ch10

ROSALIND FRANKLIN - found basic shape of dna to be a spiral with uniform diamete
r and the nitrogenous bases located above one another like a stack of dinner pla
tes. The thickness of the helix suggested that it was made up of two poly nucleo
tide strands forming a DOUBLE HELIX.
HERSHEY CHASE , WATSON CRICK (assholes)
Pyrimidines - Thyamine Cytosine
Purines - Adenine Guanine
A-T

G-C

A-U

G-C

RNA has Nitrogenous base called Uracil (U) instead of Thymine (T) in DNA.
RNA Nucleotides have Phosphate Group, Nitrogenous Base (A,G,C,U) and 5 carbon Su
gar (Ribose)
NUCLEOSIDE - The combination of a nucleobase and a pentose.
~~~ There are only two differences between the nucleotides of RNA and the nucleo
tides of DNA. In deoxyribonucleotides, the 2' carbon has two hydrogens bonded to
it. In ribonucleotides, the 2' carbon has a hydroxy group and a hydrogen bonded
to it.
Deoxyribonucleotides have 4 bases that are incorporated into the polymer. They a
re adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. Ribonucleotides have 4 primary bases
that are incorporated into the polymer. They are adenine, guanine, cytosine, an
d uracil.

PRIMER - is a strand of short nucleic acid sequences (generally about 10 base pa

irs) that serves as a starting point for DNA synthesis
OKAZAKI FRAGMENTS - are short, newly synthesized DNA fragments that are formed o
n the lagging template strand during DNA replication. They are complementary to
the lagging template strand, together forming short double-stranded DNA sections

ch11
OPERON - a unit of genetic regulation common in prokaryotes; a cluster of genes
with related functions, along with the promoter and operator that control their
transcription
PROMOTER sequences - DNA sequences that define where transcription of a gene by
RNA polymerase begins. Promoter sequences are typically located directly upstrea
m or at the 5' end of the transcription initiation site.
OPERATOR - a short region of DNA that lies partially within the promoter and th
at interacts with a regulatory protein that controls the transcription of the op
eron. Here's an analogy. A promoter is like a doorknob, in that the promoters of
many operons are similar.
REPRESSOR -A DNA-binding repressor blocks the attachment of RNA polymerase to th
e promoter, thus preventing transcription of the genes into messenger RNA. An RN

A-binding repressor binds to the mRNA and prevents translation of the mRNA into
protein.
LACTOSE - Lactose is a disaccharide sugar derived from galactose and glucose tha
t is found in milk.
LAC OPERON - is an example of an inducible system of gene expression. Its defau
lt state is to be inactive. Only when the right catalyst is added to the system,
in this case the sugar lactose, is the process activated, allowing the genes in
question to be expressed.
NUCLEOSOMES - the fundamental subunit of chromatin. Each nucleosome is composed
of a little less than two turns of DNA wrapped around a set of EIGHT proteins c
alled HISTONES, which are known as a histone octamer. Each histone octamer is co
mposed of two copies each of the histone proteins H2A, H2B, H3, and H4.
TIGHTLY PACKED DNA IS NOT EXPERSSED !!!!!
HISTONES - highly alkaline proteins found in eukaryotic cell nuclei that package
and order the DNA into structural units called nucleosomes. They are the chief
protein components of chromatin, acting as spools around which DNA winds, and pl
aying a role in gene regulation.
Transgenerational EPIGENETIC INHERITENCE - the transmittance of information from
one generation of an organism to the next (e.g., parent child transmittance) that
affects the traits of offspring without alteration of the primary structure of
DNA (i.e., the sequence of nucleotides).
DNA METHYLATION - is an epigenetic mechanism used by cells to control gene expre
ssion. A number of mechanisms exist to control gene expression in eukaryotes, bu
t DNA methylation is a commonly used epigenetic signaling tool that can fix gene
s in the off
GENE EXPERSSION - Gene expression is the process by which genetic instructions a
re used to synthesize gene products. These products are usually proteins, which
go on to perform essential functions as enzymes, hormones and receptors, for exa
mple. Genes that do not code for proteins such as ribosomal RNA or transfer RNA
code for functional RNA products.
X ACTIVATION and BARR BODY (?) - (also called lyonization) is a process by which
one of the two copies of the X chromosome present in female mammals is inactiva
ted. The inactive X chromosome is silenced by its being packaged in such a way t
hat it has a transcriptionally inactive structure called heterochromatin. https:
//www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y9vXhmI5FXM
BARR BODY - A Barr body (named after discoverer Murray Barr) is the inactive X c
hromosome in a female somatic cell, rendered inactive in a process called lyoniz
ation, in those species in which sex is determined by the presence of the Y (inc
luding humans) or W chromosome rather than the diploidy of the X or Z.
11.3
ACTIVATORS REPRESSORS TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS ALTERNATIVE DNA SPLICING -

miRNA (micro RNA) - comprise a novel class of small, non-coding endogenous RNAs
that regulate gene expression by directing their target mRNAs for degradation or
translational repression.
RNA INHERITENCE (RNAi) -