
b. remains the same
c. decreases
d. vanishes
75. How many diodes will you use in
designing a half-wave rectifier power
supply?
a. two
b. one
c. four
d. three
76. _____ is the output of a half-wave
rectifier.
a. half-wave rectified signal
b. square wave signal
c. 100% AC signal
d. sinusoidal signal
77. A half-wave rectifier circuit utilizing onehalf of an ac input cycle have a
frequency in its output equivalent to
a. 60cps
b. 120cps
c. 110cps
d. 240cps
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78. The maximum rectification efficiency of

a full-wave rectifier
a. 40.6%
b. 89%
c. 50%
d. 81.2%
79. The ripple factor for a half-wave rectifier
is
a. 2
b. 1.21
c. 0.7
d. 0.45
80. The ripple factor for a full-wave rectifier
is
a. 1
b. 0.96
c. 0.64
d. 0.482
81. If the filter capacitance is increased, the
ripple will
a. decrease
b. stay the same
c. increase
d. none of these
82. The disadvantage of a half-wave
rectifier is that
a. Components are expensive
b. Diodes must have power rating.
c. Output is difficult to filter
d. Uses transformer
83. If the load current is 5mA and the filter
capacitance is 1000f, what is the peak
to peak ripple out of the bridge rectifier?
a. 21.3 pV
b. 56.3 nV
c. 41.1 mV
d. 41.7 mV
84. Find the filter capacitor that will provide
2.5% ripple filtered voltage having a
load of 120 mA, full-wave rectified
voltage of 36 Vdc and 60 Hz supply.
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a. 3117 F
b. 3207 F
c. 311.7 F
d. 320.7 F
85. Find the voltage regulation giving a dc
voltage of 67 V without load and with full
load current drawn the output voltage
drops to 42 V.
a. 59.5%
b. 62.7%
c. 15.9%
d. 32.5%
86. What is the voltage across a reverse
biased diode in series with a 10V DC
source and a 1k resistor?
a. 0V
b. 0.7V
c. 0.3V
d. 10V
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TRANSISTOR
A semiconductive device used for amplification and switching applications.

William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain were the co-inventors of transistor at
Bell Laboratories in 1947.
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)

The term Bipolar is because two type of charges (electrons and holes) are involved in the
flow of electricity
The term Junction is because there are two pn junctions
There are two configurations for this device
NPN and PNP Transistors

NPN Transistor
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PNP Transistor
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Parts and Proper Bias
1) Collector- moderately doped (collector carrier)
-the doping is between that of the emitter and the base
- largest of the three regions
2) Base - Lightly doped (control)
- controls the flow of carriers from emitter and collector
-smallest
3) Emitter - Heavily doped
- 2nd largest
- emits carrier
PROPER BIAS OF TRANSISTOR
For proper operation of the circuit
1) Emitter base junction should be forward bias
2) Collector-base junction should be reversed bias
Transistor Operation
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BJT CONFIGURATIONS
Common Base
IC
IE
Forward
Current Gain
Common Collector
+1 =
IE
IB
Forward
Current Gain
Typical values: 0.001 to 0.9999

Relationship of and
IE = IB + IC
Multiply with 1/ Ic
[IE = IB + IC] 1/ Ic
IE IB IC
IC IC IC
1 / = 1 + 1/
= / ( + 1 )
Example No 1.
Determine DC, IE, and DC for a transistor where IB = 50A and IC = 3.65mA.
Current and Voltage Analysis
VCE = Voltage drop from collector to emitter

VCB = Voltage drop from collector to base
VBE = Voltage drop from base to emitter
IC = Current into the collector
IB = Current into the base
IE = Current out of the emitter.
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Example 2.
Determine IB, IC, IE, VBE, VCE, and VCB in the circuit. The transistor has a DC = 150
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Examples.
Sketch an ideal family of collector curves for the circuit for IB = 5A to 25A in 5A increments. DC
= 100 and that VCE does not exceed breakdown.
RC
IC
RB
IB
. DC = 100
VCC
VBB
Collector Characteristic Curves
Cutoff, Saturation, and The DC load line
Example 4.
Determine whether or not the transistor is in saturation. Assume VCE(sat) = 0.2 V.
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Example 7)
a) For the transistor, what is VCE when VIN = 0V?
b) What minimum value of IB is required to saturate this transistor if DC is 200? Neglect VCE(sat).
c) Calculate the maximum value of RB when VIN = 5V.
Example 5) The transistor has the following maximum ratings: PD(max) =800mW, VCE(max) = 15V,
and IC(max) = 100mA. Determine the maximum value to whichh VCC can be adjusted without
exceeding a rating.
DC Operating point
+VCC
RC
C
Derating PDmax)
Example 6) A certain transistor has PD(max) of 1W at 25C. The derating factor is 5mw/C . What is
the PD(max) at a temperature of 70C ?
The Transistor as a switch
+VCC
R
RB
0
IB = 0
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a) Cutoff
+VCC
IC = 0
RC
R
C
E
+VCC
+VCC
RB
RC
IC(sat)
C
+VBB
IB
B) Saturation
DC Load Line
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Example 1) Determine the Q-point, and find the maximum peak value of base current for linear
operation. Assume DC = 200.
Linear Operation
BASE BIAS
Waveform Distortion
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Simplified Voltage-Divider
Input Resistance at the Base

+VCC
+VCC
RC
IIN
+
VIN
R
-
Example 2) The Base bias circuit is subjected to increase in temperature from 25C to 75C. If DC
= 100 at 25C and 150 at 75C, determine the percent in Q-point values (IC and VCE) over the
temperature range. Neglect any change in VBE and the effects of leakage current.
b) Loaded
VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIAS
RIN(base)
+VCC
a)Unloaded
R
Example 3) Determine VCEand IC. Assume DC = 100

+VCC
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10k
R1
5.6k
R2
IE
RE
RIN(base) = DCRE
Analysis of Voltage-Divider Circuit

+V
R2
+
VBE -
RC
RE
1k
560
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REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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In a pnp transistor, the p-regions are

a. Base and emitter
b. Base and collector
c. Emitter and collector
d. Wala lang
For operation as an amplifier, the base
of an npn transistor must be
a. Positive with respect to the emitter
b. Negative with respect to the emitter
c. Positive with respect to the collector
d. 0 V
The DC of a transistor is its
a. Current gain
b. Voltage gain
c. Power gain
d. Internal resistance
If IC is 50 times larger than IB, then DC
is
a. 0.02
b. 100
c. 50
d. 500
If DC is 100, the value of DC is
a. 99
b. 0.99
c. 101
d. 0.01
The bias condition for a transistor to be
used as a linear amplifier is called
a. forward-reverse
b. forward-forward
c. reverse-reverse
d. collector bias
When operated in cutoff and saturation,
the transistor acts like
a. A linear amplifier
b. A switch
c. A variable capacitor
d. A variable resistor
8.
In cutoff, VCE is
a. 0 V
b. minimum
c. maximum
d. equal to VCC
9. In saturation, VCE is
a. 0.7 V
b. equal to VCC
c. minimum
d. maximum
10. To saturate a BJT,
a. IB=IC
b. IB > IC(sat) / DC
c. VCC must be at least 10 V
d. The emitter must be grounded
11. Once in saturation, a further increase in
base current will
a. Cause the collector current to
increase
b. Not affect the collector current
c. Cause the collector current to
decrease
d. Turn the transistor off
12. If the base-emitter junction is open, the
collector voltage is
a. VCC
b. 0 V
c. floating
d. 0.2 V
13. The maximum value of collector current
in a biased transistor is
a. DCIB
b. IC(sat)
c. greater than IE
d. IE - IB
14. Ideally, a dc load line is a straight line
drawn on the collector characteristic
curves between
a. The Q-point and cutoff
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b. The Q-point and saturation
c. VCE(cutoff) and IC(sat)
d. IB = 0 and IB = IC / DC
15. The disadvantage of a base bias is that
a. It is very complex
b. It produces low gain
c. It is too beta dependent
d. It produces high leakage current
16. Emitter bias is
a. Essentially independent of DC
b. Very dependent on DC
c. Provides a stable bias point
d. Answers (a) and (c)
17. The input resistance at the base of a
biased transistor depends mainly on
a. DC
b. RB
c. RE
d. DC and RE
18. In a voltage-divider biased transistor
circuit RIn(base) can generally be
neglected in calculations when
a. RIN(base) > R2
b. R2 >10RIN(base)
c. R IN(base) > 10R2
d. R1 << R2
19. Biasing represents _____ condition.
a. AC
b. DC
c. AC and DC
d. neither AC nor DC
20. The following relationships between
alpha and beta are true except
a. beta= alpha/(1-alpha)
b. alpha = beta /(beta -1)
c. alpha = beta /(beta +1)
d. (1- alpha)= 1/(1+beta)
21. In a certain voltage-divider biased npn
transistor, VB is 2.95 V. The dc emitter
voltage is approximately
a. 2.25 V
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b. 2.95 V
c. 3.65 V
d. 0.7 V
22. Voltage-divider bias
a. Cannot be independent of DC
b. Can be essentially independent of
DC
c. Is not widely used
d. Requires fewer components than all
the other metods
23. In a voltage-divider biased npn
transistor, if the upper voltage-divider
resistor (the one connected to VCC)
opens,
a. The transistor goes into cutoff
b. The transistor goes into saturation
c. The transistor burns out
d. The supply voltage is too high
24. A small-signal amplifier
a. Uses only a small portion of its load
line
b. Always has an output signal in the
mV range
c. Goes into saturation once on each
input cycle
d. Is always a common-emitter
amplifier
25. If a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the
base of a biased npn transistor and the
resulting sinusoidal collector voltage is
clipped near zero volts, the transistor is
a. Being driven into saturation
b. Being driven into cutoff
c. Operating nonlinearly
d. Answers (a) and (c)
26. If the dc emitter current in a certain
transistor amplifier is 3 mA, the
approximate value of re is
a. 3 k
b. 3
c. 8.33
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d. 0.33
27. For a common-collector amplifier, RE =
100 , and ac = 150. The ac input
resistance at the base is
a. 1500
b. 15 k
c. 110
d. 16.5 k
28. For a common-emitter amplifier, RC = 1
k, RE = 390 , re = 15 , and ac = 75.
Assuming that RE is completely
bypassed at the operating frequency,
the voltage gain is
a. 66.7
b. 2.56
c. 2.47
d. 75
29. In the circuit of question no.28, if the
frequency is reduced to the point where
XC(bypass) = RE, the voltage gain is
a. Remains the same
b. is less
c. is greater
d. indeterminate
30. The circuit that provides the best
stabilization of operating point is
a. base bias
b. collector feedback bias
c. voltage divider bias
d. emitter feedback bias
31. In a darlington pair configuration, each
transistor has an ac beta of 125. If RE is
560 , the input resistance is
a. 560
b. 70 k
c. 8.75 M
d. 140 k
32. The input resistance of a common-base
amplifier is
a. very low
b. very high
31
c. the same as a CE
d. the same as a CC
33. In a common-emitter amplifier with
voltage-divider bias, Rin(base) = 68 k, R1
= 33 k, and R2 = 15 k. The total input
resistance is
a. 68 k
b. 8.95 k
c. 22.2 k
d. 12.3 k
34. A CE amplifier is driving a 10 k load. If
RC = 2.2 k and re = 10 , the voltage
gain is approximately
a. 220
b. 1000
c. 10
d. 180
35. In a certain emitter feedback bias circuit,
the base resistance is 100 k and the
beta of the transistor is 99. What is the
resistance seen by the emitter circuit
looking to the base?
a. 99
b. 10 k
c. 1 k
d. 99 k
36. The circuit that provides the best
stabilization of operating point is
a. base bias
b. collector feedback bias
c. voltage divider bias
d. emitter feedback bias
37. Each stage of a four-stage amplifier has
a voltage gain of 15. The overall voltage
gain is
a. 60
b. 15
c. 50,625
d. 3078
38. The overall gain found in question 37
can be expressed in decibels as
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a. 94.1 dB
b. 47.0 dB
c. 35.6 dB
d. 69.8 dB
39. The overall gain of an amplifier in
cascade is
a. the sum
b. the average
c. the product
d. 100% of the sum
40. The decibel gain in cascaded amplifiers
equal the
a. sum of the voltage and the current
gains
b. product of the individual gains
c. difference of the individual gains
d. sum of the individual gains
41. A transistor in which n-type and p-type
materials are used is called
a. unijunction
b. bipolar
c. TTL
d. FET
42. In the PNP transistor _____ are the
majority carriers.
a. electrons
b. holes
c. donor atoms
d. acceptor atoms
43. In the Darlington pair configuration,
each transistor has a beta of 100. What
is the effective b of the pair?
a. 1,000
b. 100
c. 10,000
d. 1
44. A small signal amplifier
a. uses only a small portion of its
loadline
b. always has an output signal in the
millivolt range
32
c.
goes into saturation once on its

input cycle
d. is always common emitter amplifier
45. Equivalent circuit model commonly used
in small signal analysis at high
frequencies.
a. Ebers-Moll
b. ideal model
c. Hybrid-Pi or Giacoletto
d. H parameters
46. The smallest of the four h-parameters of
the transistor is
a. hr and ho
b. hi and ho
c. hr and hf
d. hi and hf
47. The main consideration in the output
stage of an amplifier is the
a. power output
b. power gain
c. voltage gain
d. fidelity
48. ______ amplifiers are usually placed at
the input stages.
a. voltage
b. resistance
c. current
d. power
49. The output stage in an amplifier is also
called
a. mixer stage
b. power stage
c. detector stage
d. RF stage
50. Semiconductor which is considered to
be low power or small signal usually
have power dissipation ratings of
a. 1 watt or less
b. 5 watt or less
c. exactly 1 watt
d. 10 watt or less
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51. Which transistor configuration has the
highest input resistance?
a. common base
b. common emitter
c. common collector
d. common transistor
52. In CC amplifier, voltage gain
a. cannot exceed unity
b. depends on the output impedance
c. is dependent on the input signal
d. is always constant
53. Which of the following configurations
can be used as a buffer?
a. CE
b. CB
c. CC
d. CG
54. Which of the following combinations has
no phase inversion of the signal?
a. CB and CE
b. two CEs
c. CC and CE
d. any of these
55. The collector current flows for ____ in a
Class A amplifier.
a. less than the whole cycle
b. half cycle
c. less than the half cycle
d. the entire cycle
56. A class A circuit would not work well as
a. a stereo hi-fi amplifier
b. a TV transmitter PA
c. a low level microphone preamplifier
d. the first stage in a radio receiver
57. The Q-point will be located at _____ if
the base resistor is open.
a. the lower end of the loadline
b. the upper end of the loadline
c. the middle of the loadline
d. the loadline
33
58. The transistor in class B amplifier is

biased at
a. cutoff
b. reverse
c. saturation
d. midpoint of the loadline
59. Crossover distortion is a problem of
what amplifier class?
a. A
b. B
c. C
d. AB
60. The maximum efficiency of a resistance
loaded class A amplifier is
a. 50%
b. 30%
c. 25%
d. 78.5%
61. The maximum efficiency of a
transformer coupled class A amplifier is
a. 78.5%
b. 100%
c. 25%
d. 50%
62. A transistor amplifier with 85% efficiency
is likely to be class
a. A
b. B
c. C
d. AB
63. Which is the characteristic of AC
loadline?
a. it always saturated
b. it is usually of less slope than that of
the DC loadline
c. it always cutoff
d. it is usually steeper than DC loadline
64. The purpose RC or transformer coupling
is to
a. block AC
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b.
separate bias of one stage from

another
c. increased thermal stability
d. amplify
65. This method of coupling is distortionless
and gives a uniform response over a
wide range of frequency.
a. direct coupling
b. transformer coupling
c. RC coupling
d. impedance coupling
66. The best frequency response is of ____
coupling.
a. Direct
b. transformer
c. RC
d. inductive
67. The initial stages of a multistage
amplifier uses
a. link coupling
c. RC coupling
68. The final stage of an amplifier uses
a. direct coupling
c. RC coupling
69. It consists of elements inseparably
associated and formed on or within a
single substrate.
a. Microcircuit
b. Module
c. Integrated circuit
d. Microsoft
70. Component usually not found in IC
a. Resistor
b. Capacitor
c. Inductor
d. Transistor
34
71. ____ is a thin polished slice of a

semiconductor crystal on which
integrated circuit can be fabricated often
in duplicate, for cutting into individual
slice.
a. Silicon
b. Indium
c. Gallium
d. Wafer
72. Process of growing a thin layer of silicon
dioxide over a semiconductor.
a. Oxidation
b. Photolithographic process
c. Isolation
d. Metalization
73. IC production step to prevent unwanted
interaction between elements within a
chip.
a. Crystal growth
b. Conversion
c. Crystallization
d. Isolation
74. An IC constructed entirely on a single
silicon chip.
a. Monolithic
b. Thin-film
c. Hybrid
d. Thick-film
75. Ics whose components are passive
elements either resistor or capacitors.
a. Monolithic
b. Thin-film
c. Film
d. Thick-film
76. An IC formed by interconnecting a
number of individual chips or by a
combination of film and monolithic Ics.
a. Monolithic
b. Thin-film
c. Hybrid
d. Thick-film
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77. Method used in producing thick film
components.
a. Evaporation
b. Epitaxial
c. Screening
d. diffusion
78. Method(s) used in producing thin films.
a. Vacuum evaporation
b. Cathode sputtering
c. Screening
d. A and b
79. A method used to deposit thin film
components on a single substrate in a
highly evacuated chamber.
a. Diffusion
b. Epitaxial
c. Cathode sputtering
d. Vacuum evaporation
80. A ____ is an IC that is used to process
analog signals.
a. ROM
b. CMOS
c. Linear IC
d. VMOS
81. The most widely used digital logic family
a. DTL
b. TTL
c. ECL
d. RTL
82. ECL is high speed because
a. Operation is in the low noise
negative supply region
b. Construction in small geometries
c. The use of gallium arsenide
conductors
d. The operating transistors being
unsaturated
83. What is a CMOS IC?
a. A chip with only bipolar transistors
b. A chip with n-channel transistors
35
c.
A chip with p-channel(pmos) and nchannel(nmos) transistors

d. A chip with p-channel transistors
84. Digital IC that contains 10 to 100 gates.
a. SSI
b. MSI
c. LSI
d. VLSI
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FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR
GENERAL VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER

MODEL
BJT AMPLIFIER CONFIGURATION
36
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BJT EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
PERFORMANCE FACTORS
1. Hybrid model uses h-parameters of a twoport network system
V1 = h11 I1 + h12V2
Vi = h11 I i + h12Vo
I 2 = h21 I1 + h22V2
I o = h21 I i + h22Vo
HYBRID MODEL
BJT EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

2. re-model considers the ac or dynamic resistance
of a forward bias pn junction
re =
37
38
26mV
IE
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2. Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect

Transistor (MOSFET)
PERFORMANCE FACTORS
- a type of FET with insulated gate which

provides a very high input impedance
a. Depletion type MOSFET (D-MOSFET)

- a MOSFET with channel when gate
is open
- acts a normally close switch
FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS

1.
39
Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)

- a type of JFET that only operates at reverse bias to
control the flow of current
- acts as a normally close switch
40
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b. Enhancement type MOSFET (E-MOSFET)

- a MOSFET without channel when gate
is open
- acts a normally open switch
JFET OPERATION
When VGS 0V (reverse bias):
- As the reverse bias voltage at the gate
increases, channel resistance increases
- Drain current is easily saturated
- When VGS = |VP|, drain current is zero
JFET OPERATION
DMOSFET OPERATION
When VGS = 0V:

- As VDD increases, carrier flow increases
from source to drain.
- Gate to Drain junction is reverse biased,
resulting to a high channel resistance
- Drain current becomes saturated when
VDS equal pinch-off voltage (VP)
41
When VGS = 0V:

- As VDD increases, carrier flow increases
from source to drain.
- Gate to Drain junction is reverse biased
resulting to a recombination of carriers
between the channel and the substrate
- Drain current becomes saturated when
VDS equal pinch-off voltage (VP)
42
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Review Course
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
DMOSFET OPERATION
When VGS 0V (reverse bias voltage):
- As the reverse bias voltage at the gate
increases, channel resistance increases
- Drain current is easily saturated
- When VGS = |VP|, drain current is zero
When VGS 0V (forward bias voltage):
- As the forward bias voltage at the gate
increases, carriers are enhanced resulting
to increase in drain current
EMOSFET OPERATION
When VGS = 0V:
- ID is zero
When VGS < 0V:
- ID is zero
When VGS > 0V:
- Channel starts to build up
- When VGS equals VTH, carriers start to
flow form source to drain
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1.
The term use to describe sudden
reverse conduction of an electronic
component cause by excess reverse
voltage across the device.
a. cut-off
b. saturation
c. avalanche
d. revertion
2.
What phenomenon in electronics
does an avalanche breakdown primarily
dependent?
a. doping
b. recombination
c. ionization
d. collision
3.
The primary use of zener diode in
electronic circuits.
a. resistance regulator
b. rectifier
c. voltage regulator
d. current regulator
4.
How do zener diodes widely used?
a. Current limiters
b. Power collectors
c. Variable resistors
d. Voltage regulators
5.
_______ is the type of bias
required by an LED to produce
luminescence.
a. Forward bias
b. Zero bias
c. Reverse bias
d. Inductive bias
6.
Which semiconductor material is
commonly used in the conduction of LED?
a. Silicon (Si)
b. Gallium Arsenide (Ga As)
c. Germanium (Ge)
d. Gallium (Ga)
44
7.
If an arrow next to an
optoelectronic device schematic symbol
points away from the symbol, the device is
considered to be
a. photoemissive
b. a p-type semiconductor
c. photosensitive
d. an n-type semiconductor
8.
_____ is a pn junction
semiconductor device that emits noncoherent optical radiation when biased in
the forward direction, as a result of a
recombination effect.
a. LASER
b. JFET
c. LED
d. MOS
9.
Find the normal operating voltage
and current of LED
a. 60V and 20mA
b. 5V and 50mA
c. 0.7V and 60mA
d. 1.7V and 20mA
10.
A photodiode is normally
a. forward-biased
b. reverse biased
c. neither forward nor reverse biased
d. emitting light
11.
The reverse current flowing through
a photodiode with no light input
a. Saturation current
b. Dark current
c. breakdown current
d. Light current
12.
The capacitance of the varactor
diode increases when the reverse voltage
across it
a. decreases
b. increases
c. breakdown
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d. storage charges
13.
The capacitance of a varactor
diode is in what general range?
a. pF
b. nF
c. mF
d. F
14.
Which is the wrong statement
regarding a Schottky diode?
a. it has no depletion layer
b. it has fast recovery time
c. it is a bipolar device
d. it is also called hot-carrier diode
15.
Another name for Esaki diode
a. Shockley diode
b. diac
c. hot-carrier diode
d. tunnel diode
16.
Refers to the special type of diode
which is capable of both amplification and
oscillation.
a. junction diode
b. tunnel diode
c. point contact diode
d. Zener diode
17.
What is the principal characteristic
of the tunnel diode?
a. a very high PIV
b. a high forward current rating
c. a high forward resistance
d. a negative resistance region
18.
Type of diode made of metal
whisker touching a very small
semiconductor die.
a. Junction diode
b. Varactor diode
c. Zener diode
d. Point contact diode
19.
It is a biomedical electronic
instrument used to measure and record
brain waves.
45
a.
b.
c.
d.
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
oscilloscope
Electrocardiograph (ECG, EKG)
body-function monitor
20.
instrument used to measure electrical
potentials generated by the heart.
a. Electroencephalograph (EEG)
b. oscilloscope
c. Electrocardiograph (ECG, EKG)
d. body-function monitor
21.
instrument used for recording biological
conditions in critical patients.
a. Electroencephalograph (EEG)
b. oscilloscope
c. Electrocardiograph (ECG, EKG)
d. body-function monitor
22.
An ultrahigh frequency sound wave
used to see the internal within the body
using piezoelectricity
a. Mammograph
b. Ultrasound or sonograph
c. Thermograph
d. Thermometer
23.
It is an X-ray technique used to
diagnose and locate abnormalities within
the female breasts
a. Mammography
c. Thermography
d. Thermometer
24.
A medical technique that makes
use of the infrared radiation from the
human skin to detect an area of elevated
skin temperature that could be associated
with an underlying cancer.
a. Mammography
c. Thermography
d. Thermometer
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25.
____ is a unipolar semiconductor
device whose current is carried by the
majority carriers only.
a. Field Effect Transistor
b. Point-contact Transistor
c. Zener diode
d. Bipolar Junction Transistor
26.
The terminals of a field effect
transistor (whether MOS or junction type,
enhancement or depletion type),
corresponding respectively to the emitter,
base and collector of bipolar transistor are
a. anode, gate and cathode
b. source, gate and drain
c. input, power supply and output
d. drain, channel and source
27.
What is the current-carrying part of
a field effect transistor?
a. source
b. gate
c. channel
d. drain
28.
What is the majority carrier in an Nchannel?
a. Holes
b. Neutrons
c. Electrons
d. Protons
29.
The JFET is
a. a unipolar device
b. current control device
c. a voltage control device
d. a and c
30.
The minimum value of VGS that will
cause the drain current to drop to zero.
a. Pinch-off voltage
b. Thermal voltage
c. 26mV
d. gate-to-source cutoff voltage
31.
For VGS=0V, the drain current
becomes constant when VDS exceeds
46
a.
b.
c.
d.
cut-off
VDD
VP
0V
32.
The constant-current region of an
FET lies between
a. cut-off and saturation
b. cut-off and pinch-off
c. 0 and IDSS
d. pinch-off and breakdown
33.
What is the controlling parameter
for JFET?
a. VGS
b. IDSS
c. IB
d. IG
34.
FET is a unipolar device because
a. It needs only one supply
b. There is only one current direction
c. It has only one main terminal
d. Its conduction is due only to one
type of charged carrier
35.
An FET can act as an excellent
buffer amplifier because
a. it has low input impedance and high
output impedance
b. it has a high input impedance and a
low output impedance
c. it has a very high voltage gain and a
low noise level
d. smaller size, longer life, and lower
efficiency
36.
This semiconductor device is
widely used in digital IC fabrication
a. BJT
b. diode
c. JFET
d. MOSFET
37.
Which is not true regarding
MOSFET?
a. Also called IGFET
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b. It is a special kind of JFET
c. Drain current can be greater than
IDSS
d. Gate current is always zero
38.
What type of insulator is used in a
MOSFET?
a. SiO2
b. CO2
c. H2O
d. mica insulator
39.
Which of the following transistors
may require special handling precautions
due to the possibility of static charge
breakdown?
a. P-channel JFETs
b. NPN audio transistors
c. PNP audio transistors
d. N-channel MOSFETs
40.
Which of the following transistors
can be expected to have the highest input
impedance?
a. NPN bipolar transistor
b. PNP bipolar transistor
c. N-channel JFET
d. N-channel MOSFET
41.
Type of MOSFET that needs
enhancement between the two channels.
a. enhancement
b. depletion type
c. shy type
d. JFET
42.
Which type of FET has no channel
when VGS is 0 V.
a. MISFET
b. MOSFET enhancement
c. MOSFET depletion
d. JFET
43.
For enhancement only N-channel
MOSFET, polarity of VGS is
a. Negative
b. positive
47
c. zero
d. dependent on the application of the
device
44.
The main factor which differentiate
a DE-MOSFET from an E-only MOSFET is
the absence of
a. insulated gate
b. electrons
c. channel
d. PN junction
45.
A JFET can operate in
a. depletion and enhancement
b. depletion mode only
c. enhancement mode only
d. neither enhancement nor depletion
mode
46.
An N-channel DE-MOSFET with a
positive VGS is operating in
a. depletion mode
b. enhancement mode
c. cut-off
d. saturation
47.
The name of the Field Effect
Transistor designated to work as a power
amplifier
a. JFET
b. VMOS
c. MOSFET
d. MESFET
48.
Negative feedback is employed in
a. oscillators
b. amplifiers
c. rectifiers
d. multipliers
49.
When negative feedback is applied
to an amplifier its gain
a. is increased
b. is reduced
c. remains the same
d. becomes zero
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50.
If the gain of an amplifier without
feedback is 10 and with negative feedback
is 8, then the feedback fraction is
a. 0.025
b. 0.9
c. 0.8
d. 0.225
51.
If the output of the amplifier is 10 V
and 100 mV from the output is feedback to
the input, the feedback fraction is
a. 10
b. 0.01
c. 0.1
d. 0.15
52.
The feedback fraction is 0.01, then
the gain with negative feedback is
approximately
a. 10
b. 1000
c. 100
d. 500
53.
Type of feedback employed to
increase bandwidth and decrease voltage
gain.
a. Positive feedback
b. Negative feedback
c. Neutral feedback
d. Latch feedback
54.
An amplifier has a bandwidth of 20
kHz and a midband gain of 50 without
feedback, if 1% negative feedback is
applied. The bandwidth with feedback is
a. 13.3 kHz
b. 30 kHz
c. 10 kHz
d. 40 kHz
55.
An amplifier without feedback has a
distortion of 15% and a gain of 40. When
10% negative feedback is applied, the
distortion will become ____ %.
a. 50
48
b. 45
c. 3
d. 5
56.
What happens to the input
resistance of an amplifier employing
voltage-series feedback?
a. Increased
b. Remains the same
c. Decreased
d. Equals infinity
57.
What happens to the output
voltage-series feedback?
a. Increased
b. Remains the same
c. Decreased
d. Equals infinity
58.
What happens to the output
current-series feedback?
a. Increased
b. Remains the same
c. Decreased
d. Equals infinity
59.
What happens to the input
current-shunt feedback?
a. Increased
b. Remains the same
c. Decreased
d. Equals infinity
60.
A rotation around a vertical axis
running from top to bottom through the
wrist in robots.
a. yaw
b. pitch
c. grasp
d. roll
61.
A rotation around a horizontal axis
running from left to right through the wrist
in robots.
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a.
b.
c.
d.
yaw
pitch
grasp
roll
62.
A rotation around a horizontal axis
running from back to front through the wrist
in robots.
a. yaw
b. pitch
c. grasp
d. roll
63.
The science of physical
phenomena at very low temperatures
approaching absolute zero.
a. Cryptanalysis
b. Cryogenics
c. Cybernetics
d. Thermometry
64.
Process of converting intercepted
encrypted text into plain text without initial
knowledge of the key used.
a. Cryptanalysis
b. Cryogenics
c. Cybernetics
d. Thermometry
65.
The transferring back and forth of
energy in the tuned circuit is known as the
____ effect
a. Colpitts
b. Hartley
c. Piezoelectric
d. Flywheel
66.
Which of the following formulas is
used to calculate the oscillating frequency
of an LC oscillator?
a. f=0.4/(2RC)
b. f=1/(2RXC)
c. f=1/(2RC)
d. f=1/(2[LC])
49
67.
The frequency of oscillation of an
elementary LC oscillatory circuit depends
on
a. coil resistance
b. coil inductance
c. capacitance
d. both (b) and (c)
68.
For sustaining oscillations in an
oscillator
a. Loop gain should be unity
b. Phase shift should be 0
c. Feedback should be negative
d. Both (a) and (b)
69.
If Barkhausen criterion is not
fulfilled by an oscillator circuit, it will
a. Stop oscillating
b. Produce damped wave
continuously
c. Become an amplifier
d. Produce high frequency whistles
70.
Which of the LC oscillators makes
use of a tuned transformer?
a. Hartley
b. Colpitts
c. Armstrong
d. Clapp
71.
The ___ will produce an output
sine-wave frequency that is determined by
the values of an inductor in parallel with
two series connected capacitors.
a. Hartley
b. Armstrong
c. Colpitts
d. Clapp
72.
What is the most widely used
oscillator?
a. Hartley
b. Colpitts
c. Armstrong
d. Clapp
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73.
Which of the LC oscillators makes
use of a tapped inductor in the tuned
circuit?
a. Hartley
b. Armstrong
c. Colpitts
d. Clapp
74.
The piezoelectric effect in a crystal
is
a. a voltage developed because of
mechanical stress
b. a change in resistance because of
temperature
c. a change of frequency because of
temperature
d. a change of voltage because of light
75.
Crystal have a very
a. low Q
b. high Q
c. small inductance
d. large inductance
76.
The Q of the crystal is in order of
a. 100
b. 1,000
c. 50
d. more than 10,000
77.
The application where one would
most likely find a crystal oscillator is
a. radio transmitter
b. radio receiver
c. AF generator
d. None of the above
78.
Which of the following oscillator
employs crystal?
a. Colpitts
b. Hartley
c. Armstrong
d. Pierce
79.
Material that has the piezoelectric
effect
a. Quartz
50
b. Rochelle salts
c. Tourmaline
d. all of the above
80.
Exhibits the best piezoelectric
activity
a. Quartz
b. Rochelle salt
c. Tourmaline
d. Table salt
81.
Which of the following is the
toughest?
a. Quartz
b. Rochelle salt
c. Tourmaline
d. Table salt
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ADVANCED ELECTRONICS
INTEGRATED CIRCUIT FABRICATION
Epitaxial growth.
The silicon planar process of fabrication includes the following steps:

a.
Silicon Wafer (Substrate) Preparation
b.
Epitaxial Growth
c.
Oxidation
d.
Photolithography
e.
Diffusion
f.
Ion Implantation
g.
Isolation
h.
Metallization
i.
Packaging
Note : The thickness and other dimensions of the IC will be in mils.
where
The individual steps are explained in brief.

a.
Silicon Wafer Preparation. The basic material required for making the substrate, i.e.
silicon, is cut into thin sheets, or wafers. This step includes the substeps like crystal growth,
doping, slicing into wafers, and polishing and cleaning the wafer.
c.
After oxidations the structure has 3 layers, i.e. the substrate, the epitaxial layer, and the
oxide layer.
Silicon wafer preparation.

b.
Oxidation. Here an oxide layer is grown over the epitaxial layer. The SiO2 layer formed by
oxidation prevents diffusion of almost all impurities. Oxidation is accomplished by placing
the silicon vertically into a quartz boat in a quartz tube, which is slowly passed through a
resistance-heated furnace, in a presence of oxygen operating at about 1000oC.
Epitaxial Growth. Epi in Greek means upon and teinon in Greek means arranged.
In reality, epitaxy is simply a process to grow a single-crystal layer on a single-crystal
substrate.
Types: homoepitaxy- single-crystal layer on a single-crystal are of exactly the same material
; heteroepitaxy- single-crystal layer on a single-crystal are different in any aspect material
Applied to all kinds of thin-film depositions as long as they arranged in order ; employed to
Oxidation.
prepare III-V and II-VI compound semiconductor materials and devices.
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d.
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Photolithography. The purpose of this step is to remove portions of the SiO2 layer so
diffusion can occur in selected areas.
Functional Components of Lithography
Energycause (photo)chemical reactions that modify resist dissolution rate
MaskPattern (or direct) energy to create an aerial image of mask in resist
AlignerAlign mask to previous patterns on wafer (to a tolerance level)
ResistTransfer image from mask to wafer, after development Positive resist reproduces
the mask pattern, Negative resist reproduces inverse mask pattern
SubstrateHas previous mask patterns
Structure with masks.

Step three involves passing an ultraviolet light over the masks. Wherever the mask is not
present, the photoresist layer is polymerized.
The structure before applying the photolithography process is shown below
Input structure for photolithography.
Structure with mask layer during ultraviolet exposure.
The photolithography process involves many steps which are described in detail below.
The first step is to make a photoresist layer above the oxide layer.
Structure with mask layer after ultra-violet exposure.

Structure with photoresist layer.
Etching Techniques - The process of selective removal of regions of a semiconductor, metal, or

silicon dioxide.
The second step is to make masks, the locations of which are determined by the final
structure. The masks will protect the photoresist layer from the ultraviolet light applied in step
three.
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Types:
Wet Etching: the wafers are immersed in a chemical solution at a predetermined
temperature. In this process, the material to be etched is removed equally in all directions.
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Dry (Plasma) Etching: the wafers are immersed in gaseous plasma created by a radio
frequency electric field applied to a gas such as argon.
e.
The structure is dipped into a solution of hydrofluoric acid in the fourth step. The masks and the
non-polymerized portions of the photoresist layer will dissolve in the hydrofluoric acid solution.
Diffusion. Diffusion is the process by which the N- type or P-type impurity silicon atoms
can be diffused into the epitaxial layer, through the holes in the oxide layer.
Diffusion.
Diffusion process occur in two steps:
Predeposition Step: a high concentration of dopant atoms are introduced at the silicon
surface by a vapor that contains the dopant at a temperature of about 1000oC.
Predeposition tends to produce, near the silicon surface, a shallow but heavily doped
layer.
Drive-in: Used to drive the impurity atoms deeper into the surface, without adding any
more impurities, thus reducing the surface concentration of the dopant.
Structure after dissolution in hydrofluoric acid.

The fifth step involves dipping the structure into a photosensitive emulsion. The oxide layer
not protected by the polymerized photoresist will dissolve in the solution.
Structure after dissolving in photoemulsive solution.
f.
Ion Implantation. In this process, an alternative to diffusion, the epitaxial layer can be
implanted with impurity ions.
g.
Isolation. Since a number of different circuits are manufactured in a single planar process,
it becomes essential to differentiate the circuits. This process checks whether any short
circuit is present between different circuits and, if so, the corresponding part is identified as
unusable.
h.
Metallization. This process provides electrical metal contacts to the different diffused
areas, where the terminals of the devices should be taken. Wherever the terminals should
be short-circuited always, the metal contacts will be short-circuited and a single lead terminal
will be taken out.
The sixth and final step is to remove the polymerized photoresist. At the end of this step, the
oxide layer will be exposed.
Final structure after photolithography.

Chemical Mechanical Polishing (CMP) - is a process that planarizes the wafer. This is done
before patterning of the wafer to provide flat surface to expose the mask image on.
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Federal Standard 209 - This standard was first published in 1963 in the USA and titled "Cleanroom
and Work Station Requirements, Controlled Environments". It was revised in 1966 (209A), 1973
(209B), 1987 (C), 1988 (D) and 1992 (E).
Federal Standard 209D Class Limits
MEASURED PARTICLE SIZE (MICROMETERS)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.5
5.0
1
35
7.5
3
1
NA
10
350
75
30
10
NA
100
NA
750
300
100
NA
1,000
NA
NA
NA
1,000
7
10,000
NA
NA
NA
10,000
70
100,000
NA
NA
NA
100,000
700
CLASS
DIGITAL INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
Metallization.
i.
Packaging. The circuits manufactured in a single process will be scribed and cut down into
separate structures. Each structure will be packed as a separate IC. The packaging will be
used to give output leads to users.
Properties and Definition

Ideal Logic Inverter
Different package configurations available:

1.
To-5 Glass Metal Package
2.
Ceramic Flat Package
3.
Dual-In-Line Package (DIP).
4.
Molded Matrix Array Package
5.
Flip-Chip Ball Grid Array
Example of IC packages.
Cleanrooms - are classified by the cleanliness of their air. The method most easily understood and
universally applied is the one suggested in the earlier versions (A to D) of Federal Standard 209 in
which the number of particles equal to and greater than 0.5 m m is measured in one cubic foot of air
and this count is used to classify the room.
Operates from a single power supply
Voltage Transfer Characteristics

Voltage Transfer Characteristic (VTC)
The transfer characteristics of a logic gate are represented by a curve relating the output voltage to
the input voltage. The curve is plotted on a graph where the input voltage is on the x-axis and the
output voltage is on the y-axis.
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The effects of input variations are quantified in terms of the Noise Sensitivities. The high and low
noise sensitivities are defined as the difference between the input and midpoint voltage for VIN at VOH
and VOL, respectively.
The quantity Noise Immunity is the ability of a gate to reject noise.
In order that the high and low voltage levels always be distinguishable, must always have
VOH > VIH and VOL > VIL
Where:
VOHThe nominal, or minimum, logic-1 state output voltage.
VOLThe nominal, or maximum, logic-0 state output voltage.
ViLThe nominal, or maximum, input voltage required for logic-0 input.
ViHThe nominal, or minimum, logic-1 input voltage.
The term fan-in is used to describe the number of inputs to the gate. Similarly, the term fan-out is
used to describe the number of outputs of a gate. The maximum fan-out of a digital circuit is
restricted by its input and output currents.
The maximum fan-out possible during the driving gates logical 1 output gate is
Nhigh = IOUT(high) / IIN (high)
The maximum fan-out possible during the driving gates logical 0 output gate is
Nlow = IOUT(low) / IIN (low)
Midpoint Voltage VM, sometimes referred as threshold voltage Vth , is defined as the point on VTC
where VIN=VOUT and ideally appears at the center of the transition region.
Logic Swing magnitude of voltage difference between the output high and output voltage levels.
Transition Width amount of voltage change that is required of the output voltage from the high to
the low level (or vice versa)
Noise Margins terminology used to describe fluctuations/variations in the high and logic low levels.
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Transient Characteristics
Switching Speed Definitions

td = delay time
tr = rise time
ts = storage time
tf = fall time
tON = turn on time
tOFF = turn off time
Power Dissipation
Propagation delay - symbolized tpd, is the average time required for a digital signal to travel from the
input(s) of a logic gate to the output.
PCC (avg) = ( PCC(OH) + PCC(OL) ) / 2

PCC (avg) = VCC ( ICC(OH) + ICC(OL) ) / 2
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Diode Transistor Logic (DTL)
This is an improved version of the DL family. The fan-out parameter of DTL is higher than that of DL
because of the inclusion of an active component, the transistor, in the logic. The basic gates of this
family are NAND and NOR.
For dual power supply:

PDISS (avg) = ( PCC(avg) + PEE(avg) ) / 2
PDISS (avg) = VCC ( ICC(OH) + ICC(OL) ) / 2
+ VEE ( IEE(OH) + IEE(OL) ) / 2
Direct Coupled Transistor Logic (DCTL)

DCTL is the same as DTL, but the base resistance is removed. The basic gates of this family are
NAND and NOR.
High Threshold Logic (HTL)
Power-Delay Product - a practical figure of merit used for digital logic gates is the product of the
average power dissipation P(avg) and the average propagation delay tp. This is sometimes referred
to as the speed-power product.
HTL is the same as DTL except (i) a higher supply voltage is given, (ii) a zener diode is used instead
of an ordinary diode, and (iii) large values of resistance are used.
Intregrated Injection Logic (IIL)
LOGIC FAMILIES
Logic gates are grouped into "families" and "systems" based on similarities in manufacturing process.
Examples of logic families are:
This is also called I2L and its most noble feature is its compact structure and high circuit density.
It uses a PNP transistor and a multi-emitter NPN transistor. The basic gates are AND, NAND, and
NOT.
Diode Logic Family (DL Family)

In this case, the logic is performed by diodes. AND gates and OR gates can easily be made using DL
logic.
Resistor Transistor Logic (RTL)
The logic is performed using resistors and transistors. This is a simple and economical logic family
and is best suited for slow-speed industrial and commercial applications. The basic gates are NOR,
NAND, and NOT.
Resistor Capacitor Transistor Logic (RCTL)
TRANSISTOR TRANSISTOR LOGIC (TTL)

This logic is also referred to asT2L. TTL acts fast compared to many other logic families.
Here, multi-emitter transistors that have multiple emitter terminals are used. The advantages of using
a multi-emitter structure are listed below:
i.
Silicon area is more efficiently used resulting in a higher packing density.
ii.
The switching speed is improved.
The standard gate of this family is the NAND gate. The simplest form of a TTL NAND gate is shown
in below:
Operations are performed by resistors, capacitors, and transistors. The switching speed of RCTL is
slower than the switching speed of RTL.
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Simple TTL NAND gate.

The standard form of a TTL NAND gate is shown in below
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Transfer characteristics of a TTL NAND gate.
Region I is for logic-0 input.
Region II is the transition stage.
Region III is for logic-1 input.
EMITTER COUPLED LOGIC (ECL)

Also referred to as Emitter Coupled Transistor Logic (ECTL) this logic employs an emitter coupled
differential amplifier. The basic gates of this family are OR, NOT, and NOR.
This family has the minimum propagation delay because the output is not driven into saturation.
A standard ECL OR/NOR gate is shown.
Standard TTL NAND gate.

The standard form of TTL NAND gate is also called a modified TTL NAND gate. In this circuit, a
totem pole or active pull-up stage is added to the simple TTL NAND gate to increase fan-out.
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CMOS NOT gate.

Logic-1 = VCC and Logic-0 ~0 volts.
ECL OR/NOR gate.
COMPLEMENTARY METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR (CMOS) LOGIC

MOS Logic
This logic is similar to the other transistor logic families except it uses metal oxide semiconductor
field effect transistors instead of bipolar junction transistors. The advantages offered are easier
fabrication process, increased operating speed, and low power comsumption.
CMOS NAND gate.
Generally, the N-channel MOSFET is used in this family. Hence the logic is named NMOS logic. The
basic gate used is a NOT gate.
CMOS Logic
CMOS Fabrication
Here, N-channel and P-channel MOSFETs are used. This increases the systems complexity and
chip area compared to NMOS logic. The great advantage of CMOS logic is that the power
consumption in a steady state is almost zero. Power consumption occurs only when there is a
switching action from one state to another. The basic gates used are NOT and NAND.
CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor) fabrication needs an Nchannel MOSFET and P-channel MOSFET which are connected together as shown below
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RESONANCE
Resonance - condition wherein the inductive reactance (XL) of a coil equals the capacitive reactance
(XC) of a capacitor in a circuit.
N-channel and P-channel connection for CMOS fabrication.
The resonant frequency fr can be computed from the condition above. Since,
XL = 2 fr L
and
XC = 1/2 fr C
then,
fr =
2LC
where:
fr = resonant freq. in Hz
L = inductance in Henry
C = capacitance in Farad
Series Resonance L and C are in series.
Final structure of CMOS.
E
I
Z
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We can write the series impedance in rectangular form as:
Z = R + j (XL XC)
Taking the magnitude of the equation:
lZl = R2 + (XL XC)2
We can calculate the current I in the series:
I=
E=
E
R2 + (XL XC)2
lZl
But since XL = XC at resonance:

then:
Z=R
I = E/R
Characteristics of series resonant circuit:
(1) Z=R minimum resistance
(2) I = E/R maximum current
(3) current is in phase with voltage
(4) power factor is unity
(5) power is maximum
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then
Pa=
I2Xin
LSa
I2 R
Q rise in voltage across a series L or C:

The Q of the resonant circuit can be considered a magnification factor that determines how
much the voltage across L or C in increased by the resonant rise of current in a series circuit:
VL = VC = IXC = IXL
but
I = E/R
VC = EXC / R
VC = QE or VL = QE
Bandwidth:
- any resonant frequency has an associated band of frequencies that provide resonance
effects. The width of the resonant band of frequencies centered around fr is called the bandwidth of
the tuned circuit.
Quality factor Q
figure of merit or factor of merit in sharpness of resonance.
- ratio of the reactive power (energy stored) to the true power developed in the circuit
(energy dissipated per cycle).
Q=
Q=
Imax
0.707 Imax
f1
series resonant circuit. Therefore,

Q=
since
and
XLS
P = 0.5 Pmax
BW = fr/Q and BW = R/2piL

1
2LC
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I = 0.707 Imax
XL = 2pifr L
fr =
fr f2
- From the equation, an increase in Q-factor will correspond to a decrease in BW.

- As the L/C ratio increases, the response becomes sharper. Also, as R is decreased, the better the
response.
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Z = Yac + Ybc
where Yac = 1/(RL + jXL)

and
Ybc = 1/(RC + jXC)
simplify, then equate the susceptance: BL = BC
therefore,
far =
RL2 L/C
2 LC
RC2 L/C
Basic Variations:
(a) RC is negligible
far =
Parallel Resonant Circuit(Antiresonant Ckt.):
a
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(b) RL is negligible
74
1 1
2 LC
RL2C
L
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Theoretical antiresonant circuit:
far =
2 LC
1 (RC2C/L)
(c) RL and RC are both negligible

if BL = BC
then Y = G
therefore Z = R
and
far =
1
2 LC
far =
Q-factor:
2 LC
Circuit conditions:
1. total susceptance is zero
2. inductive susceptance is equal to the capacitive susceptance of the circuit
3. impedance is maximum
4. total current through the circuit is minimum
5. power factor is unity
Q=
P=Q
Q=
P
R
E2/XL
E2/R
XL
Resonant rise of the current:
IL = IT
G + j BC
G + j (BC - BL)
since BL = BC
IL = IT
G + j BC
G + j (BC - BL)
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Bandwidth:
BW =
far
Q
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- The above graph shows the variation in the current through the parallel RLC circuit. Notice that
the current is a minimum at the resonant frequency. This is an example of a band-stop circuit
response.
- The shape of the band-stop response of a parallel RLC circuit depends on the value of R and L/C
as shown in the next graphs. Note that the band-stop characteristic becomes narrower as the value
of R increases.
can be used to block frequencies near the resonant frequency, while allowing others to pass.
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3. Band-pass Filter - a filter that rejects or attenuates frequencies not within the two cut-off
frequency.
FILTERS
FILTERS - a network that possesses the ability to discriminate undesired frequency and allows the
passage of desired frequency.
Generally, inductors and capacitors are used for filtering, because of their opposite frequency
characteristics.
A filter is usually a combination of capacitors, coils and resistors.
Passband band of frequencies that the filter does not attenuate.
Stopband band of frequencies that the filter attenuates.
Classifications of Filters according to the frequency response:

1. Low-pass Filter (LPF) filter that rejects or attenuates frequencies above the cut-off frequency
and passes frequency components below the cut-off frequency.
4. Band-reject Filter - a filter that attenuates or rejects frequencies within the two cut-off
frequencies.
PB
PB
fc
fc2
fc1
fc1
SB
SB
PB
fc2
2. High-pass Filter (HPF) filter that rejects or attenuates the frequencies below the cut-off
frequency and passes frequencies above the cut-off.
Simple RC Low-pass Filter:
R
C
VS
SB
PB
fc
79
VO
80
XC at low frequency is very high, capacitor is open, VS = VO, AV = 1.
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A=
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XC at high frequency is very low, VO is smaller than VS.
1
1 + (RC)2
fc =
1
2RC
A=
fc =
1 + (1/RC)
1
2RC
With RS and RL connected:

with RS and RL connected:
RS
VS
A=
RL
R + RL
fc =
1
2RC
A=
R//RL
RS+R//RL
R1
C
R
VO
At very low frequencies, C is open, therefore VO 0, AV 0.

At high frequencies, C is shorted, therefore, VO = VS, AV = 1.
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fc =
RL
1
2RC
Simple RC Bandpass Filter:
Simple RC High-pass Filter:
VS
C1
VS
LPF
C2
R2
VO
HPF
VS interaction takes place between the

not suitable for narrowband applications because too much
sections if the cut-off frequencies are close together:
fC2 > fC1
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R2 > 10R1
at frequencies below the passband, the circuit behaves like a HPF. For frequencies above the
passband, the circuit behaves like a LPF. Therefore,
fc2 =
1
2R1C
fc1 =
at high frequencies, C is shorted:
Z1
1
2R2C
R1
VO
Z2
At passband,
R1/2
R1
VS
VO = voltage across R1/2 ; Av = 1/3
R2
at low frequencies, C is open,
Z1
AV = R2 / (R1 + R2)
Band-stop Filter (or Notch Filter):
R1
VS
VO
Wien-Bridge Circuit:
Z2
R1/2
VO = voltage across R1/2 ; Av = 1/3

Somewhere between very low and very high frequency, we will find a frequency where the
bridge balances. In other words, VO will equal zero for a specific frequency.
fc1
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fo
fc2
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High-pass:
Notch filter completely rejects one particular frequency.
If A = 0, the circuit is balanced:

Z1
Z3
Z4
Z2
1
then fO =
and A =
2RC
fC =
RC (1/RC)
9 + [RC (1/RC)]2
1
2 LC (1 + 2 )
Constant K-filter:
BASIC LC FILTERS
Low pass:
L
C
If we consider an L-type as a basic example, the values of inductance and capacitance can be
designed to make the product of XL and XC constant at all frequencies. The purpose is to have the
filter present a constant impedance at the input and output terminals.
RK = characteristic image impedance of the filter network
Z1Z2 = RK2 = L/C (or nominal impedance)
For a T-network:
Z1/2
Z1/2
Z2
fC =
1
2
1+2
LC
ZOT = RK
Z1
+1
4Z2
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Substitute (2) and (3) in (1):
For a pi-network:
Z1
2Z2
2Z2
- RK2
Z22 =
RK
ZO
1+
Z12 = - 4RK2
Z1
Z12
= -1
4RK2
RK2
=
4Z22
Z1
=
4Z2
Z2 = j
RK
2
Z1 = j 2RK
Use (+) inductance

( - ) capacitance
4Z2
therefore, for the T-network,
LPF
HPF
ZO
Z1/2
ZO
Z1/2
Z2
ZOT
ZOT
L1/2
L1/2
C
at cut-off, ZOT = 0 ; ZO = pi
for ZOT to be zero, let
Z1
= -1
4Z2
Z1
= j
4Z2
(1)
since RK = Z1 Z2
Z1 =
RK
Z2
(2) Z2 =
RK
L1 =
Z1
(3)
L1
2
RK2
fC
fC =
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Z2 =
C2 =
L1C2
j C2
1
RK fC
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Formulas:
3. Band Pass
1. Low Pass
T-section
T-section
L1/2
Z1/2
Z1/2
L1/2
Z2
2C1
2C1
L2
C2
L1/2
L1/2
C2
-section
Z1
L1
2Z2
2Z2
C2/2
C2/2
-section
L1
RK2
fC
L1 =
fC =
C2 =
1
L1C2
1
RK fC
2L2
RK = L1/C2
2C1
-section
2C1
L2 =
fC =
89
RK
4fC
1
4 L1C2
C2/2
RK
(f2 f1)
L2 =
RK (f2 f1)
4f1 f2
C1 =
(f2 f1)
4 RK f1 f2
C2 =
1
RK (f2 f1)
C1
2L2
L2
2L2
C2/2
L1 =
2. High Pass
T-section
C1
C1 =
2L2
1
4RK fC
RK = L2/C1
RK = L1/C1 = L2/C2
fO = f1f2
f2 =
1
2
1
L1C2+
1
+
L1C2
1
L1C1
f1 =
1
2
1
+
L1C2
1
+
L1C2
1
L1C1
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4. Band Stop
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The m-derived Filter:
T-section
L1/2
L1/2
This is the modified form of the constant k-filter. The design is based on the ratio of the filter cut-off
frequency to the frequency of infinite attenuation. This ratio determines the m-factor. The m-derived
filter also can be high pass or low pass. The advantage is very sharp cut-off.
m =almost zero
L2
m = 0.2
m = 0.6
m=1
C2
-section
L1
ZO
2L2
C1
2L2
C2/2
m-derived
C2/2
ZOT
RK = L1/C1 = L2/C2
L1 =
RK (f2 f1)
f1 f2
C1 =
(f2 f1)
RK f1 f2
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L2 =
C2 =
RK
4(f2 f1)
1
4RK (f2 f1)
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Review Course
m-derived Equivalent Circuits:
m = 1 (f fc)
Low-Pass Filter
mL1/2
Review Course
fc > f
mL1/2
2
1m
4m
L1
m C2
m = 1 (fc f )
fc < f
fc
High-Pass Filter
2C1/ m
2C1/ m
L2/m
4m
C1
2
1m
93
94
fc
Review Course
Review Course
DC CIRCUITS
Atom - the smallest particle of an element
that still retains the properties of the element.
Components of the Atom:
Proton - a positively charged particle of 1.6 x
10 C and has a mass of 1.672x10 E-27.
Electron -a negatively charged particle of 1.6
x 10 C and has a mass of 9.107x10E-32.
Neutron - A neutral particle with a mass of
1.672 x 10E-27 C.
Valence electrons electrons in the
outermost orbit of an atom.
Electric charge exists if a body is deficient
or has an excess number of electrons than its
normal values due to sharing.
Coulomb(C) is the unit of electric charge
which was named after the French Physicist ,
Charles A. Coulomb. 1 Coulomb of Charge is
equivalent to 6.25 x 10 E18 electrons or
protons.
Ampere(A) - the unit of electric current. One
ampere is equivalent to once coulomb of
charge passing a particular point in one
second. The unit was named after the French
Physicist Andre M. Ampere.
Resistance(R) The property of a material
that limits the current flow when subjected to
a potential difference.
95
96
Electromotive Force is the energy

supplied to charge by some active device
such as a battery. A 2V of emf means that a
device supplies 2J of energy to each
Coulomb of charge. EMF maintains potential
difference.
Potential Difference exists when energy is
converted to work as charges move from one
point to another point. A 2V potential
difference between points A and B means
that each Coulomb of charge will give up an
energy of 2 J in moving from A to B.
Volt(V) the unit of potential difference and
emf . One Volt of potential difference/emf is
equal to one joule of work/energy
done/supplied per one coulomb of charge.
The unit was named after the Italian
Physicist, Alessandro C. Volta.
Electric Current electrons in motion. The
rate at which charges are moving over a
period of time or the rate of change of charge
per unit time. It is caused by potential
difference.
Ohm() the unit of electrical resistance
named after the German Physicist Georg S.
Ohm.
Circular Mil the area of a circle whose
diameter is one mil.
Mil a unit of length equivalent to 1/1000 of
an inch.
Review Course
Temperature coefficient of resistance ( t)
the change in resistance per degree C at a
particular temperature t.
Capacitance the ability of a capacitive

material ( capacitor or condenser) to store
electrical charges.
Conductance (G) the reciprocal of

resistance. The property of a material which
allows the flow of electrons with ease.
Farad the unit of capacitance equivalent to

one coulomb of charge per one volt of
electrical potential difference between two
plates, named after Michael Faraday.
Siemens or Mho (S) unit of conductance,

named after the German Engineer Ernst
Werner von Siemens.
Energy is the capacity or the ability to do
work.
Calorie(C) the amount of energy needed to
raise one gram of water to one degree
Centigrade.
Watt (W) the unit of electrical power

equivalent to one joule of energy dissipated
in one second, named after James Watt.
Coulombs Law:
First Law of Electrostatics - Unlike charges
attract each other and like charges repel
each other
The rate of charge flow.

Q
t
This is a circuit element that maintains a

prescribed voltage across its terminals
regardless of the current through it.
This is a circuit element that maintains a

prescribed current in its terminals
regardless of the voltage across it.
Power is the time rate of expending

or absorbing energy.
P=
1 watt = 1
THE IDEAL DEPENDENT

CURRENT SOURCE:
This is a voltage source in which either a

voltage or a current at some other part of
the circuit determines the voltage across
its terminals.
This is a current source in which either a

voltage or a current at some other part of
the circuit determines the current in its
terminals.
Figure
Figure
Q = mCT
where:
Q heat
m mass
C specific heat
T change in temperature
1 kcal is the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of 1-kg of water by
10C.
SPECIFIC HEAT OF WATER:

4189
CURRENT:
98
Joule
sec
HEAT:
Energy in transit
THE IDEAL DEPENDENT

VOLTAGE SOURCE:
W
= VI
t
where:
P the power in watts
W the energy in joules
t the time in seconds
Figure
Figure
POWER AND ENERGY:
I the current in amperes

Q the charge in coulombs
t the time in seconds
THE IDEAL INDEPENDENT
CURRENT SOURCE:
Second Law of Electrostatics - The force of

attraction or repulsion between charges is
directly proportional to the product of two
charges and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.
97
I=
where:
THE IDEAL INDEPENDENT

VOLTAGE SOURCE:
Power - the rate of doing work or the rate of

energy dissipation.
Electrical Power is the rate of dissipation
of electrical energy.
Review Course
Joule
kg - C o
Review Course
where:
BTU
lb - F o
G the conductance of the conductor,

Siemens
the conductivity of the conductor
kcal
Rectangular Conductor:
kg - C o
RESISTANCE:
The opposition to the flow of current.
L2
L
V
R=
=
= 2
V
A
A
Figure
Cylindrical Conductor:
Review Course
Resistivity of Some
Common Materials
Resistivity
Material
-m
-CM/ft
2.8310-8
Aluminum
17.02
1.72410-8
Copper
10.371
2.4410-8
Gold
14.676
9810-8
Iron
589.4
1.62910-8
Silver
9.805
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON
RESISTANCE OF CONDUCTORS:
where:
R the resistance in ohms,
the resistivity or specific resistance of
the conductor
L the length of the conductor
A the area of the conductor
V the volume of the conductor
R2
R1
Figure
Area = /4[d ] sq. unit
Length L
-m
-cm
-CM/ft
m
cm
ft
(CM)
R1
where:
sq.m
sq.cm
CM
T + t1
99
1
R
Material
Aluminum
Annealed Copper
Hard-Drawn Copper
Iron
Silver
T (oC)
228
234.5
241.5
180
243
INSULATION RESISTANCE OF
HIGH-VOLTAGE CABLES:
Cable
Insulator
R2
r1
T + t2
CM = circular-mils
R=
R2 = R1 [1 + 1 (t2 - t1)]
1 inch = 1000 mils
CONDUCTANCE:
G=
Inferred Absolute Zero

Temperature
r2
Area
A
R2 resistance at temperature t2
R1 resistance at temperature t1
T inferred absolute zero temperature
1- temperature coefficient of resistance at
temperature t1
t2
if d is expressed in mils
Area = d
Resistivity
t1
where:
ln 2
2 l r1
where:
1 =
100
1
T + t1
resistivity of the insulating material

(-m)
l length of the cable (m)
r1 radius of the conductor
r2 radius of the insulating material
Review Course
COLOR CODING:
Tolerance
Multiplier
First Digit
Second Digit
Figure
Black
Brown
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
Gray
White
Gold
Silver
None
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
-
where:
Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL)
I current in amperes
V voltage in volts
R resistance in ohms,
G conductance in Siemens
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)
Tolerance
Number
Multiplier
Band1,
Band4
Color
Band3
Band2
%
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
10-1
10-2
-
1
2
0.5
0.25
0.1
0.05
5
10
20
I=
101
V
R
The source voltage V is the summation of the

voltages across each resistor.
I2
I3
node
I1
RT = R1 + R2 + .. Rn
I4
Convention:
a
The total resistance RT is the sum of the

individual resistances.
V
Current entering a node: + sign
Current leaving a node: - sign
b
Figure
1
1
1
1
=
+
+..
G T G1 G 2
Gn
RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL:
RESISTANCES IN SERIES:
RT =
I1 I2 I3 + I4 = 0
Path b-a: Potential Rise = +V

Path a-b: Potential Drop = -V
IT
V1
V2
Vn
R1
R2
Rn
Vr
b
I1 =
I=
102
I1
Rn
R2
R1
I2
In
Path b-a: Potential Rise = +Vr

Path a-b: Potential Drop = -Vr
I = VG
V = V1 + V2 + Vn
Convention:
In an electrical circuit, the current is

directly proportional to voltage and
is
inversely
proportional
to
resistance.
The same current I exist on each resistor
The algebraic sum of all currents

entering and leaving a node is zero.
The algebraic sum of all voltages in a

circuit taken around a closed path is zero.
OHMS LAW:
Review Course
V1
R1
V2
R2
Vn
Rn
V
V
V
; I2 =
; In =
R1
R2
Rn
Review Course
The same voltage V exists across each
resistor.
IT = I1 + I2 + .. In
The total current IT is the sum of individual
current passing through each resistor.
GT = G1 + G2 + .. Gn
PARALLEL-SERIES CIRCUIT:
Review Course
R1
RT =
P = I R (watts)
R2
across terminals a and b with RL

P = VI
CURRENT DIVIDER:
RTH the equivalent resistance with all
P=
R2
R1
I1
(watts)
sources opened, across terminals a
I [ R2 ]
I1 = T
R1 + R 2
R R
RT = 1 2
R1 + R 2
a
Circuit
Network
b
IL
and b with RL removed.
RL
RT
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER:
IL
VT
RL
b
SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT:
RL load resistance.
IL load current.
I T [ R1 ]
R1 + R 2
VOLTAGE DIVIDER:
Maximum power transferred to the load

RL occurs when RL = RTH
RT
R1
V
R2
R3
V2 =
V [ R2 ]
R1 + R 2
IL
VTH
V2
IL =
R R
RT = R1 + 1 2
R1 + R 2
voltage sources shorted and all current
THEVENINS THEOREM:
I2 =
103
V2
R
I2
TWO RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL:
R1
R2
(watts)
removed.
1
1
1
1
GT =
=
+
+
R T R1 R2
Rn
R2
VTH the open-circuit voltage measured
R3
R1[ R 2 + R 3 ]
R1 + R 2 + R 3
IT
R1
where:
ELECTRICAL POWER:
RL
VTH
R TH + R L
Figure
Maximum Power:
Pmax =
104
VTH 2 R L
[ 2R TH ]2
VTH 2
4R TH
Review Course
SOURCE TRANSFORMATION:
NORTONS THEOREM:
a
RT
IL
Circuit
Network
b
Vb
VTH
IL
ISC
Rb
Va Vb
V Vb
+ 2
R2
R3
RL
where:
ISC the short-circuit current passing
through terminals a and b with RL
removed and terminals a and b shortcircuited.
RTH the equivalent resistance with all
voltage sources shorted and all current
sources opened, across terminals a
and b with RL removed.
RL load resistance.
IL load current.
R2
MILLMANS THEOREM:
RT
NODAL ANALYSIS:
In this method, a solution is possible with
n-1 equations, where n represents the
number of nodes.
Node
Node
R3
I2
I1
V1
R2
Ia
Ra
RB
Any combination of parallel connected

voltage sources can be represented as a
single
equivalent
source
using
Thevenins and Nortons theorems
appropriately.
VTH = RTH ISC
R1
R1
R2
V1
V2
VL
RL
V1 V2
V
+
+ .... n
R1 R 2
Rn
VL=
1
1
1
1
+
+ ....
+
R1 R 2
Rn RL
RA
RA =
R 2R 3
R1 + R 2 + R 3
RB =
R 3 R1
R1 + R 2 + R 3
RC =
R 1R 2
R1 + R 2 + R 3
WYE-DELTA TRANSFORMATION:
1
RC
I3
Ib
Rb
V2
zero potential
At node a(Common
:
Node)
I1 = Ia + I2
V1 Va
V
= a +
R1
Ra
R3
I SC R TH
R TH + R L
R1
Once the node voltages are known ( Va, Vb ),

all the branch currents can be calculated.
ISC
105
IL =
DELTA-WYE TRANSFORMATION:
At node b:
Ib = I2 + I3
RT
Review Course
where:
V1, V2, ..Vn Voltages of the individual
voltage sources.
R1, R2,..Rn internal resistances of the
individual voltage sources.
VL load voltage
RL load resistor
RB
RA
3
1
R1
R2
Va Vb
2
R2
106
R3
Review Course
R1 =
R2 =
R3 =
R A R B + R B R C + R CR A
RA
RB
RC
ELECTROSTATICS/CAPACITANCE
LAWS OF ELECTROSTATICS:
Like charges repel each other, unlike
charges attract each other.
The force exerted between two charges
is directly proportional to the product of
their strengths and is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance
between the two charges.
COULOMBS LAW:
The force between two charged bodies
k=
1
4 o r
9 x 109
where:
Review Course
where:
where:
E - Electric Intensity in Newton/Coulomb

Q charge in Coulombs
d distance in meters
D - electric flux density in Coulombs /sq.

meter
- electric flux in Coulombs
A area in sq. meters
F force in Newton
Q1, Q2 respective charges on the particles
in Coulombs
o - absolute permittivity
o = 8.85410-12 Farad/meter
r - relative permittivity or dielectric
constant
r = 1 - free space
d distance between the charged particles
in meters
POTENTIAL AT A POINT: V
In CGS:
ELECTRIC FIELD OUTSIDE AN ISOLATED

SPHERE IN FREE SPACE:E
F force in Dyne
Q1, Q2 respective charges on the particles
in Statcoulomb
d - distance between the charged particles
in centimeters
ELECTRIC INTENSITY: E
or (Field Intensity)
E
+Q
d
V = 9 109
where:
V potential at a point in volts
d distance in meters
E = 9109 Q2
d
where:
E electric field outside an isolated sphere
in free space in volts/meter
Q the total charge in Coulombs
d the distance from the center of an
isolated sphere located in free space in
meters.
Figure
Q1 Q 2
d2
9 10 9
Q1 Q 2
d2
E = 9 109
D =
CAPACITANCE: C
is the property of the capacitor which
delays any change of voltage across it.
C=
Q
V
where:
C capacitance in Farad
V voltage in Volts
ELASTANCE: S
the reciprocal of capacitance
ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY: D
Figure
F=k
Q
r d
S=
V
Q
where:
S elastance in Daraf
V voltage in Volts
CAPACITANCE OF TWO PARALLEL
PLATE CAPACITOR:
Q
r d 2
D = o r E
Figure
107
108
Review Course
C=
o r A
d
C=
where:
A area of each plate sq. meters
d thickness of the dielectric material in
meters
CAPACITANCE OF n PARALLEL
PLATES CAPACITOR with the same
DIELECTRIC MATERIAL
and thickness of INSULATION:
r r
Figure
C = (n 1)
o r A
d
where:
n the number of plates
CAPACITANCE of several PARALLEL
PLATES CAPACITOR with DIFFERENT
DIELECTRIC MATERIAL and THICKNESS
of INSULATION:
r1 r2 r3
d1
d2
d3
o A
d1 d 2 d 3
+
+
r1 r2 r3
Review Course
CAPACITANCE OF AN
ISOLATED SPHERE:
r +
+
PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS
INSULATING (DIELECTRIC)
MATERIALS
Vacuum
1
Air
1.0006
Asbestos
2
Bakelite
5
Cellulose film
5.8
Marble
7
Mica
6
Paper (Dry)
2.2
Paper (Treated)
3.2
Glass
6
Porcelain
5.7
Pressboard
6.2
Quartz, fused
3.5
Rubber
2.6
Silica, fused
3.6
Water
70
Wax, paraffin
2.2
+Q
r
+
+
+
Figure
Figure
C = 4 o r r
CAPACITANCE OF A SPHERICAL
CAPACITOR:
-
r
-
r2
C = 4or
C=
o r
D
ln +
2r
D
2r

(F/m)
CAPACITORS IN SERIES:
+Q
+ r1
+
+
-
Figure
VT
V1
V2
C1
C2
Vn
Cn
IT
Figure
r1 r2
r2 r1
The same current I exist in each of the

capacitors.
IT = I1 = I2 = In
CAPACITANCE OF COAXIAL CABLE:

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Major Types of Capacitors:

Electrolytic
Dielectric
Plastic film types
Metallized plastic types
Glass and ceramics
Mica and mica/paper types
Air/vacuum types
r
r
Figure
C=
Figure
109
CAPACITANCE BETWEEN
TWO-PARALLEL WIRE:
110
2 o r
(Farad/meter)
r
ln 2
r1
The charge on each capacitor is the same.

QT = Q1 = Q2 = Qn
The source voltage VT is the summation of

the voltages across each capacitor.
VT = V1 + V2 + Vn
Review Course
For a number of capacitors in series,
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
CT C1 C2
Cn
VT = V1 = V2 = Vn
Review Course
W = CV2 =
For a number of capacitors in parallel,

CT = C1 + C2 + Cn
For two capacitors in series:

CT =
C1 C2
C1 + C2
Computing for the elastance S:

1
1
1
1
=
+
+
ST S1 S 2
Sn
The total elastance S:

ST = S1 + S2 + Sn
W stored energy in (Joules)

C capacitance in (Farads)
V voltage across a capacitor
in (Volts)
Q charge in (Coulombs)
C1
IT
C2
I1
C2
I2
1.
Cn
Figure
In
CT =
Figure
The total current IT is the sum of all currents

in each capacitor.
2.
C1 [ C 2 + C 3 ]
C1 + C 2 + C 3
PARALLEL-SERIES CIRCUIT:
IT = I1 + I2 + In
C2
C1
The total charge QT is the sum of all charges
in each capacitor.
C3
The same voltage V exists across each

capacitors.
111
EMF in a circuit is a form

a.
power
b.
energy
c.
charge
d.
none
4.
The cgs unit of specific resistance

is
a.
mho
b.
ohm-m
Figure
CT = C1 +
C2 C3
C2 + C3
112
Electric current in a wire is the flow

of
a.
free electrons
b.
valence electrons
c.
bound of electrons
d.
atoms
3.
C3
QT = Q1 + Q2 + Qn
If the number of valence electrons

of an atom is greater than 4, the
substance is usually
a.
semiconductor
b.
an insulator
c.
a conductor
d.
none of the above
ohm-sq.-m
ohm-cm
5.
The resistance of a material is

_____ its length.
a.
directly proportional to
b.
inversely proportional
to
c.
independent of
d.
none of these
6.
The value of , i.e., the

temperature
coefficient
of
resistance depends upon the
_______ of the material.
a.
length
b.
volume
c.
X-sectional area
d.
Nature
and
temperature
7.
7. The value of 0oC

of a
conductor is 1 / 236o C. The value
of 180C is
a.
1 / 218 C
b.
1 / 272 C
c.
1 / 254 C
d.
1 / 265 C
8.
Electrical appliances are not

connected in series because
a.
series
circuit
is
complicated
b.
power loss is greater
c.
appliances
have
different current ratings
d.
none of these
9.
Electrical appliances are connected

in parallel because it
a.
is a simple circuit
REVIEW QUESTIONS
CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL:
VT
Q2
= VQ
C
where:
SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT:
C1
c.
d.
ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR:
Review Course
b.
c.
d.
results in reduced
power loss
draws less current
makes the operation of
the
appliances
independent from each
other
10. The hot resistance of a 100W,

250V incandescent lamp is
a.
2.5
b.
625
c.
25
d.
none of these
11. A number 00 wire (AWG) has a
diameter of 0.3648 inch. Determine
its area in circular-mils.
a.
0.1331MCM
b.
104.5MCM
c.
133.1 MCM
d.
0.105MCM
12. A coil consists of 2000 turns of
copper wire having a crosssectional area of 0.8 mm2. The
mean length per turn is 80 cm and
the resistivity is
0.02 -m.
Find the resistance of the coil.
a.
10k
b.
20k
c.
30k
d.
40k
13. A certain switchboard needs a
conversion from a circular
conductor to a rectangular
conductor bus bar having the same
cross-sectional area.
If the
diameter of the wire is 0.846 inch,
calculate the width of an equivalent
113
Review Course
b.
bus bar if the thickness of the bar is

to be inch.
a.
1.234 inch
b.
2.345 inch
c.
3.456 inch
d.
4.567inch
c.
d.
greater
than
the
smallest resistance
between the smallest
and
greatest
resistance
none of the above
14. The resistance of a copper wire at

30C is 50. If the temperature
coefficient of copper at 0o C is
0.00427, what is the resistance at
100o C?
a.
35ohms
b.
45ohms
c.
55ohms
d.
65 ohms
18. Two incandescent lamps of 100W,

200V are in parallel across the
200V supply. The total resistance
will be
a.
800
b.
200
c.
400
d.
600
15. Two resistances 20k and 60k

are in series and is supplied by a
100V source. Calculate the voltage
across the 60k resistor.
a.
75V
b.
25V
c.
20V
d.
60 V
19. Three resistors are connected in

parallel and draws 1A, 2.5A, and
3.5A, respectively. If the applied
voltage is 21V, what is the total
resistance of the circuit?
a.
5
b.
147
c.
3
d.
73.5
16. Three resistors 10, 15, and 20

each are connected in parallel.
What is the equivalent resistance?
a.
10
b.
15.5
c.
45
d.
4.615
20. Four cells of internal resistance

1, are connected in parallel. The
battery resistance will be
a.
4
b.
0.25
c.
2
d.
1
17. When a number of resistances are

connected in parallel, the total
resistance is
a.
less than the smallest
resistance
21. Of the following combination of

units, the one that is not equal to
the watt is
a.
joule/sec
ampere-volt
b.
c.
ampere2-ohm
114
d.
ohm/volt
22. The power dissipated in a circuit is

not equal to
a.
VI
b.
I2 R
c.
c.V2 / R
d.
IR/V
23. An electric iron draws a current of
15A when connected to a 120-V
power source. Its resistance is
a.
0.125
b.
8
c.
16
d.
1,800
24. When a 100-W, 240V, light bulb is
operated at 200V, the current that
flows in it is
a.
0.35A
b.
0.42A
c.
0.5A
d.
0.58A
25. The equivalent resistance of a
network of three 2-ohm resistors
cannot be
a.
0.67
b.
1.5
c.
3
d.
6
26. A 12-V potential difference is
applied
across
a
series
combination of four six-ohm
resistors. The current in each sixohm resistor will be
a.
0.5A
b.
2A
Review Course
c.
d.
8A
18A
27. The dissipation of energy can

cause burns because it produces
a.
Heat
b.
Fire
c.
Friction
d.
overload
28. The rate of expenditure of energy is
a.
Voltage
b.
power
c.
current
d.
energy
29. A circuit in which the resistance are
connected in a continuous run, i.e.,
end-to-end is a ________ circuit.
a.
Series
b.
parallel
c.
series-parallel
d.
none of these
30. A battery is connected to an
external circuit. The potential drop
within the battery is proportional to
a.
the emf of the battery
b.
the current in the
circuit
c.
the equivalent circuit
resistance
d.
power dissipated in the
circuit
31. Two wires A and B have the same
cross-sectional area and are made
of the same material. Ra = 600
and Rb = 100. The number of
times A is longer than B is
a.
6
115
b.
c.
d.
Review Course
2
4
5
a.
b.
32. A coil has a resistance of 100 at

900C. At 100oC, its resistance is
101. The temperature coefficient
of the wire is
a.
0.01
b.
0.1
c.
0.0001
d.
0.001
c.
d.
37. According to KCL as applied to a

junction in a network of conductors.
a.
total sum of currents
meeting at the junction
is zero.
b.
no current can leave
the junction without
same current passing
through it
c.
net current flow at the
junction is positive
d.
algebraic sum of the
currents meeting at the
junction is zero
33. The resistance of a conductor does

not depend on its
a.
resistivity
b.
length
c.
cross-section
d.
mass
34. A material which has a positive
temperature
coefficient
of
resistance is usually a/an
a.
insulator
b.
conductor
c.
semi-conductor
d.
all of these
38. Kirchoffs Current Law is applicable

only to
a.
closed loop circuits
35. Which of the following statements

is true both for a series and a
parallel dc circuit?
a.
powers are additive
b.
c.
currents are additive

voltage are additive
d.
all of these
both carry the same

value of current
total current equals the
sum of the branch
currents
sum of IR drops equal
to emf
same current passes
through both
b.
c.
electronic circuits
junctions in a network
d.
electric circuits
39. Kirchoffs
Voltage
Law
concerned with
a.
IR drops
b.
battery emfs
c.
junction voltages
d.
a and b
36. Two resistors are said to be in

series when
116
is
40. According to KVL, the algebraic

sum of all IR drops and emfs in any
closed loop of a network is always
a.
zero
b.
negative
c.
positive
d.
determined by battery
emf
41. The algebraic sign of an IR drop is
primarily dependent upon
a.
the amount of current
flowing through it
b.
direction of current
c.
d.
the value of the

resistances
the battery connection
42. Choose the wrong statement. In

the node voltage technique of
solving network parameters, the
choice of a reference node does
not
a.
affect the operation of
the circuit
b.
change the voltage
across any element
c.
alter the potential
difference
between
any pair of nodes
d.
affect the voltage of
various nodes
43. The nodal analysis is primarily
based on the application of
a.
KVL
b.
KCL
c.
Ohms Law
d.
b and C
44. Superposition theorem can be

applied only to circuits having ____
elements.
a.
non-linear
b.
passive
c.
linear bilateral
d.
resistive
45. The superposition theorem is
essentially based on the concept of
a.
Reciprocity
b.
linearity
c.
non-linearity
d.
duality
46. An active element in a circuit is one
which _______.
a.
receives energy
b.
supplies energy
c.
a or b
d.
none of these
47. The superposition theorem is used
when the circuit contains
a.
a single voltage source
b.
a number of voltage
sources
c.
passive elements only
d.
none of these
48. Thevenins Theorem is _____ form
of an equivalent circuit.
a.
voltage
b.
current
c.
both a and b
d.
none of these
49. Nortons Theorem is ____ form of
an equivalent circuit.
a.
Voltage
b.
Current
117
c.
d.
Review Course
Review Course
both a and b
none of these
55. _______ will be used under

electrostatics.
a.
incandescent lamp
b.
electric motor
c.
electric iron
d.
lightning rod
50. In the analysis of vacuum tube

circuit, we generally use ____
theorem.
a.
Nortons
b.
Thevenins
c.
Superposition
d.
reciprocity
51. In the analysis of transistor circuits,
we generally use ____ theorem.
a.
Nortons
b.
Thevenins
c.
Superposition
d.
Reciprocity
52. Under the conditions of Maximum
Power Transfer, the efficiency is
a.
75%
b.
100%
c.
50%
d.
25%
53. The maximum power transfer
theorem is used in
a.
electronic circuits
b.
home lighting
c.
power system
d.
none of the above
56. The value of the absolute

permittivity of air is _____ F/m.
a.
9x10-9
b.
8.854x 10-12
c.
5 x 10
d.
9x109
60. Resistance is ____ the

conductance?
a.
directly proportional to
b.
inversely proportional
to
c.
inversely as the square
of
d.
none to these
61. A pen placed on a table has
a.
Kinetic energy
b.
Magnetic energy
c.
Newtonian energy
d.
Potential energy
57. Like charges ___ and unlike"

charges ___ each other
a.
repel, attract
b.
attact, repel
c.
repel, repel
d.
attract, attract
62. The general term that describes a

device which supplies a voltage?
a.
A voltage source
b.
A voltage supply
c.
A voltage generator
d.
A voltage producer
58. The term(s) used to indicate the

space between and around
charged bodies where their
influence is felt
a.
Electric field of force
b.
Electrostatic field
c.
Dielectric field
d.
Each of the above
63. The MOST widely electrical

conductor in electrical equipments
is
a.
Aluminum
b.
Copper
c.
Silver
d.
Gold
59. Electrostatic lines of force are

assumed to be from
a.
negative charge to
positive charge
b.
positive charge to
positive charge
c.
positive charge to
positive charge
d.
negative charge to
negative charge
54. Delta/Star
or
Star/delta
transformation technique is applied
to
a.
one terminal
b.
two terminal
c.
three terminal
d.
none of these
118
64. A battery with a capacity of 600

ampere-hours should provide 3
amperes for a maximum of how
many hours?
a.
100 hr
b.
200 hr
c.
300 hr
d.
600 hr
65. If the energy used by a 1HP motor
in 10 hours is 9.5 kWh, what is the
efficiency of the motor?
a.
98.1%
Review Course
b.
c.
d.
90.4%
87.6%
78.5%
66. Which of the following terms

applies to a circuit in which there is
NO complete path for current?
a.
Open
b.
Short
c.
Closed
d.
Grounded
67. If an open occurs in a parallel
branch of a circuit, what is the
effect on (a) total resistance, and
(b) total current?
a.
(a) Increases (b)
decreases
b.
(a) Increases (b)
increases
c.
(a) Decreases (b)
decreases
d.
(a) Decreases (b)
increases
68. A real current source will have ___
internal resistance.
a.
zero
b.
infinite
c.
small
d.
large
69. When a current source is
suppressed, it is replaced by
a.
a short circuit
b.
an open circuit
c.
its internal resistance
d.
none of these
A produces 500 kcal in 20 minutes

and B produces 1000 kcal in 10
minutes; the resistance of A is 10
ohm. What is the resistance of B?
a.
4.5 ohms
b.
0.14 ohms
c.
3.5 ohms
d.
2.5 ohms
Review Course
AC CIRCUITS
Single Phase AC Circuits
Cycle a complete change in value and

direction of an alternating quantity.
True, real or active power (P)

P = V I cos
in Watts
Frequency (f) number of cycles per

second or Hertz (Hz)
Reactive, imaginary of idle Power (Q)

Q = V I sin
in VArs
Periodic Time (T) time to complete one

cycle. (seconds)
Apparent power (S)

S = V I in VA
Instantaneous Value the value of any

alternating quantity at any instant.
Maximum Value the maximum value
attained during positive or negative.
Average Value average of
instantaneous values of a half cycle.
Effective Value or Root-Mean-Square Value

(RMS) value is that which when applied to
a given circuit for a given circuit for a given
time produces the same expenditure of
energy when dc is applied to the same circuit
for the same interval of RMS value
Phase Difference or Phase angle the
angular difference or angular displacement
between alternating quantities.
In phase if two alternating quantities attains
their maximum and minimum values at the
same time.
Out of phase does not attain their
maximum and minimum values at the same
time.
70. Two heaters A and B are in parallel

across a supply voltage V. Heater
119
all
120
Comparison of Capacitance and

Inductance:
Capacitance
- stores energy in an electrostatic field
- stores charge Q
- needs dielectric as insulator
- greater plate area increases C
- greater dielectric concentrates electric
field for more C
- opposes a change in voltage
- causes the current to lead the voltage
- inversely proportional to frequency
- 1/Ct = 1/C1 + 1/ C2 in series
- Ct = C1 + C2 in parallel
Inductance
- stores energy in an electromagnetic field
- conducts current I
- needs wire as a conductor
- greater turns increases L
- greater core concentrates magnetic field
for more L
- opposes a change in current
- causes the current to lag the voltage
- directly proportional to frequency
Lt = L1 + L2
1 /Lt = 1/L1 + 1/L2
Review Course
Resonance the condition existing in a
circuit containing at least one resistor, an
inductor and a capacitor wherein the current
behaves as if it is purely resistive.
, - phase angle in (degrees)

T- period in (seconds)
f frequency in (hertz)
Resonance characteristics:
- total current is in phase with the
impressed voltage
- power factor of the circuit is unity.
- total reactive power is zero.
- imaginary component of the total
impedance ( or admittance ) in
complex form is zero.
Converting the sine function to cosine
2
wt
T =1 / f
Figure
function or vice-versa is done by using the
Vm maximum value (amplitude)

- phase angle in (degrees)
a real part
jb imaginary part
where:
Arms = A m
The Average Value of Different
Waveforms:
Am
Vmcos(wt+) = Vmsin(wt++90 )
The Effective Value (RMS) of Different

Waveforms:
One Cycle
Am
A rms
One Cycle
The PHASOR:
A complex number that carries both the
amplitude and phase angle information of
any given sinusoidal function.
A ave = 0
Arms = Am
Am
Half- Cycle
Aave
A sinusoidal wave can be represented by a

Phasor.
Am
TIME DOMAIN:
v( t ) = Vm cos ( wt )
Aave =
Half- Cycle
Arms
Polar Form:
w = 2f
Half Wave Rectifier Full-Cycle
trigonometric identities as shown.
v( t ) = Vm cos ( wt + )
v( t ) = Vm sin ( wt + )
Am
Aave
Vmsin(wt+) = Vmcos(wt+-90 )
A source (voltage or current) that varies

sinusoidally with time.
Vm
where:
SINUSOIDAL SOURCE:
Review Course
Am
Arms = Am
Am
Aave
V = Vm / o
0
Rectangular Form:
Am
Full-Wave Rectifier
V = a jb
Aave =
Vm maximum value (amplitude)

w - angular velocity in (radians/sec)
t time in (seconds)
Full-Wave Rectifier
A rms
Am
Arms = Am
2
121
122
Review Course
V = RI
Am
Arms
Half Wave Rectifier Full-Cycle
Review Course
In time-domain:
II. INDUCTOR:
In time-domain:
I. RESISTOR:
i = C dv
dt
v = L dtdi
if
i = Imcos( wt + i )
then
v = wLImcos (wt + i + 900)
Figure
VR
VL
Figure
Voltage-Current Relationship of Different

Passive Circuit Elements:
~ V
v
i
Arms = Am
In time-domain:
R-L SERIES CIRCUIT:
III. CAPACITOR:
VL
if
900
v = Vmcos (wt + v )
VR
The current I lags

the voltage V by
then
i = wCVm cos (wt + v + 900)
Figure
In phasor-domain:
Z = R 2 + XL2
XC
I
if
In phasor-domain:
i = Imcos (wt + i )
V = -j w1C I = XC I
v = RIm cos (wt + i )

In phasor-domain:
V = jwLI = XLI
V
Figure
XC = -j 1 = -j
wC
XL = jwL = j2fL
Z = R + jXL
then
123
where:
XL = inductive reactance in
L = inductance in Henry
V = VR2 + VL2
1
2 fC
where:
XC = capacitive reactance in
C = capacitance in Farad
V/ = VR + jVL
where:
V = IZ
Z impedance in
124
Review Course
R-C SERIES CIRCUIT:
Review Course
if VC < VL
R-L-C SERIES CIRCUIT:
Vab = IZ1 + IZ2 +IZn
VL
I
VR
VC
VR
900
VL
~ V
VC
VC
VL - VC
VR
IMPEDANCES IN PARALLEL:
Current I lags
voltage V by
VR
Figure
Vab
Z1
I1
V = IZ
if VC > VL
The current I leads

the voltage V by
I2
VR
In
Z=
R2 + [ X X ] 2
I = I1 + I2 + In
V=
V2 + [ V V ] 2
Vab
V
V
V
= ab + ab + ... ab
Z ab
Z1
Z2
Zn
VC - VL
V
VC
Current I leads
Z = R + XC
Zn
Figure
Z2
VL
Figure
Figure
VC
Zab = Z1 + Z2 +Zn
voltage V by
IMPEDANCES IN SERIES:
Figure
Z = R jXC
1 = 1 + 1 + ... 1
Zab Z1 Z 2
Zn
a
Z1
V=
VR2
V = IZ
+ VC
V/- = VR jVC
Z=
Z2
R + [ XC XL ]
Y = 1 = G + jB
Z
Vab
Zn
Yab=Y1 + Y2 +Yn
b
Figure
where:
V = IZ
V=
V +[ V V ]
R
Vab = V1 + V2 +Vn
Vab = IZab
where:
Z impedance in
Y - Admittance in Siemens
G - Conductance in Siemens
B - Susceptance in Siemens
Two Impedances in Parallel:
Z=
125
126
Z Z
1 2
Z1 + Z 2
Review Course
ADMITTANCE, CONDUCTANCE,
SUSCEPTANCE:
I
VR
~ V
X
I=
VX
V
R jX
when rationalized
X
R
I = V 2 m j 2
Z
Z
I = V [ G m jB ] = VY
Admittance:
Y= G m jB Siemens
Conductance:
G = R2
Z
Siemens
Susceptance:
B=
127
X
Z2
Siemens
Review Course
if jB then X is
inductive reactance XL
+jB then X is
capacitive reactance XC
5. In a pure resistive circuit, the

instantaneous voltage and are
current are given by : v = 250 sin
314t
i = 10 sin314t
The peak power in the circuit is
a. 1250W
b. 25W
c. 2500W
d. 250W
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The reciprocal of capacitance is called
a. Elastance
b. conductance
c. permittivity
d. permeability
6. An average value of 6.36A is ______

the effective value of 7.07A
a. the same as
b. less than
c. greater than
d. any of these
7. In an R-L series ac circuit, the
resistance is 10 ohms and the
inductive reactance is 10 ohms. The
phase angle between the applied
voltage and circuit current will be
a. 45 degrees
b. 30 degrees
c. 60 degrees
d. 36.8 degrees
2. The ff are advantages of a dc system

over ac system EXCEPT
a. ac voltages can be easily
changed in magnitude
b. dc motors do have fine
speed control
c. high voltage ac
transmission is less
efficient
d. dc voltage can be used
for domestic appliances
3. An alternating voltage is given by v =
20 sin 157t. The frequency of the
alternating voltage is
a. 50Hz
b. 25Hz
c. 100Hz
d. 75Hz
8. An R-L series ac circuit has 15V

across the resistor and 20V across
the inductor. The supply voltage is
a. 35V
b. 5V
c. 25V
d. 175V
4. An alternating current is given by i =

10 sin 314t. The time taken to
generate two cycles of current is
a. 20ms
b. 10ms
c. 40ms
d. 50ms
9. The active and reactive powers of an

inductive circuit are equal. The
power factor of the circuit is
a. 0.8 lagging
b. 0.707 lagging
c. 0.6 lagging
128
d.
0.5 lagging
10. A circuit when connected to 200V

mains takes a current of 20A,
leading the voltage by one-twelfth of
the time period. The circuit
resistance is
a. 10 ohms
b. 8.66 ohms
c. 20 ohms
d. 17.32 ohms
11. An ac series circuit has a resistance
of 6 ohms, inductive reactance of 20
ohms, and capacitive reactance of
12 ohms. The circuit power factor
will be
a. 0.8 lagging
b. 0.8 leading
c. 0.6 lagging
d. 0.6 leading
12. An alternating voltage of 80 + j 60 V
is applied to a circuit and the current
flowing is -4 + j 10 A. Find the
phase angle.
a. 25 degrees
b. 50degrees
c. 75 degrees
d. 100degrees
13. A current wave is represented by
the equation i = 10 sin 251t. The
average and rms values of current
are
a. 7.07A; 6.36A
b. 6.36A; 7.07A
c. 10A; 7.07A
d. 6.36A; 10A
Review Course
14. Calculate the susceptance in mho of
a circuit consisting of a resistor of 10
ohms in series with a conductor of
0.1H, when the frequency is 50Hz.
a. 0.0303
b. 0.0092
c. 0.029
d. 32.95
15. An
inductive circuit of
resistance 16.5 ohms and
inductance of 0.14H takes
a current of 25A. If the
frequency is 50Hz, the
supply voltage is
a.
b.
c.
d.
117. 4V
1174V
1714V
1471V
16. The current taken by a circuit is 1.2A

when the applied potential
difference is 250V and the power
taken is 135W. The power factor is
a. 0.35
b. 0.45
c. 0.55
d. 0.65
17. A capacitor has a capacitance of 20
F. The current supplied if it is
placed across a 1100V, 25 Hz
supply.
a. 3.554A
b. 6.91A
c. 3.45A
d. 9.61A
18. A non-inductive load takes 10A at
100V. Calculate the inductance of
129
Review Course
the inductor to be connected in

series in order that the same current
is supplied from a 220V, 50Hz
mains.
a. 1.96 ohms
b. 6.91 ohms
c. 19.6 ohms
d. 9.61 ohms
taken is 6A, what

capacitance?
a. 88.6F
b. 68.8F
c. 86.8F
d. 76.8F
is
the
23. What capacitance must be placed in

series with an inductance of 0.05H,
so that when the frequency is
100Hz, the impedance becomes
equal to the ohmic resistance?
a. 70.5F
b. 50.7F
c. 5.7F
d. 7.05F
19. An inductor having negligible

resistance and an inductance of
0.07H is connected in series with a
resistor of 20-ohm resistance across
a 200V, 50Hz, supply. The
maximum energy stored in the coil is
a. 3.175J
b. 1.585J
c. 0.236J
d. 0.33J
24. When supply frequency is less than

the resonant frequency in a parallel
ac circuit, then the circuit is
a. resistive
b. capacitive
c. inductive
d. none of these
20. A coil has 1200 turns and produces

100Wb when the current flowing is
1A. The inductance of the coil is
a. 0.21H
b. 0.12H
c. 0.31H
d. 0.41H
25. When supply frequency is less than

the resonant frequency in a series
ac circuit, then the power factor of
the circuit is
a. leading
b. lagging
c. inductive
d. none of these
21. A capacitor connected to a 115V,

25Hz supply takes 5A. What current
will it take when the capacitance and
frequency are doubled?
a. 2A
b. 5A
c. 10A
d. 20A
26. If the admittance of a parallel ac

circuit is increased, the circuit
current
a. remains constant
b. is increased
c. unity
22. A resistor of 20 ohms is connected

in parallel with a capacitor across a
110V, 40Hz supply. If the current
130
d.
zero
27. The resistance between any pair

two terminals of a balanced wyeconnected load is 12ohms. The
resistance of each phase
a. 6 ohms
b. 18 ohms
c. 24 ohms
d. none of these
28. If an ac circuit contains three nodes,
the number of each mesh equations
that can be formulated is
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
29. The relation of the voltage across an
inductor to its current is describe as
a. leading the current by 90
degrees
b. lagging the current by 90
degrees
c. leading the current by
180 degrees
d. in phase with the current
30. A circuit has an impedance of (1-j2)
ohms. The susceptance of the
circuit in mho is
a. 0.1
b. b. 0.2
c. c. 0.4
d. none of these
Review Course
ELECTRICAL MACHINES
l the average length of the magnetic
Review Course
MAGNETIC FLUX INTENSITY:
circuit in meters
H=
MAGNETIC CIRCUIT:
MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE (MMF):
I
N
Figure
In SI:
= NI
where:
mmf in Ampere-Turns, At
N the number of turns ( t )
I the current in the coil in Amps
In CGS:
= 0.4NI
where:
- mmf in Gilberts
N the number of turns ( t )
I the current in the coil in Amps
RELUCTANCE:
l
l
l
=
=
=v =
A
A o r A
where:
reluctance in At/Wb
131
A the cross-sectional area of the magnetic

circuit in sq. meters
permeability of the material
v reluctivity
0 permeability of free space
0 410-7 (H/m)
r relative permeability
flux in Webers
mmf in Ampere-Turns, At
MAGNETIC FLUX:
N I N I A
=
=
=
l
where:
In SI:
Flux in Weber
In CGS:
Flux in Maxwells
NI
=
=
l
l
where:
In SI:
H A-t/meter
In CGS:
H Oersted
PERMEABILITY:
=
I
= o r
H
= Henry/meter
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY:
r =
(unitless)
r = unitless
where:
F force in Newton
B flux density, normally perpendicular to I
in Tesla
I current in the conductor in Amperes
L length of the conductor in meters
- the angle between B and I if not 90o
FORCE between PARALLEL
CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTORS:
F = 2 10-7 I1I2
where:
F force in Newton
I1, I2 conductor currents in Amperes
l length of the conductors in meters
r the distance between the 2 paralleled
conductors in meters
TRACTIVE FORCE of a MAGNET:
F =
MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY:

=
PERMEANCE:
P=
where:
1 A
=
=

l
In SI:
B Wb/sq.meter = Tesla
P - Wb/A-t
In CGS:
B Maxwells/sq.cm = Gauss
FORCE ACTING on a CURRENTCARRYING CONDUCTOR in a

UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD:
F = BIL sin
132
l
r
B2 A
2 ( o )
where:
F force per gap in Newton
B flux density in Tesla
o 4 10-7 (H/m)
MAGNETIC FIELD ENERGY:
(In the air-gap)
W =
B2 l A
2 o
Review Course
Series Magnetic Circuit:
where:
W energy in Joules
B flux density in Tesla
o = 4 10-7 (H/m)
l length in meters
Air-gap
IT
R1
RC
R2
I2
I1
V
e = -N
Magnetic Circuit
Magnetic Circuit
Rag
Electric Circuit
Figure
Magnetic Circuit
Electric Circuit
Figure
Faradays Law of Electromagnetic

Induction:
T = c + ag
T = c + ag
Electric Circuit
Figure
T = c + ag
Magnetic Circuit
MMF
Flux
Reluctance
Permeance
P
Reluctivity
v
Permeability
Electric Circuit
EMF
Current
Resistance
Conductance
Resistivity
Conductivity
V
I
R
G
T = c = ag
d
10-8
dt
(volts)
where:
- the flux in Maxwell or Line
The minus sign merely represents that the
voltage is induced.
EMF Induced in a Short Length

Straight Conductor:
In SI:
e = B l v (volts)
An emf is induced in a conductor if such

conductor cuts the magnetic lines of
force.
The magnitude of the induced emf is
proportional to the rate of change of fluxlinkages.
AVERAGE INDUCED EMF:
where:
B the flux density in Tesla
l the length of the conductor in meters
v the velocity in meters/second
In CGS:
In SI:
e = -N
d
dt
(volts)
where:
N the number of turns linking
- the flux in Weber
t time in seconds
133
d/dt the time rate of change of flux

linkages
In CGS:
ag
Parallel Magnetic Circuit:
COMPARISON between MAGNETIC and

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS:
I
Review Course
134
e = B l v 10-8 (volts)
where:
B the flux density in Gauss
l the length of the conductor in
centimeters
Review Course
v the velocity in centimeters/second
1Weber = 108 Maxwell
EMF of SELF-INDUCTION:
di
dt
e=L
- reluctance
o = 4
r relative permeability of the core
l - length of the magnetic core in meters
10-7
ENERGY STORED in the MAGNETIC

FIELD of an INDUCTOR:
2
W = LI
where:
W energy stored in Joules
L the inductance in Henry
I current in the inductor in Amperes
d D
Mutual Inductance:
-7
turns of wire
D
d
where:
D outer diameter
d inner diameter
L=
Figure
N2
Figure
e2 = N2
d 2
dt
Lta = L1 + L2 + 2M
= kN2
d1
dt
Mutual Flux Opposing

(Subtractive Polarity)
(Henry)
(Henry)
e2 = M
D
Figure
dI 1
dt
N A
(Henry)
l
where:
L the self -inductance of the coil in Henry
N number of turns
A cross-sectional area of the coil in sq. m
- flux in Webers
135
r2
r1
N2
L = o r
Mutual Flux Aiding

(Additive Polarity)
e1 1
e2
Inductance of Two Long Cylindrical

Conductors in Parallel
The DOT Convention:
I1
N1
L = 210 ln
L= N
M the mutual-inductance in Henry

k coefficient of coupling (k < 1)
I1 the primary current in Amperes
N1 primary turns
N2 secondary turns
L1 primary inductance in Henry
L2 secondary inductance in Henry
Figure
SELF-INDUCTANCE:
l Figure
(Joules)
Inductance of a Coaxial Cable:
(volts)
where:
L the inductance of the coil in Henry
di/dt - the rate of change of current in
Amps/sec
Review Course
-7
L = 410 ln
D
r1r2
where:
D distance between the two lines
r1, r2 radius of the wires
M = kN2
d1
dI 1
M = k
where:
136
= k N1N 2
L1 L 2
Figure
Lto = L1 + L2 2M
M=
Lta Lto
4
Review Course
where:
Lta the total-inductance; series-aiding in
Henry
Lto the total-inductance; series-opposing
in Henry
M mutual inductance between the coils
in Henry
Review Course
e = l v10
Inductance in Series-Parallel:
L1
L2
L3
where:
E - Average EMF induced in a coil in
volts
N - the number of turns in the coil

- flux in Webers
t time in seconds
Figure
L1
L2
L 2L 3
L2 + L3
In CGS:
E = N
Ln
-8
10
t
Inductance in Parallel-Series:
L2
Figure
L1
LT = L1 + L2 + .. Ln
Figure
Inductances in Parallel:
L1
L2
Ln
L3
LT =
L1[ L2 + L3 ]
L1 + L2 + L3
where:
E - Average EMF induced in a coil in
volts
N - the number of turns in the coil

- flux in Maxwells or Lines
t time in seconds
Induced EMF in a Conductor :
In SI:
e = l v
Figure
1
1
1
1
=
+
+ ...
Ln
LT L1 L2
l - length of the conductor in

centimeters
v - velocity in centimeters/sec
DIRECTION OF THE INDUCED EMF:

(Flemings Right Hand Rule)
Forefinger represents the direction of the
flux (pointing N to S)
Thumb represents the direction of motion
the conductor moves
Middle Finger represents the direction of
the induced EMF.
TYPES of ARMATURE WINDINGS:

I. LAP WINDING:
yb
yf
DC GENERATOR:
A dc generator is an electrical machine that
converts mechanical energy to electrical
energy.
where:
- Flux density in Webers/sq.m = Tesla
Average EMF Induced in a Coil :

In SI:
v - velocity in meters/sec
E = N
137
where:
- Flux density in Linews/sq.cm =
Gauss
NOTE:
, l , v must be mutually perpendicular; if
not, the equation must be multiplied by the
sine of an angle between pairs of quantities.
Inductance in Series:
LT = L1 +
l - length of the conductor in meters
In CGS:
138
-8
yc
yc = m
Review Course
Review Course
Wave Winding
Cm
yc =
P
2
yb = yf 2m
where:
yb back pitch (an odd number)
yf front pitch (an odd number)

+ progressive type of winding
- retrogressive type of winding
m
Type of Winding
yc
Simplex Lap
(SL)
Duplex Lap
(DL)
Triplex Lap
(TL)
Quadroplex Lap
(QL)
Z2
y=
P
In SI:
TYPES of DC GENERATORS :
P ZS
60 (a')
where:
y average pitch
P the number of poles
Z the number of elements or coil sides

P number of poles
C number of commutator segments
the flux per pole in Webers
Z the number of armature conductors

S the speed in RPM
a number of armature parallel paths
+ progressive type of winding
II. WAVE WINDING:
- retrogressive type of winding

All other terms have been previously
defined.
yf
Lap Winding
Wave Winding
Type of Winding
Lap Winding
Separately-Excited DC Generator:
IL
If
Ra
Rf
DC
E=
P ZS
-8
10
60 (a')

defined.
After the machine has been assembled, a,
P, Z could be taken as a constant, thus
mP
Ra
Ia
E
Pa
Rf
Po
V
If
Po = VIL
Pa = EIa
Pa = Po + Losses
E = V + IaRa
E = KS
140
RL
SHUNT GENERATOR:
Ia = IL + If
139
In CGS:
where:
the flux per pole in Maxwells or
Lines
Number of Brushes:
Number of Armature Parallel Paths:
yc
The generated emf E is thus proportional to,

- the flux
- the speed S
where:
E generated emf in the armature in
volts
Type of Winding
yb
DC-GENERATOR VOLTAGE
EQUATION BETWEEN BRUSHES:
E=
y + yf
y= b
2
2m
RL
IL
Review Course
Pa = Po + Losses
If = V
Rf
EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTIC OF A
SHUNT GENERATOR:
A shunt generator is considered as having a
fairly constant output voltage.
Pa
Ia
E
Po
Rf
Pa
If
Ra
RL
Ia
E
IL
Pa
Po
Rf
If
RL
IL
Po = VIL
Pa = EIa
where:
Rs series field resistance
Po = VIL
All other terms have been previously defined.
Pa = EIa
Pa = Po + Losses
Pa = Po + Losses
E = V+ ILRs + IaRa
E = V + Ia(Rs + Ra)
Ia = IL + If
EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTIC OF A
SERIES GENERATOR:
IL
RL
If =
Ia = IL + If
Po
V
_
Ra
Load Current
SERIES GENERATOR:
Rs
Rs
+
Ia = IL
Load Voltage
where:
Po power output in watts
Pa power developed in the armature in
watts
V output (terminal/load) voltage in volts
E generated emf in the armature in volts
IL load current in amperes
If field current in amperes
Ia armature current in amperes
RL load resistance
Rf shunt field resistance
Ra armature resistance
Ia
SHORT-SHUNT
COMPOUND GENERATOR:
LONG SHUNT
COMPOUND GENERATOR:
Rs
E = V + Ia(Ra + Rs)
Ra
Review Course
A series generator could either be used as a

voltage booster or a constant current
generator.
If = V
Rf
V + IL RS
Rf
EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS
COMPOUND GENERATORS:
where:
Pa = EIa
141
142
cumulative
Load Voltage
Po = VIL
over compound
VNL
flat compound
under compound
differential
Ra t e d
Load current
Review Course
Vf voltage across the shunt field
Review Course
C. Stray Load Loss = 1% of the Output
MEASUREMENT of STRAY POWER LOSS:
Short-Shunt Compound:
where:
= f s
VF = V + ILRS
+ cumulatively compounded
- differentially compounded
NOTE:
If the interpoles RI and the compensating RC
windings are included in the circuit, the total
resistance in the armature circuit Ra is:
Ra = Ra + RC + RI
VOLTAGE REGULATION:
V VFL
100
%V.R. = NL
VFL
where:
VNL no-load voltage
VFL full-load voltage
GENERATORS EFFICIENCY:
% =
Pout
100
Pin
Long-Shunt Compound
and Shunt Generator
VF = V
2. Series Field Loss = Ise2Rs
Long-Shunt Compound:
Ise = Ia
Short-Shunt Compound:
Ise = IL
Series Generator:
Ise = Ia = IL
Shunt Generator:
But Pout = Pin Losses, thus
LOSSES:
A. Electrical Losses:
1. Shunt Field Loss = VfIf
143
RL = VIa
2
Ia Ra
where:
RL Rotational Loss
V Terminal Voltage
Ia Armature current
Ra Armature Resistance
MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY:
Maximum efficiency is obtained when
the fixed losses equal the losses which
vary with the square of the load current.
Parallel Operation of DC Generators:
Ise = none
P - Losses
% = in
100
Pin
The dc machine is run light without a

mechanical load on its shaft at rated speed.
3. Armature Loss = Ia2Ra
Reasons:
1. Continuity of Service
2. Efficiency
3. Maintenance and Repair
4. Additions to Plants
Conditions:
1.Same External Characteristic
2. Same Polarity
3. Same Voltage
B. Rotational Loss or Stray Power Loss:

Friction and Windage Loss
F&WL
Brush Friction Loss
Core Loss
IL = IA + IB
PA = VBUSIA
PB = VBUSIB
PL = VBUSIL
PL = PA + PB
where:
VBUS Bus Voltage
IL Load Current
IA Current delivered by GenA
IB Current delivered by GenB
PA Power delivered by GenA
PB Power delivered by GenB
PL Power delivered to the load.
DC MOTOR:
A dc motor is an electrical machine that
converts electrical energy to mechanical
energy.
SPEED of a DC MOTOR:
In SI:
IA
VBUS
IL
IB
144
S=
where:
60 a'Ec
P Z
Review Course
S speed in RPM
a number of parallel paths
Ec counter EMF in volts
P number of poles
- flux per pole in Webers
Z number of armature conductors
k - proportional constant
If field current in Amps.
Nf number of turns of a field winding
S=
60 a'Ec
8
10
P Z
where:
- flux per pole in Maxwells
defined.
S=k
Ec
L length of the conductor in inches

DC MOTOR ARMATURE TORQUE:
P Z Ia
T=
2 a'
SPEED REGULATION:
S NL SFL
x 100
SFL
%S.R. =
In CGS:
Review Course
where:
SNL No-load Speed
SFL Full-load Speed
where:
T torque in N-m
- flux per pole in Webers
Ia = aI armature current in Amps.
T=
F = IL
P Z Ia
20 a'
where:
All terms have been previously defined.
IL
F=
10
The armatures speed of a DC motor is

proportional to the counter emf Ec and is
inversely proportional to the flux produced
by the field circuit.
Since the flux is produced by the field circuit,
= kIfNf
where:
145
where:
F - Force in Dynes
flux density in Gauss
I current in a conductor in Amps
L length of the conductor in cm
F=
P Z Ia
10-8
a'
where:
T torque in lb-ft
- flux per pole in Maxwells or Lines
defined.
IL
10 7
1.13
where:
F - Force in Lbs.
flux density in lines per sq. inch
I current in a conductor in Amps
(Power Available on the Shaft)
HP =
2 T S
33,000
where:
T torque in lb-ft
S speed in RPM
T torque in dyne-cm
- flux per pole in Maxwells or Lines
T = 0.1173
where:
60 a'
k=
PZ
MECHANICAL OUTPUT
of a DC MOTOR:
Force Developed on a Conductor Carrying

Current:
where:
F - Force in Newton
flux density in Tesla
I current in a conductor in Amps.
L length of the conductor in meters
The torque is proportional to the armature

current Ia and the strength of the magnetic
field .
HP =
2 T S
44,760
where:
T torque in N-m
S speed in RPM
STARTING DC MOTOR:
(Without the starting resistor R)
+
Ec

T = kt Ia
146
Ra
Ias
Ias =
V Ec
Ra
Review Course
Ias is many times the rated armature current

that may cause damage to the motor.
(With the starting resistor Rs)
Pin = VI
Armature Current
In a shunt motor, the flux is substantially

constant, thus:
T = ktIa
I = If + Ia
Ra
Ias
where:
Ias armature current at starting in amps.
V terminal voltage in volts
EC counter emf in volts
Ra armature resistance in
R starting resistor in
TYPES of DC MOTORS:
SHUNT MOTOR:
I
CHARACTERISTICS OF A SHUNT
MOTOR:
If
and
Rf
Pa
Ec
Po
Rated
Armature Current
S 2 Ec2
=
S1 Ec1
SERIES MOTOR:
Pin
Ra
Ia
Pa
Rated
Pin = VI
148
Rated
Rs
Armature Current
147
T2 I a2
=
T1 I a1
V
Ra
Torque
It follows that:
Ia
Pin
V
where:
Pin power input
Pa power developed in the armature
Po power output
RL rotational loss
V input (terminal) voltage
Ec counter emf
I line current
If field current
Ia armature current
Rf shunt field resistance
Ra armature resistance
Torqu
S = ksEc
Speed
V Ec
R a + R'
CHARACTERISTICS OF A SERIES
MOTOR:
and
If = V
Rf
where:
Rs series field resistance in
Ec
Ias =
I = Ia
Po = Pa RL
R
V
Po = Pa RL
Rated
Pa = EcIa
Ec=V - IaRa
Pa = EcIa
Speed
At the instant of applying V across the

armature terminals, the counter emf Ec =
zero. The only current-limiting factors are the
armature (internal) resistance Ra and the
brush resistances Rb. The starting current
Review Course
Ec
Po
Armature Current
Review Course
In a series motor, the flux produced by the
series field is proportional to the armature
current Ia, thus:
T = ktIa
Pa = EcIa
V - Ia Rs
If =
Rf
where:
Po = Pa RL
Ec= V - Ia(Rs + Ra)

and
Review Course
Characteristics of Compound Motors:

Cumulative
S = ks E c
Ia
Torque
I = If + Ia
If = V
Rf
Pin
S 2 Ec2 I a1
=
S1 Ec1 I a2
V
_
Ra
Ia
If
Rf
Pa
Ec
Po
Rated
I
Rf
If
Pa
Pin = VI
Pa = EcIa
Po = Pa RL
Ec
Armature Current
Po
In a compound motor, the flux produced by

the series field s may be of the same
direction (cumulative) or of opposite direction
(differential) as of the flux produced by the
shunt field f.
It follows:
T2 2 I a2
=
T1 1 I a1
Ec = V - IRs - IaRa
Pin = VI
149
Cumulative
Ra
Rs
Pin
Ia
LONG SHUNT COMPOUND MOTOR:
Differential
Speed
Rs
I = If + Ia
But
thus
Pout=Pin Losses,
% =
SHORT SHUNT COMPOUND MOTOR:
and
P
% = out 100
Pin
Rated
T2 I a2
=
T1 I a1
MOTORS EFFICIENCY:
Differential
Armature Current
It follows that:
S 2 Ec2 1
=
S1 Ec1 2
where:
= f s
+ cumulatively compounded
- differentially compounded
and
150
Pin - Losses
100
Pin
LOSSES:
1. Electrical Losses
(See Losses in Generators)
2.
Rotational Loss = Stray Power Loss

- Friction and Windage Loss F&WL,
- Brush Friction Loss
- Core Loss
3.
Stray Load Loss = 1% of the Input
MEASUREMENT of STRAY POWER LOSS:

The dc machine is run light without a
mechanical load on its shaft at rated speed.
2
RL = VIa Ia Ra
Review Course
Review Course
NS synchronous speed (RPM)

NR actual (rotor) speed (RPM)
where:
RL Rotational Loss in watts
V Terminal Voltage in volts
Ia Armature current in amps.
Ra - Armature Resistance in
INDUCTION MOTORS
TWO MAIN PARTS:
1. Stator responsible in creating the
revolving magnetic flux.
2. Rotor
TWO TYPES OF ROTOR:
1.
2.
Squirrel-Cage Rotor
Wound-Rotor
SYNCHRONOUS SPEED:
(Speed of the Revolving Field)
120f
NS =
P
(RPM)
fR = sf (Hz)
where:
s per cent slip
f line frequency (Hz)
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS:
Characteristics of Synchronous Motors:
1. It runs at synchronous speed or not at
all.
2. It is not self-starting.
3. It can be operated over a wide range of
power factors hence it can be used for
power factor correction.
ROTOR SPEED:
(The motors actual speed (rotor speed) is
equal to the synchronous speed)
where:
f frequency (Hz)
P number of poles
N - NR
s= S
NS
NR = NS ( 1 s )
151
TRANSFORMERS::
A transformer is an electrical device that
transfers electrical energy from one
circuit
to
another
circuit
by
electromagnetic induction without a
change in frequency. It changes voltage
from high to low (step down) and low to
high (step up) with a corresponding
increase and decrease in current
correspondingly.
EMF EQUATION of a TRANSFORMER :
E = 4.44fNm
Exciter
E = 4.44fNmA 10-8
where:
m - maximum flux in maxwells or lines
m maximum flux density
in maxwells/sq.cm = Gauss
A area of the core in sq. cm
RATIO of TRANSFORMATION:
V1 ~
I1
E1
N1
E2
I2
~ E
Ra
Ia
Armature Circuit
V2
N2
Figure
E1 = 4.44fN1m
Xs
Figure
E = 4.44fNm 10-8
E = 4.44fNmA
Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous

Motor:
(RPM)
In CGS:
An Ideal Transformer
(RPM)
where:
f frequency (Hz)
P number of poles
where:
where:
V source(applied) voltage per phase in
volts
E - generated voltage per phase in volts
Ra effective armature resistance per phase
in
Xs synchronous reactance per phase in
Ia armature current per phase in amps.
ROTOR FREQUENCY:
120f
Nr =
P
SLIP and ROTOR SPEED:
m maximum flux density in

Webers/sq.m=Tesla
A Area of the core in sq. m
m = mA
where:
E EMF in volts
f frequency in Hertz
N number of turns
m- maximum flux in Webers
152
E2 = 4.44fN2m
I 2 N1
=
=a
I1 N 2
E1 N 1
=
=a
E2 N 2
Review Course
Review Course
No leakage flux
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER
.
Ideally:
V1 N 1
=
=a
V2 N 2
where:
a ratio of transformation
E1 primary induced emf
E2 secondary induced emf
N1 primary number of turns
N2 secondary number of turns
V1 input (source) voltage
V2 output (terminal) voltage
NOTE:
For an ideal transformer:
Power input = Power output
No core loss, no copper loss
R1
X2
X1
I2
Io
I1
V1
R2
V2
E2
E1
Ic
Im
N1
N2
Figure
where:
X1 primary reactance in
X2 secondary reactance in
R1 primary resistance in
R2 secondary resistance in
Io exciting current in Amps

Ic wattful current in Amps
Im magnetizing current (amp)

TRANSFORMER ON NO-LOAD:
R1
X2
X1
Io
INL
V1
Ic
Im
Rc
E1
Figure
154
E2
Xm
N1
153
R2
N2
I2 = 0
V2
Review Course
Review Course
Core
Volume
Wh
At no-load, INL = Io. Since Io is but a small
percentage of the full-load current (about
1%), thus the voltage drops across R1 and X1
are neglected.
TWO COMPONENTS OF IO:
IC wattful current (responsible for the core
loss)
Im magnetizing current (responsible for the
flux)
Xm magnetizing reactance
Joules/cyc
le
Io
Im
Ergs/cycle
Ic
Io =
Ic + Im
Gaus
s
Ph = khf m1.6
1 Joule = 107 Ergs
Wh = Vkhm1.6
The no-load power input PNL is practically

equal to the iron loss or core loss PC in the
transformer since the copper loss at no-load
is negligible.
The Core Loss of the Transformer:
PNL = PC = V1Iocos = Ic2Rc
Cubic
centimete
r
In CGS
where:
V core volume
kh hysteresis constant (depending on the
materials)
m maximum flux density
1.6 Steinmetz exponent
where:
Ph hysteresis loss in watts
f frequency in Cycles/seconds
kh constant
1
6 10 16
[tfm ]2V
Pe =
(watts)
CORE LOSS:
Pc = Ph + Pe
[ tfm ]2V
6
Pe = ke [ f m]
(vars)
where:
Pe eddy-current loss in watts
resistivity of the ferromagnetic
material in -cm
t thickness of the laminations in cm.
f frequency in Hz
m maximum flux density in Gauss
V - Core Volume in cu. cm.
ke - constant
EDDY-CURRENT LOSS:
The Reactive-Power Needed for the Flux:
Qm = V1Iosin = Im Xm
Pe =
Pe = ke [ f m]
HYSTERESIS LOSS:
2
Tesla
in -m
t thickness of the laminations in meters
f frequency in Hz
m maximum flux density in Tesla
V - Core Volume in cu. m.
Ph = Wh f
STEINMETZ LAW:
Im = Iosin
Cubic
meter
Figure
Ic = Iocos
where:
Rc resistance representing the core loss
where:
resistivity of the ferromagnetic material
155
156
where:
Pc core loss in watts
Ph hysteresis loss in watts
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF THE
TRANSFORMER REFERRED TO THE
PRIMARY SIDE:
X1
R1
I1
V1 ~
a2X2 a2R2
aV2
Review Course
Review Course
TRANSFORMER TESTS:
Z o1
= a2
Z o2
OPEN-CIRCUIT TEST (OCT) or (NO-LOAD

TEST):
The purpose of this test is to determine the
core loss PC.
VOLTAGE REGULATION:
Ro1 = R1 + a2R2
Ro2 = R2 + R1/a2
Xo1 = X1 + a2X2
Xo2 = X2 + X1/a2
%V.R. =
VNL VFL
100
VFL
where:
VNL voltage at no-load
VFL voltage at full-load
Zo2 = Ro2 + j Xo2
Zo1 = Ro1 + j Xo1
VNL=
2
2
[ V2 cos + I 2 R o2 ] + [ V2 sin I 2 X o2 ]
Zo1 =
R o12 + Xo12
Zo2 =
R o2 2 + Xo2 2
V1 /a = V2 + I2Zo2
V1 = aV2 + I1Zo1
where:
Ro1 equivalent resistance referred to the
primary side
Xo1 equivalent reactance referred to the
primary side
Zo1 equivalent impedance referred to the
primary side
where:
Ro2 equivalent resistance referred to the
secondary side
Xo2 equivalent reactance referred to the
secondary side
Zo2 equivalent impedance referred to the
secondary side
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF THE

TRANSFORMER REFERRED TO THE
SECONDARY SIDE:
2
X1 / a2 R1 / a
157
V1/a ~
X2
R o1
= a2
R o2
X o1
= a2
X o2
R2
I2
V2
OpenCircuited
where:
V2 load-voltage
I2
load current
cos - power factor of the load
+ inductive load (lagging pf)
- capacitive load (leading pf)
In complex form:
VNL / = V2 + I2(cos jsin )( Ro2 + jXo2 )
where:
V2 - load-voltage
I2 - load current
cos - power factor of the load
+ capacitive load (leading pf)
- inductive load (lagging pf)
158
Lo
Hi
Figure
When the reading of the voltmeter V is

rated, the wattmeter W reading is equal to
the core loss PC and the reading of the
ammeter A is the no-load current or exciting
current Io.
Voltmeter
Wattmeter
Rated
POC = PC
Core loss
Ammeter
Io
Exciting
Current
SHORT-CIRCUIT TEST (SCT):

The purpose of this test is to determine the
equivalent impedance Zoh, equivalent
reactance Xoh, equivalent resistance Roh in
which the measuring instruments are
connected and to determine the full-load or
rated copper loss Pcu(rated).
Short
Circuited
~
Hi
Figure
Lo
Review Course
P - Losses
% = in
100
Pin
When the reading of the ammeter A is rated,

the wattmeter W reading is equal to the
rated copper loss Pcu(rated).
Ammeter Wattmeter
Voltmeter
Vsc
PSC = PCU
5% to 10% of the
Rated
Copper Loss
Rated
R oH =
Z oH
XoH =
Review Course
3.
Maximum Efficiency:
% max =
LOSSES:
1. Core Loss : PC - constant
2. Copper Loss: Pcu
varies as the square of the load
2
Pcu = I1 Ro1 = I2 Ro2
ALL DAY EFFICIENCY:

ADE =
WO
100
WO + WC + WCU
Psc
I sc 2
V
= sc
I sc
ZoH 2 R oH 2
where:
RoH equivalent resistance referred to the
high side
XoH equivalent reactance referred to the
high side
ZoH equivalent impedance referred to high
side
Psc wattmeter reading
Vsc voltmeter reading
Isc ammeter reading
TRANSFORMERs EFFICIENCY:
P
% = out 100
Pin
The Copper Loss at any Load:

2
Pcu = (%Load) Pcu(Rated)
But Pout = Pin Losses, thus
4.
where:
Wo energy out on a certain day in(kw-hour)
Wc energy loss due to core loss in(kw-hour)
Wcu energy loss due to copper loss in (kwhour)
MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY:
At maximum efficiency:
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
Pcu = Pc
The load current at maximum efficiency:
I2 =
PC
R o2
2.
The KVA load at maximum efficiency:

KVA (Rating)
PC
Pcu (rated)
The power output at maximum efficiency:
159
Po
100
Po + 2PC
Po = KVAload(pf)
160
When you use the left-hand rule for

motors, what is indicated by the
middle finger?
a. Direction of flux
b. Direction of motion
c. Direction of current flow
d. Direction of the magnetic
field
The output voltage of an
elementary dc generator is coupled
from the armature to the brushes
by what devices?
a. Slip rings
b. Interpoles
c. Terminals
d. Split rings
5.
6.
An elementary generator consists

of a single coil rotating in a
magnetic field. When is maximum
voltage induced in the coil?
a. When it passes the
neutral palne
b. When it passes
perpendicular to the
neutral plane
c. When it is at 45 degrees
with respect to the
neutral plane
d. Any of these
In an elementary, single-coil, dc
generator with two pair of poles,
what is the maximum number of
pulsations produced in one
revolution?
a. One
b. Two
c. Three
d. Four
How can you vary the strength of
the magnetic field in a dc
generator?
a. By varying the armature
current
b. By varying the speed of
armature rotation
c. By varying the voltage
applied to the
electromagnetic field
coils
d. By varying the polarity of
the field poles
Distortion of the main field by
interaction with the armature field
defines what term?
a. Commutation
b. Mutual reaction
c. Armature reaction
Review Course
d. Mutual induction
Distortion of the main field by
interaction with the armature field
can be minimized by the use of
a. slip rings
b. compensating windings
c. a commutator
d. special brushes
8. Motor reaction in a dc generator is
a physical force caused by the
magnetic interaction between the
armature and the field. What effect,
if any, does this force have on the
operation of the generator?
a. It tends to oppose the
rotation of the armature
b. It tends to aid the rotation
of the armature
c. It causes the generator to
vibrate
d. None
9. In dc generators, core losses are
caused by which of the following
factors?
a. Eddy currents in the field
poles
b. Resistance in the
armature winding
c. Reactance in the
armature and field
windings
d. All of the above
10. Hysteresis in armature cores is
kept low by which of the following
actions?
a. Using special silicon steel
as a core material
b. Limiting armature current
c. Insulating the core
d. Laminating the iron in the
core
7.
161
Review Course
11. What type of dc generator

application best utilizes the
features of the wave- wound
armature?
a. High-voltage
b. High-current
c. High-speed
d. Variable-speed
12. Which of the following is NOT a
major classification of dc
generators?
a. Compound-wound
b. Wave-wound
c. Shunt-wound
d. Series-wound
13. What characteristic of shunt-wound
generators makes them suitable for
most applications?
a. They require external
field excitation
b. The output voltage varies
as the speed varies
c. They are not capable of
supplying heavy loads
d. The field flux is almost
constant
14. Two or more generators used to
supply a common load refer to
what operation?
a. Series
b. Compound
c. Split-load
d. Parallel
15. Special-purpose dc generator used
as a high-gain power amplifier is
called
a. Lap-wound
b. Shunt-wound
c. Amplidyne
d. Compound-connected
16. The maximum gain possible from

an amplidyne is approximately
a. 100
b. 5,000
c. 10,000
d. 50,000
17. What determines the direction of
rotation of a dc motor?
a. The type of armature
b. The method of excitation
c. The number of armature
coils
d. The polarity of armature
current and direction of
magnetic flux
18. When you use the left-hand rule for
motors, what quantity is indicated
by the thumb?
a. Direction of flux north to
south
b. Direction of flux south to
north
c. Direction of current
d. Direction of motion
19. Which, if any, of the following
situations is a major electrical
difference between a dc motor and
a dc generator?
a. The armatures are
different
b. The shunt connections
are different
c. The dc generator
requires a commutator,
the dc motor does not
d. None of the above
20. In a dc motor, what causes counter
emf?
a. Improper commutation
b. Armature reaction
c. Generator action
162
d.
Excessive speed
21. Series motors are not operated

without a load because
a. The armature draws
excessive current
b. The voltage requirement
increases
c. The armature will not turn
d. The armature speeds out
of control
22. The direction of rotation can be
changed in a dc motor by
a. reversing the field
connections
b. reversing the armature
connections
c. reversing both the
armature connections
and the field connections
d. reversing either the
armature connections or
the field connections
23. When the voltage applied to the
armature of a dc shunt motor is
increased, what happens to the
motor speed?
a. It becomes uncontrollable
b. It decreases
c. It increases
d. The motor stops
24. In a dc generator, the neutral plane
shifts in what direction as the result
of armature reaction?
a. Clockwise
b. Counter clockwise
c. In the direction of rotation
d. Opposite the direction of
rotation
25. The current in the interpoles of a dc
motor is the same as the
Review Course
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
163
a. armature current
b. field current
c. total load current
d. eddy current
The purpose of the resistor placed
in series with the armature of a dc
motor is
a. To counteract armature
reaction
b. To limit armature current
c. To increase field strength
d. To prevent overspeeding
Voltage is induced in what part of
an generator?
a. The commutator
b. The brushes
c. The armature
d. The field
Which of the following alternator
types is most widely used?
a. Shunt-wound
b. Rotating-armature
c. Series-wound
d. Rotating-field
Transformers are rated using which
of the following terms?
a. Volts
b. Watts
c. Amperes
d. Volt-amperes
What does the term three-phase
mean relative to three-phase
alternators?
a. All output voltages are in
phase with each other
b. The voltage and current
are in phase
c. The phase angle is
constant
d. three single phase
voltages are produced
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
Review Course
120 degrees apart each

other
What determines the phase
relationship between the individual
output voltages in a multiphase
alternator?
a. The speed of rotation
b. The number of field poles
c. The method of
connecting the terminals
d. The placement of the
armature coils
The output frequency of an
alternator is determined by what
two factors?
a. The number of poles and
the number of phases
b. The number of poles and
the speed of rotation
c. The speed of rotation and
the volt- ampere rating
d. The number of phases
and the volt- ampere
rating
A four-pole, single-phase alternator
rotating at 1800 rpm will produce
what output frequency?
a. 60 Hz
b. 400 Hz
c. 1800 Hz
d. 3600 Hz
Magnetic fields are created by what
current in the primary winding?
a. exciting current
b. primary current
c. leakage current
d. counter current
In most alternators, the output
voltage is controlled by adjusting
the
a. rotor speed
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
164
b. field voltage
c. armature resistance
d. electric load
When alternators are to be
operated in parallel, which of the
following alternator characteristics
must be considered?
a. Voltage
b. Frequency
c. Phase relationship
d. All the above
Which of the following motors is/are
types of ac motor?
a. Series
b. Synchronous
c. Induction
d. All of the above
Which of the following types of
motors is widely used to power
small appliances?
a. Universal
b. Synchronous
c. Polyphase
d. Compound
A universal motor is a special type
of
a. synchronous motor
b. series motor
c. parallel motor
d. polyphase motor
In the primary winding of a
transformer, what opposes the
current from the source?
a. impedance
b. forward emf
c. self-induced emf
d. exciting current
A 50kVA transformer has a primary
voltage of 6,600V and a secondary
voltage of 250V. It has 1373 turns
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
in the primary. The secondary

number of turns will be
a. 52
b. 90
c. 2378
d. none of these
The copper loss should be ___ the
core loss to obtain maximum
efficiency for a transformer.
a. twice
b. half
c. equal to
d. none of these
The winding of the transformer with
greater resistance will be
a. HV winding
b. LV winding
c. HV or LV winding
d. none of these
A step down transformer produces
220V in the secondary when
2,200V is applied at the primary
winding. If taps are changed to
increase the number of primary
turns by 5%, the secondary voltage
will be
a. 209V
b. 240V
c. 231V
d. 225V
The induced voltages ____the
mutual flux.
a. lag
b. lead
c. are in phase with
d. out-of-phase
The core of the transformer
a. provide support for the
windings
b. provide the magnetic
path for the flux
Review Course
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
165
c. has the hysteresis loss

d. all of these
The per unit resistance of a 6kVA,
440/220V, 60Hz transformer with
secondary equivalent resistance of
0.55 ohm will be
a. 6.82
b. 0.682
c. 2.2
d. none of these
The number of secondary turns of
a 50Hz, 3,300/440V single phase
transformer with a total flux of
about 50mWb is
a. 40
b. 300
c. 173
d. 70
For a delta connection, the phase
voltage is ___ the line to line
voltage.
a. greater than
b. less than
c. the same as
d. none of these
What is the main cause for the
coefficient of coupling of a
transformer being less than unity?
a. counter emf
b. induced emf
c. uncoupled flux
d. leakage flux
Non-Permanent magnets use ___
as the magnetic material.
a. hardened steel
b. nickel
c. soft steel
d. iron
The main advantage of
electromagnets is that we can
a. change the magnetic flux
Review Course
b.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
use any magnetic

material
c. decrease the hysteresis
loss
d. none of the above.
The generator equation is given by
a. V = Eg IaRa
b. V = Eg + IaRa
c. Eg = IaRa V
d. none of these
The value of the back emf in a dc
motor is at minimum at
a. no-load
b. full-load
c. half-full load
d. none of these
The back emf of a dc motor ____
as the field current is decreased.
a. increases
b. decreases
c. stays the same
d. any of these
A dc dynamo is used to
a. change electrical energy
to mechanical energy
b. change mechanical
energy to electrical
energy
c. increase energy input
into it
d. either a or b
A dc motor is still used in industrial
applications because it
a. is cheap
b. simple in construction
c. provide fine speed
control
d. none of these
The yoke of a dc machine is made
of
a. silicon steel
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
b. soft iron
c. cast iron
d. cast steel
When the load is doubled in a dc
series motor, the torque will be
a. halved
b. unchanged
c. doubled
d. quadrupled
DC shunt motors are used in those
applications when ____ is required.
a. high starting torque
b. high no-load speed
c. practically constant
speed
d. variable speed
In a duplex wave winding, the
number of parallel paths is equal to
a. number of poles of the
machine
b. number of pair of poles
c. 2
d. 4
A 120V, 4-pole wave wound, 600
rpm dc generator having 0.1Wb of
flux has ___ conductors.
a. 100
b. 250
c. 375
d. none of these
A motor has a large starting current
because
a. Ra is high
b. shunt field is weak

c. Eb is low
d. none of these
64. When the field winding get its
excitation from the generator, it is
called
a. separately-excited
166
b. self-excited
c. cumulative
d. differential
65. If the series field winding current is
the same as the armature current,
the compound generator is called
a. long-shunt
b.
c.
short-shunt
differential
d. cumulative
66. Residual flux is not required in a
___ dc generator.
a. separately-excited
b. self-excited
c. cumulative
d. differential
67. A cumulative compound generator
has its series field ____ the shunt
field winding.
a. aiding
b. opposing
c. canceling
d. doubling
68. A 12-pole wave wound dc
generator has 300 conductors, the
emf induced per conductor is 5V.
The generated voltage will be
a. 750V
b. 125V
c. 250V
d. none of these
69. The speed of a dc shunt motor can
be decreased under one of the
conditions below
a. increased armature
voltage
b. decreased armature
resistance
Review Course
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
167
c. increase in load
d. none of these
The greatest eddy-current loss
occurs in the ___ of a dc machine.
a. poles
b. yoke
c. armature core
d. all of these
______ is analogous to
permeability.
a. resistivity
b. conductivity
c. retentivity
d. reluctivity
A cumulatively compounded
generator having full-load terminal
voltage greater than the no-load
terminal voltage is called
a. under-compounded
b. over-compounded
c. flat-compounded
d. none of these
When the armature current is
maintained constant, the dc motor
is
a. field controlled
b. armature controlled
c. resistance controlled
d. none of these
In a certain motor, the armature
resistance is 0.1 ohm. When
connected to a 110V source, the
armature current is 20A, and its
speed is 1200 rpm. What is the
speed when the armature takes
50A with the field current increased
by 10%.
a. 2160rpm
b. 800rpm
c. 1060rpm
d. 5010rpm
75. A motor running at 950rpm and

1150N-m torque will have a
horsepower ratingg equal to
a. 15.3
b. 153
c. 13.5
d. 35
76. The series field coil has ____
number of turns as compared to
the shunt filed coil.
a. less
b. greater
c. the same
d. none of these
77. A three phase induction motor is
wound for 6 poles and is supplied
from a 60Hz system. The rotor
frequency if it runs at 900rpm is
a. 10Hz
b. 15Hz
c. 30Hz
d. 60Hz
78. When a 3-phase induction motor is
at no-load, the slip is
a. 50%
b. 100%
c. approximately 0%
d. 10%
79. The full-load slip of a synchronous
motor is
a. 0%
b. 5%
c. 50%
d. 100%
80. A synchronous motor is a ____
motor.
a. lagging pf
b. singly-fed
c. constant speed
d. none of these

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Electronics Engineering

(02) 247-5000 local 2100 or (02)524-5572

Atomic number number of protons

s2, p6, d10

s2, p6, d10, f14

Figure 1-5. - Energy level diagram.

ELECTRICAL CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Figure 1-4. - The energy arrangement in atoms.

Figure 1-7. - A two-dimensional view of a silicon cubic lattice.

b. P-Type Semiconductor doped with trivalent atom

The boundary between two different types of semiconductive material

BIASING THE PN JUNCTION

Dynamic Resistance the nonlinear internal resistance of a semiconductive material.

The Practical Diode Model

Figure 1-16. - PN junction diode characteristic curve.

Which of the following is currently being

Hydrogen has number of protons

20. Additional amount of energy required to

42. In a triode, what interelectrode

53. _____ is an orderly pattern of combined

78. The maximum rectification efficiency of

A semiconductive device used for amplification and switching applications.

BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)

NPN and PNP Transistors

Typical values: 0.001 to 0.9999

VCE = Voltage drop from collector to emitter

Collector Characteristic Curves

Cutoff, Saturation, and The DC load line

Input Resistance at the Base

VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIAS

Example 3) Determine VCEand IC. Assume DC = 100

Analysis of Voltage-Divider Circuit

In a pnp transistor, the p-regions are

goes into saturation once on its

58. The transistor in class B amplifier is

separate bias of one stage from

71. ____ is a thin polished slice of a

A chip with p-channel(pmos) and nchannel(nmos) transistors

FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR

GENERAL VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER

BJT AMPLIFIER CONFIGURATION

BJT EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

1. Hybrid model uses h-parameters of a twoport network system

BJT EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

2. Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect

- a type of FET with insulated gate which

a. Depletion type MOSFET (D-MOSFET)

FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS

Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)

b. Enhancement type MOSFET (E-MOSFET)

When VGS = 0V:

When VGS = 0V:

The silicon planar process of fabrication includes the following steps:

Note : The thickness and other dimensions of the IC will be in mils.

The individual steps are explained in brief.

Silicon wafer preparation.

prepare III-V and II-VI compound semiconductor materials and devices.

Structure with masks.

The structure before applying the photolithography process is shown below

Input structure for photolithography.

Structure with mask layer during ultraviolet exposure.

Structure with mask layer after ultra-violet exposure.

Etching Techniques - The process of selective removal of regions of a semiconductor, metal, or