HACCP & ISO 22000 IMPLEMENTATION IN

BISCUIT TMANUFACTURING INDUSTRY AND

ASSESMENT OF ITS SHELF-LIFE

STUDY ON HACCP & ISO 22000 IMPLEMENTATION IN

BUISCUIT MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY AND
ASSESMENT ITS
SHELF-LIFE

This dissertation submitted to the Department of Food Engineering, &

Technology, State University of Bangladesh for the partial fulfillment of
Masters of Science in Food Engineering & Technology.

Submitted by
SADIA AFRIN JOTI

ID: PG20-04-13-010

Department of Food Engineering & Technology

State University of Bangladesh

May, 2014

A Thesis for the partial fulfillment of the Degree of M.Sc. in

Food Engineering and Techonology

STUDY ON HACCP & ISO 22000 IMPLEMENTATION IN BISCUIT

MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY AND ASSESMENT OF ITS SHELF
LIFE

This dissertation submitted to the Department of Food Engineering, &

Technology, State University of Bangladesh for the partial fulfillment of Masters
of Science in Food Engineering & Technology.

Submitted by

SADIA AFRIN JOTI

ID: PG20-04-13-010

Supervisor
Anis Alam Siddiqui
Head & Associate Professor
Department of Food Engineering & Technology

State University of Bangladesh

May, 2014

CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this project entitled STUDY ON HACCP & ISO 22000
IMPLEMENTATION IN BISCUIT MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY AND
ASSESMENT OF ITS SHELF LIFE Submitted by SADIA AFRIN JOTI, ID:
PG20-04-13-010, M.Sc. student, Department of Food Engineering & Technology, State
University of Bangladesh, has been carried out under my supervision. This is further to
certify that this project work is carried out as partial requirement for fulfillment of the
M.Sc. Degree in Food Engineering & Technology.

Supervisor

Anis Alam Siddiqui

Head & Associate Professor
Department of Food
Engineering & Technology
State University of
Bangladesh

DEDICATION

Dedicated to my parent and teachers for their unconditional

support with my study, I am honored to have them as my family.
Thank you for giving me a chance to prove and improve myself
through all my walks of life

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The

study

entitled

HACCP

&

ISO

22000

implementation

biscuit

manufacturing industry and assessment of its shelf life has been

undertaken for the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master
in Food Engineering and Technology at State University of Bangladesh, Dhaka..
It is with great admiration and pleasure that I express my deepest regards and
sense of gratitude to my respected supervisor Anis Alam Siddiqui, Associate
Professor & Head, Department of Food Engineering & Technology for his sincere
co-operation, personal attention, inspiration and continuous guidance from
designing to submission of this work. His critical and constructive suggestions
lead to me the completion of my dissertation.
My cordial thanks to all of my class mates for helping and supporting me in every
step during the study.

ABSTRACT
Before implementing HACCP, basic good hygiene conditions and practices
called prerequisites must be in place. HACCP can then be used to control steps
in the business which are critical in ensuring the preparation of safe food. The
National Standards Authority of Ireland (NSAI) has produced sector specific Irish
Standards (I.S.) to good hygienic practice. All food businesses are advised to
use the appropriate standard for their sector .
The HACCP team should list all of the hazards that may be reasonably expected
to occur at each step from primary production, processing, manufacture, and
distribution until the point of consumption. The HACCP team must then consider
what control measures, if any, exist which can be applied for each hazard
HACCP provides businesses with a cost effective system for control of food
safety, from ingredients right through to production, storage and distribution to
sale and service of the final consumer. The preventive approach of HACCP not
only improves food safety management but also complements other quality
management systems.
ISO 22000 is the International Food Safety Management Standard.
It combines and supplements the core elements of ISO 9001 and HACCP to
provide an effective framework for the development, implementation and
continual improvement of a Food Safety Management System (FSMS).
ISO 22000 aligns with other management systems, such as ISO 9001 and ISO
14001, to enable effective systems integration.
The physicochemical and organoleptic attributes of the three types of biscuit
were evaluated. Results showed significant different (p<0.05) in terms of ash,
protein, crude fiber and total carbohydrate among biscuits. Chickpea biscuit was
significantly (p<0.05) highest in protein and resistant starch content among the
three types of biscuits. The mung bean biscuits was significantly (p<0.05)
highest in weight, diameter, height and spread ratio. Textural measurement
showed chickpeas biscuits was significantly highest (p<0.05) in hardness,
crispiness, elasticity, gumminess, and chewiness than the other two types of
samples evaluated. For sensory evaluation, chickpeas biscuits showed
significant high difference in flavor, crispiness and aftertaste attributes but

insignificant (p>0.05) different between mung bean biscuits in term of overall

acceptability. Chickpea biscuits had the best flavor, crispiness and acceptability.

LIST OF CONTENTS
Introduction
History of Baking
Commercial Baking
Foods and Techniques
Equipment
Process
Prerequisite Hygiene Requirements
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP)
System and Guidelines For Its Application
Preamble
Definitions
Principles of The HACCP System
Guidelines For The Application of The HACCP
System
Application of HACCP
Training
Benefits of HACCP
Microbiological Criteria
Risks Assessment
Food Safety
ISO 22000 - Food Safety Management
Cookies
Flour
Ingredients, Equipments and Recipes
Cookie Formulation and Preparation
Various Type of Cookies:
Wheat Quality & Carbohydrate Research
Shelf Life of Cookies
Preservation of Cookies
Results and Discussion
Sensory Evaluation
Panel Test
Conclusion
References

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LIST OF DIAGRAM AND TABLE

Diagram 1. Logic Sequence For The Application of HACCP

25

Diagram 2. Example of Decision Tree To Identify CCPs

26

Diagram 3. Example of A HACCP Worksheet

27

Figure 1: Frozen Sugar Cookie Production Flowchart

53

Table(I): Shelf Life of Cookies

88

Table1: Formulation of Cookies

58

Table 2: Physical Characteristics of Three Types Cookies

59

Table3: Results of Texture of Tree Types Cookies

60

Table 4:Proximate Composition of Mung Bean And

Chickpea Flour

92

Table 5: Proximate Composition of Three Types of Cookies

92

Table 6: Results of Sensory Evaluation of Three Types

Cookies

93

STUDY ON HACCP & ISO 22000 IMPLEMENTATION IN BISCUIT

MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY AND ASSESMENT OF ITS SHELF
LIFE

INTRODUCTION
Baking is a food cooking method that uses prolonged dry heat by convection,
rather than by thermal radiation, normally in an oven, but also in hot ashes, or on
hot stones. The most common baked item is bread but many other types of
foods are baked. Heat is gradually transferred "from the surface of cakes, biscuit
and breads to their centre. As heat travels through it transforms batters and
doughs into baked goods with a firm dry crust and a softer centre. Baking can
be combined with grilling to produce a hybrid barbecue variant, by using both
methods simultaneously or one before the other, cooking twice. Baking is related
to barbecuing because the concept of the masonry oven is similar to that of
a smoke pit.
Baking has been traditionally done at home by women for domestic
consumption, by men in bakeries and restaurants for local consumption and
when production was industrialized, by machines in large factories. The art and
skill of baking remains a fundamental one and important for nutrition, as baked
goods, especially breads, are a common food, economically and culturally
important. A person who prepares baked goods as a profession is called a baker.
Snack food consumption has been on the increase as a result of urbanization
and increase in the number of working women. Food based industry can exploit
this development by fabricating nutritious snack foods. biscuit have become one
of the most desirable snack for both youth and elderly people due to their low
manufacturing lost, more convenience, long shelf-life and ability to serve as a
vehicle for important nutrients (Akubor, 2003; Honda and Jood, 2005).
It represents the largest category of snack item among baked food products
throughout the world (Pratima and Yadava, 2000). Biscuit are not considered as
staple food as in bread, but may be feasible fiber carriers because of their long
shelf life and thus enable large scale production and widespread distribution
(Vratania and Zabik, 1978). In many countries, biscuit are prepared with fortified
or composite flour to increase its nutritive value (Gonzalez-Galan et al., 1991).
Legumes are high in nutrient especially in protein (18-24%) than cereal grain.
Thus it can be used to provide amino acids such as lysine, tryptophan, or
methionine (Potter, 1986). Unless certain raw or cooled cooked foods are
considered, contain substantial amounts of resistant starch (RS) (Marlett and
Longacre, 1996). Resistant starch increases amount of indigestible substances
in the colon and demonstrates the physiological benefits of dietary fiber.
Annelisse et al. (2011) reported that incorporation of RS into a cereal matrix may
increase the intake of dietary fiber and hence help against chronic disease such
as cardiovascular disease and type-2 diabetes.

The purpose of this study is to determine the physicochemical and sensory

attributes of wheat flour substituted cookies with legume flours (mung bean and
chick pea).

HISTORY OF BAKING
The first evidence of baking occurred when humans took wild grass grains,
soaked them in water, and mixed everything together, mashing it into a kind of
broth-like paste. The paste was cooked by pouring it onto a flat, hot rock,
resulting in a bread-like substance. Later, this paste was roasted on hot embers,
which made bread-making easier, as it could now be made any time fire was
created. The Ancient Egyptians baked bread using yeast which they had
previously been using to brew beer. Bread baking began in Ancient
Greece around 600 BC, leading to the invention of enclosed ovens. "Ovens and
worktables have been discovered in archaeological digs from Turkey (Hacilar) to
Palestine (Jericho) and these dates from about 5600 BCE."
Baking flourished in the Roman Empire. In about 300 BC, the pastry cook
became an occupation for Romans (known as the pastillarium). This became a
respected profession because pastries were considered decadent, and Romans
loved festivity and celebration. Thus, pastries were often cooked especially for
large banquets, and any pastry cook who could invent new types of tasty treats
was highly prized. Around 1 AD, there were more than three hundred pastry
chefs in Rome, and Cato wrote about how they created all sorts of diverse foods,
and flourished because of those foods. Cato speaks of an enormous number of
breads; included amongst these are the libum (sacrificial cakes made with flour),
placenta (groats and cress), spira (our modern day flour pretzels), scibilata
(tortes), savaillum (sweet cake), and globes apherica (fritters). A great selection
of these, with many different variations, different ingredients, and varied patterns,
were often found at banquets and dining halls. The Romans baked bread in an
oven with its own chimney, and had mills to grind grain into flour. A
bakers' guild was established in 168 BC in Rome.
Eventually, the Roman art of baking became known throughout Europe, and
eventually spread to the eastern parts of Asia. From the 19th century, alternative
leavening agents became more common, such as baking soda. Bakers often
baked goods at home and then sold them in the streets. This scene was so
common that Rembrandt, among others, painted a pastry chef selling pancakes
in the streets of Germany, with children clamoring for a sample. In London,
pastry chefs sold their goods from handcarts. This developed into a system of
delivery of baked goods to households, and demand increased greatly as a
result. In Paris, the first open-air caf of baked goods was developed, and
baking became an established art throughout the entire world.

COMMERCIAL BAKING
Baking developed into an industry using machinery that enabled more goods to
be produced and which then had to be distributed more widely. In the United
States the baking industry "was built on marketing methods used during feudal
times and production techniques developed by the Romans." Some makers
of snacks such as potato chips or crisps have produced baked versions of their
snack items as an alternative to the usual cooking method of deep-frying in an
attempt to reduce the calorie or fat content of their snack products. Baking has
opened up doors to businesses such as cake making factories and private cake
shops where the baking process is done with larger amounts in bigger and open
furnaces.
The aroma and texture of baked goods as they come out of the oven is strongly
appealing but it is a quality that is quickly lost. Since the flavor and appeal largely
depend on this freshness, commercial producers have had to compensate by
using food additives as well as imaginative labeling. As baked goods are more
and more purchased from commercial suppliers, producers try to capture that
original appeal by adding the label "home-baked". Such a usage seeks to make
an emotional link to the remembered freshness of baked goods and seeks also
to attach any positive associations the purchaser has with the idea of "home" to
the bought product. Freshness is such an important quality that restaurants,
although they are commercial (and not domestic) preparers of food, bake their
own products for their customers. For example, scones at The Ritz London
Hotel "are not baked until early afternoon on the day they are to be served, to
make sure they are as fresh as possible."

FOODS AND TECHNIQUES

All types of food can be baked but some require special care and protection from
direct heat. Various techniques have been developed to provide this protection.
Pastries, pies, tarts, quiches, cookies, scones, crackers and pretzels also
produce using the bread baking process. These popular items are known
collectively as "baked goods" and are sold at a bakery.
Meat, including cured meats, such as ham can also be baked, but baking is
usually reserved for meatloaf, smaller cuts of whole meats, and whole meats that
contain stuffing or coating such as bread crumbs or buttermilk batter. Some
foods are surrounded with moisture during baking by placing a small amount of
liquid (such as water or broth) in the bottom of a closed pan, and letting it steam
up around the food, a method commonly known as braising or slow baking.
Larger cuts prepared without stuffing or coating are more often roasted, which is

a similar process, using higher temperatures and shorter cooking times.

Roasting, however, is only suitable for the finer cuts of meat, so other methods
have been developed to make the tougher meat cuts palatable after baking. One
of these is the method known as en crote (French for "in a crust"), which
protects the food from direct heat and seals the natural juices inside.
Meat, poultry, game, fish or vegetables can be prepared by baking en crote.
Well-known examples include Beef Wellington, where the beef is encased
in pastry before baking; pt en crote, where the terrine is encased in pastry
before baking; and the Vietnamese variant, a meat-filled pastry called pt
chaud. The en crote method also allows meat to be baked by burying it in the
embers of a fire a favorite method of cooking venison. In this case, the
protective case (or crust) is made from a paste of flour and water and is
discarded before eating. Salt can also be used to make a protective crust that is
not eaten. Another method of protecting food from the heat while it is baking is to
cook it en papillote (French for "in parchment"). In this method, the food is
covered by baking paper (or aluminium foil) to protect it while it is being baked.
The cooked parcel of food can be served unopened, with an element of surprise,
allowing diners to discover the contents for themselves.
Eggs can be baked to produce savory or sweet dishes. In combination with dairy
products and/or cheese, they are often prepared to serve as a dessert. Although
a baked custard, for example, can be made using starch (in the form
of flour, corn flour, arrowroot or potato flour), the flavour of the dish is much more
delicate if eggs are used as the thickening agent. Baked custards, such
as crme caramel, are among the items that need protection from an oven's
direct heat, and the bain-marie method serves this purpose. The cooking
container is half submerged in water in another, larger one, so that the heat in
the oven is more gently applied during the baking process. Baking a
successful souffl requires that the baking process be carefully controlled the
oven temperature must be absolutely even and the oven space not shared with
another dish. These factors, along with the theatrical effect of an air-filled
dessert, have given this baked food a reputation for being a culinary
achievement. Similarly, good baking techniques (and a good oven) are also
needed to create a baked Alaska because of the difficulty of baking
hot meringue and cold ice cream at the same time.
Baking can also be used to prepare various other foods, such as for
example, baked
potatoes,
baked
apples, baked
beans,
some casseroles and pasta dishes such as lasagna.

EQUIPMENT

lP
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F
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in
t
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d
k

Baking needs an enclosed space for heating - an oven. The fuel can be supplied
by wood or coal; gas or electricity. Adding and removing items from an oven may
be done by a long handled tool called a peel.

Many commercial ovens are provided with two heating elements: one for baking,
using convection and thermal
conduction to heat the food, and
one for broiling or grilling, heating
mainly by radiation. Another piece
of equipment still used in the 21st
century for baking is the Dutch
oven. "Also called a bake kettle,
bastable, bread oven, fire pan,
bake oven kail pot, tin kitchen,
roasting kitchen, doufeu (French:
"gentle
fire")
or feu
de
compagne (French:
"country
oven") [it] originally replaced the cooking jack as the latest fireside cooking
technology," combining "the convenience of pot-oven and hangover oven."

PROCESS

There are eleven events that occur concurrently during baking. These are:

But some of them, such as starch gelatinization would not occur at room
temperature.
The dry heat of baking changes the form of starches in the food and causes its
outer surfaces to brown, giving it an attractive appearance and taste. The
browning is caused by caramelization of sugars and the Millard reaction. Millard
browning occurs when "sugars break down in the presence of proteins".
Because foods contain many different types of sugars and proteins, Millard
browning contributes to the flavor of a wide range of foods, including nuts, roast
beef and baked bread." The moisture is never entirely "sealed in"; over time, an
item being baked will become dry. This is often an advantage, especially in
situations where drying is the desired outcome, like drying herbs or roasting
certain types of vegetables.
The baking process does not require any fat to be used to cook in an oven.
When baking, consideration must be given to the amount of fat that is contained
in the food item. Higher levels of fat such as margarine, butter or
vegetable shortening will cause an item to spread out during the baking process.
With the passage of time breads harden; they become stale. This is not primarily
due to moisture being lost from the baked products, but more a reorganization of
the way in which the water and starch are associated over time. This process is
similar to re-crystallization, and is promoted by storage at cool temperatures,
such as in a domestic refrigerator.

PREREQUISITE HYGIENE REQUIREMENTS

Before implementing HACCP, basic good hygiene conditions and practices
called prerequisites must be in place. HACCP can then be used to control steps
in the business which are critical in ensuring the preparation of safe food. The
National Standards Authority of Ireland (NSAI) has produced sector specific Irish
Standards (I.S.) to good hygienic practice. All food businesses are advised to
use the appropriate standard for their sector (e.g. catering, retail, processing).
Prerequisites include where appropriate:
Cleaning and Sanitation
Maintenance

Personnel Hygiene and

Training
Pest Control

Plant and Equipment

Premises and Structure
Waste Management
Zoning (physical separation
of activities to prevent
potential food contamination)

Services (compressed air,

ice, steam, ventilation, water
etc.)
Storage, Distribution and
Transport

HAZARD ANALYSIS AND CRITICAL CONTROL POINT (HACCP)

SYSTEM AND GUIDELINES FOR ITS APPLICATION
Annex to CAC/RCP 1-1969, Rev. 3 (1997)
PREAMBLE
The first section of this document sets out the principles of the Hazard Analysis
and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system adopted by the Codex Alimentations
Commission. The second section provides general guidance for the application
of the system while recognizing that the details of application may vary
depending on the circumstances of the food operation.
The HACCP system, which is science based and systematic, identifies specific
hazards and measures for their control to ensure the safety of food. HACCP is a
tool to assess hazards and establish control systems that focus on prevention
rather than relying mainly on end-product testing. Any HACCP system is capable
of accommodating change, such as advances in equipment design, processing
procedures or technological developments.
HACCP can be applied throughout the food chain from primary production to
final consumption and its implementation should be guided by scientific evidence
of risks to human health. As well as enhancing food safety, implementation of
HACCP can provide other significant benefits. In addition, the application of
HACCP systems can aid inspection by regulatory authorities and promote
international trade by increasing confidence in food safety.
The successful application of HACCP requires the full commitment and
involvement of management and the work force. It also requires a
multidisciplinary approach; this multidisciplinary approach should include, when
appropriate, expertise in agronomy, veterinary health, production, microbiology,
medicine, public health, food technology, environmental health, chemistry and
engineering, according to the particular study. The application of HACCP is
compatible with the implementation of quality management systems, such as the
ISO 9000 series, and is the system of choice in the management of food safety
within such systems.
While the application of HACCP to food safety was considered here, the concept
can be applied to other aspects of food quality.

DEFINITIONS
Control (verb): To take all necessary actions to ensure and maintain compliance
with criteria established in the HACCP plan.
Control (noun): The state wherein correct procedures are being followed and
criteria are being met.

Control measure: Any action and activity that can be used to prevent or
eliminate a food safety hazard or reduce it to an acceptable level.
Corrective action: Any action to be taken when the results of monitoring at the
CCP indicate a loss of control.
Critical Control Point (CCP): A step at which control can be applied and is
essential to prevent or eliminate a food safety hazard or reduce it to an
acceptable level.
Critical limit: A criterion which separates acceptability from unacceptability.
Deviation: Failure to meet a critical limit.
Flow diagram: A systematic representation of the sequence of steps or
operations used in the production or manufacture of a particular food item.
HACCP: A system which identifies, evaluates, and controls hazards which are
significant for food safety.
HACCP plan: A document prepared in accordance with the principles of HACCP
to ensure control of hazards which are significant for food safety in the segment
of the food chain under consideration.
Hazard: A biological, chemical or physical agent in, or condition of, food with the
potential to cause an adverse health effect.
Hazard analysis: The process of collecting and evaluating information on
hazards and conditions leading to their presence to decide which are significant
for food safety and therefore should be addressed in the HACCP plan.
Monitor: The act of conducting a planned sequence of observations or
measurements of control parameters to assess whether a CCP is under control.
Step: A point, procedure, operation or stage in the food chain including raw
materials, from primary production to final consumption.
Validation: Obtaining evidence that the elements of the HACCP plan are
effective.

Verification: The application

of methods,

procedures, tests and

other

evaluations, in addition to monitoring to determine compliance with the HACCP

plan.

PRINCIPLES OF THE HACCP SYSTEM

The HACCP system consists of the following seven principles:

PRINCIPLE 1

PRINCIPLE 5

Conduct a hazard analysis.

Establish the corrective action to be

taken when monitoring indicates
that a particular CCP is not under
control.

PRINCIPLE 2
Determine the Critical Control
Points (CCPs).
PRINCIPLE 3
Establish critical limit(s).
PRINCIPLE 4
Establish a system to monitor
control of the CCP.

PRINCIPLE 6
Establish procedures for verification
to confirm that the HACCP system
is working effectively.
PRINCIPLE 7
Establish
documentation
concerning all procedures and
records appropriate to these
principles and their application.

GUIDELINES FOR THE APPLICATION OF THE HACCP SYSTEM

Prior to application of HACCP to any sector of the food chain, that sector should
be operating according to the Codex General Principles of Food Hygiene, the
appropriate Codex Codes of Practice, and appropriate food safety legislation.
Management commitment is necessary for implementation of an effective
HACCP system. During hazard identification, evaluation, and subsequent
operations in designing and applying HACCP systems, consideration must be
given to the impact of raw materials, ingredients, food manufacturing practices,
role of manufacturing processes to control hazards, likely end-use of the product,
categories of consumers of concern, and epidemiological evidence relative to
food safety.

The intent of the HACCP system is to focus control at CCPs. Redesign of the
operation should be considered if a hazard which must be controlled is identified
but no CCPs are found.
HACCP should be applied to each specific operation separately. CCPs identified
in any given example in any Codex Code of Hygienic Practice might not be the
only ones identified for a specific application or might be of a different nature.
The HACCP application should be reviewed and necessary changes made when
any modification is made in the product, process, or any step.
It is important when applying HACCP to be flexible where appropriate, given the
context of the application taking into account the nature and the size of the
operation.

APPLICATION OF HACCP
The application of HACCP principles consists of the following tasks as identified
in the Logic Sequence for Application of HACCP (Diagram 1).
1. Assemble HACCP team
The food operation should assure that the appropriate product specific
knowledge and expertise is available for the development of an effective HACCP
plan. Optimally, this may be accomplished by assembling a multidisciplinary
team. Where such expertise is not available on site, expert advice should be
obtained from other sources. The scope of the HACCP plan should be identified.
The scope should describe which segment of the food chain is involved and the
general classes of hazards to be addressed (e.g. does it cover all classes of
hazards or only selected classes).
2. Describe product
A full description of the product should be drawn up, including relevant safety
information such as: composition, physical/chemical structure (including Aw, pH,
etc.), microbial/static treatments (heat-treatment, freezing, brining, smoking,
etc.), packaging, durability and storage conditions and method of distribution.
3. Identify intended use
The intended use should be based on the expected uses of the product by the
end user or consumer. In specific cases, vulnerable groups of the population,
e.g. institutional feeding, may have to be considered.
4. Construct flow diagram

The flow diagram should be constructed by the HACCP team. The flow diagram
should cover all steps in the operation. When applying HACCP to a given
operation; consideration should be given to steps preceding and following the
specified operation.
5. On-site confirmation of flow diagram
The HACCP team should confirm the processing operation against the flow
diagram during all stages and hours of operation and amend the flow diagram
where appropriate.
6. List all potential hazards associated with each step, conduct a hazard
analysis, and consider any measures to control identified hazards
PRINCIPLE 1: Conduct a hazard analysis.
The HACCP team should list all of the hazards that may be reasonably expected
to occur at each step from primary production, processing, manufacture, and
distribution until the point of consumption.
The HACCP team should next conduct a hazard analysis to identify for the
HACCP plan which hazards are of such a nature that their elimination or
reduction to acceptable levels is essential to the production of a safe food.
In conducting the hazard analysis, wherever possible the following should be
included:
The likely occurrence of hazards and severity of their adverse health effects;
The qualitative and/or quantitative evaluation of the presence of hazards;
survival or multiplication of microorganisms of concern;
production or persistence in foods of toxins, chemicals or physical agents; and,
Conditions leading to the above.
The HACCP team must then consider what control measures, if any, exist which
can be applied for each hazard.
More than one control measure may be required to control a specific hazard(s)
and more than one hazard may be controlled by a specified control measure.
7. Determine Critical Control Points
PRINCIPLE 2: Determine the Critical Control Points (CCPs).
There may be more than one CCP at which control is applied to address the
same hazard. The determination of a CCP in the HACCP system can be
facilitated by the application of a decision tree (e.g. Diagram 2), which indicates

a logic reasoning approach. Application of a decision tree should be flexible,

given whether the operation is for production, slaughter, processing, storage,
distribution or other. It should be used for guidance when determining CCPs.
This example of a decision tree may not be applicable to all situations. Other
approaches may be used. Training in the application of the decision tree is
recommended.
If a hazard has been identified at a step where control is necessary for safety,
and no control measure exists at that step, or any other, then the product or
process should be modified at that step, or at any earlier or later stage, to
include a control measure.
8. Establish critical limits for each CCP
PRINCIPLE 3: Establish critical limit(s)
Critical limits must be specified and validated if possible for each Critical Control
Point. In some cases more than one critical limit will be elaborated at a particular
step. Criteria often used include measurements of temperature, time, moisture
level, pH, Aw, available chlorine, and sensory parameters such as visual
appearance and texture.
9. Establish a monitoring system for each CCP
PRINCIPLE 4: Establish a system to monitor control of the CCP.

Monitoring is the scheduled measurement or observation of a CCP relative to its

critical limits. The monitoring procedures must be able to detect loss of control at
the CCP. Further, monitoring should ideally provide this information in time to
make adjustments to ensure control of the process to prevent violating the
critical limits. Where possible, process adjustments should be made when
monitoring results indicate a trend towards loss of control at a CCP. The
adjustments should be taken before a deviation occurs. Data derived from
monitoring must be evaluated by a designated person with knowledge and
authority to carry out corrective actions when indicated. If monitoring is not
continuous, then the amount or frequency of monitoring must be sufficient to
guarantee the CCP is in control. Most monitoring procedures for CCPs will need
to be done rapidly because they relate to on-line processes and there will not be
time for lengthy analytical testing. Physical and chemical measurements are
often preferred to microbiological testing because they may be done rapidly and
can often indicate the microbiological control of the product. All records and
documents associated with monitoring CCPs must be signed by the person(s)
doing the monitoring and by a responsible reviewing official(s) of the company.
10. Establish corrective actions

PRINCIPLE 5: Establish the corrective action to be taken when monitoring

indicates that a particular CCP is not under control.
Specific corrective actions must be developed for each CCP in the HACCP
system in order to deal with deviations when they occur.
The actions must ensure that the CCP has been brought under control. Actions
taken must also include proper disposition of the affected product. Deviation and
product disposition procedures must be documented in the HACCP record
keeping.
11. Establish verification procedures
PRINCIPLE 6: Establish procedures for verification to confirm that the HACCP
system is working effectively.
Establish procedures for verification. Verification and auditing methods,
procedures and tests, including random sampling and analysis, can be used to
determine if the HACCP system is working correctly. The frequency of
verification should be sufficient to confirm that the HACCP system is working
effectively. Examples of verification activities include:
Review of the HACCP system and its records;
Review of deviations and product dispositions;
Confirmation that CCPs are kept under control.
Where possible, validation activities should include actions to confirm the
efficacy of all elements of the HACCP plan.
12. Establish Documentation and Record Keeping
PRINCIPLE 7: Establish documentation concerning all procedures and records
appropriate to these principles and their application.

Efficient and accurate record keeping is essential to the application of a HACCP

system. HACCP procedures should be documented. Documentation and record
keeping should be appropriate to the nature and size of the operation.
Documentation examples are:

Hazard analysis;
CCP determination;
Critical limit determination.
Record examples are:
CCP monitoring activities;

Deviations and associated

corrective actions;

 Modifications to the HACCP

system.

An example of a HACCP
worksheet is attached as
Diagram 3.

Benefits of HACCP
HACCP provides businesses with a cost effective system for control of
food safety, from ingredients right through to production, storage and
distribution to sale and service of the final consumer. The preventive
approach of HACCP not only improves food safety management but also
complements other quality management systems. The main benefits of
HACCP are:

DIAGRAM 2. EXAMPLE OF DECISION TREE TO IDENTIFY

CCPS (answer questions in sequence)

DIAGRAM 3. EXAMPLE OF A HACCP WORKSHEET

MICROBIOLOGICAL CRITERIA

 These Principles are intended to give guidance on the establishment and

application of microbiological criteria for foods at any point in the food
chain from primary production to final consumption.
The safety of foods is principally assured by control at the source, product
design and process control, and the application of Good Hygienic
Practices during production, processing (including labeling), handling,
distribution, storage, sale, preparation and use, in conjunction with the
application of the HACCP system. This preventive approach offers more
control than microbiological testing because the effectiveness of
microbiological examination to assess the safety of foods is limited.
Guidance for the establishment of HACCP based systems is detailed in
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point System and Guidelines for its
Application (Annex to CAC/RCP 1-1969, Rev. 3-1997, Amd. 1999).
Microbiological criteria should be established according to these principles
and be based on scientific analysis and advice, and, where sufficient data
are available, a risk analysis appropriate to the foodstuff and its use.
Microbiological criteria should be developed in a transparent fashion and
meet the requirements of fair trade. They should be reviewed periodically
for relevance with respect to emerging pathogens, changing technologies,
and new understandings of science.
1. DEFINITION OF MICROBIOLOGICAL CRITERION
A microbiological criterion for food defines the acceptability of a product or
a food lot, based on the absence or presence, or number of
microorganisms including parasites, and/or quantity of their
toxins/metabolites, per unit(s) of mass, volume, area or lot.
2. COMPONENTS OF MICROBIOLOGICAL CRITERIA FOR FOODS
A microbiological criterion consists of:
a statement of the microorganisms of concern and/or
toxins/metabolites and the reason for that concern (see 5.1);

their

the analytical methods for their detection and/or quantification (see 5.2);
a plan defining the number of field samples to be taken and the size of the
analytical unit (see 6);
microbiological limits considered appropriate to the food at the specified
point(s) of the food chain (see 5.3);
The number of analytical units that should conform to these limits.

 A microbiological criterion should also state:

the food to which the criterion applies;
the point(s) in the food chain where the criterion applies; and
Any actions to be taken when the criterion is not met.
When applying a microbiological criterion for assessing products, it is
essential, in order to make the best use of money and manpower, that
only appropriate tests be applied (see 5) to those foods and at those
points in the food chain that offer maximum benefit in providing the
consumer with a food that is safe and suitable for consumption.
3. PURPOSES AND APPLICATION OF MICROBIOLOGICAL CRITERIA
FOR FOODS

3.1 Application by regulatory authorities

3.2 Application by a food business operator

Microbiological criteria may be used to formulate design requirements and

to indicate the required microbiological status of raw materials, ingredients
and end-products at any stage of the food chain as appropriate. They may
be relevant to the examination of foods, including raw materials and
ingredients, of unknown or uncertain origin or when other means of
verifying the efficacy of HACCP-based systems and Good Hygienic
Practices are not available. Generally, microbiological criteria may be
applied to define the distinction between acceptable and unacceptable
raw materials, ingredients, products, lots, by regulatory authorities and/or
food business operators. Microbiological criteria may also be used to
determine that processes are consistent with the General Principles of
Food Hygiene.
3.1 Application by regulatory authorities
Microbiological criteria can be used to define and check compliance with
the microbiological requirements.
Mandatory microbiological criteria shall apply to those products and/or
points of the food chain where no other more effective tools are available,
and where they are expected to improve the degree of protection offered
to the consumer. Where these are appropriate they shall be product-type

specific and only applied at the point of the food chain as specified in the
regulation.
In situations of non-compliance with microbiological criteria, depending on
the assessment of the risk to the consumer, the point in the food chain
and the product-type specified, the regulatory control actions may be
sorting, reprocessing, rejection or destruction of product, and/or further
investigation to determine appropriate actions to be taken.

3.2 Application by a food business operator

In addition to checking compliance with regulatory provisions (see 3.1.1)
microbiological criteria may be applied by food business operators to
formulate design requirements and to examine end-products as one of the
measures to verify and/or validate the efficacy of the HACCP plan.
Such criteria will be specific for the product and the stage in the food
chain at which they will apply. They may be stricter than the criteria used
for regulatory purposes and should, as such, not be used for legal action.
Microbiological criteria are not normally suitable for monitoring Critical
Limits as defined in Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point System
and Guidelines for its Application (Annex to CAC/RCP 1-1969, Rev. 31997). Monitoring procedures must be able to detect loss of control at a
Critical Control Point (CCP). Monitoring should provide this information in
time for corrective actions to be taken to regain control before there is a
need to reject the product. Consequently, on-line measurements of
physical and chemical parameters are often preferred to microbiological
testing because results are often available more rapidly and at the
production site. Moreover, the establishment of Critical Limits may need
other considerations than those described in this document.
4. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING PRINCIPLES FOR
ESTABLISHING AND APPLYING MICROBIOLOGICAL CRITERIA
A microbiological criterion should be established and applied only where
there is a definite need and where its application is practical. Such need is
demonstrated, for example, by epidemiological evidence that the food
under consideration may represent a public health risk and that a criterion
is meaningful for consumer protection, or as the result of a risk
assessment. The criterion should be technically attainable by applying
Good Manufacturing Practices (Codes of Practice).

 To fulfill the purposes of a microbiological criterion, consideration should

be given to:
the evidence of actual or potential hazards to health;
the microbiological status of the raw material(s);
the effect of processing on the microbiological status of the food;
the likelihood and consequences of microbial contamination and/or growth
during subsequent handling, storage and use;
the category(s) of consumers concerned;
the cost/benefit ratio associated with the application of the criterion; and
the intended use of the food.
The number and size of analytical units per lot tested should be as stated
in the sampling plan and should not be modified. However, a lot should
not be subjected to repeat testing in order to bring the lot into compliance.

5. MICROBIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF CRITERIA

5.1 Microorganisms, parasites and their toxins/metabolites of importance

in a particular food
5.2 Microbiological methods
5.3 Microbiological limits

5.1 Microorganisms, parasites and their toxins/metabolites of

importance in a particular food
For the purpose of this document these include:
bacteria, viruses, yeasts, moulds, and algae;
parasitic protozoa and helminthes;
Their toxins/metabolites.
The microorganisms included in a criterion should be widely accepted as
relevant - as pathogens, as indicator organisms or as spoilage organisms

- to the particular food and technology. Organisms whose significance in

the specified food is doubtful should not be included in a criterion.
The mere finding, with a presence-absence test, of certain organisms
known to cause food borne illness (e.g. Clostridium perfringens,
Staphylococcus aureus andVibrio parahaemolyticus) does not necessarily
indicate a threat to public health.
Where pathogens can be detected directly and reliably, consideration
should be given to testing for them in preference to testing for indicator
organisms. If a test for an indicator organism is applied, there should be a
clear statement whether the test is used to indicate unsatisfactory
hygienic practices or a health hazard.
5.2 Microbiological methods
Whenever possible, only methods for which the reliability (accuracy,
reproducibility, inter- and intra-laboratory variation) has been statistically
established in comparative or collaborative studies in several laboratories
should be used. Moreover, preference should be given to methods which
have been validated for the commodity concerned preferably in relation to
reference methods elaborated by international organizations. While
methods should be the most sensitive and reproducible for the purpose,
methods to be used for in-plant testing might often sacrifice to some
degree sensitivity and reproducibility in the interest of speed and
simplicity. They should, however, have been proved to give a sufficiently
reliable estimate of the information needed.
Methods used to determine the suitability for consumption of highly
perishable foods, or foods with a short shelf-life, should be chosen
wherever possible so that the results of microbiological examinations are
available before the foods are consumed or exceed their shelf-life.
The microbiological methods specified should be reasonable with regard
to complexity, availability of media, equipment etc., and ease of
interpretation, time required and costs.

5.3 Microbiological limits

Limits used in criteria should be based on microbiological data
appropriate to the food and should be applicable to a variety of similar
products. They should therefore be based on data gathered at various
production establishments operating under Good Hygienic Practices and
applying the HACCP system.

 In the establishment of microbiological limits, any changes in the micro

flora likely to occur during storage and distribution (e.g. decrease or
increase in numbers) should be taken into account.
Microbiological limits should take into consideration the risk associated
with the microorganisms, and the conditions under which the food is
expected to be handled and consumed. Microbiological limits should also
take account of the likelihood of uneven distribution of microorganisms in
the food and the inherent variability of the analytical procedure.
If a criterion requires the absence of a particular microorganism, the size
and number of the analytical unit (as well as the number of analytical
sample units) should be indicated.
6. SAMPLING PLANS, METHODS AND HANDLING
A sampling plan includes the sampling procedure and the decision criteria
to be applied to a lot, based on examination of a prescribed number of
sample units and subsequent analytical units of a stated size by defined
methods. A well-designed sampling plan defines the probability of
detecting microorganisms in a lot, but it should be borne in mind that no
sampling plan can ensure the absence of a particular organism. Sampling
plans should be administratively and economically feasible.
In particular, the choice of sampling plans should take into account:
Risks to public health associated with the hazard;
The susceptibility of the target group of consumers;
the heterogeneity of distribution of microorganisms where variables
sampling plans are employed; and
The Acceptable Quality Level and the desired statistical probability of
accepting a non-conforming lot.
For many applications, 2-or 3-class attribute plans may prove useful.
The statistical performance characteristics or operating characteristics
curve should be provided in the sampling plan. Performance
characteristics provide specific information to estimate the probability of
accepting a non-conforming lot. The sampling method should be defined
in the sampling plan. The time between taking the field samples and
analysis should be as short as reasonably possible, and during transport
to the laboratory the conditions (e.g. temperature) should not allow
increase or decrease of the numbers of the target organism, so that the

results reflect - within the limitations given by the sampling plan - the
microbiological conditions of the lot.
7. REPORTING
The test report shall give the information needed for complete
identification of the sample, the sampling plan, the test method, the
results and, if appropriate, their interpretation.

RISKS ASSESSMENT
Risks from microbiological hazards are of immediate and serious concern
to human health. Microbiological risk analysis is a process consisting of
three components: Risk assessment, risk management, and risk
communication, which has the overall objective to ensure public health
protection.

This document deals with risk assessment which is a key element in

assuring that sound science is used to establish standards, guidelines
and other recommendations for food safety to enhance consumer
protection and facilitate international trade. The microbiological risk
assessment process should include quantitative information to the
greatest extent possible in the estimation of risk. A microbiological risk
assessment should be conducted using a structured approach such as
that described in this document. This document will be of primary interest
to governments although other organizations, companies, and other
interested parties who need to prepare a microbiological risk assessment
will find it valuable. Since microbiological risk assessment is a developing
science, implementation of these guidelines may require a period of time
and may also require specialized training in the countries that consider it
necessary. This may be particularly the case for developing countries.
Although microbiological risk assessment is the primary focus of this
document, the method can also be applied to certain other classes of
biological hazards.

A. SCOPE
The scope of this document applies to risk assessment of microbiological
hazards in food.
B. DEFINITIONS

 The definitions cited here are to facilitate the understanding of certain

words or phrases used in this document.
Where available the definitions are those adopted for microbiological,
chemical, or physical agents, risk management and risk communication
on an interim basis at the 22nd Session of the Codex Alimentarius
Commission. The CAC adopted these definitions on an interim basis
because they are subject to modification in the light of developments in
the science of risk analysis and as a result of efforts to harmonize similar
definitions across various disciplines.
Dose-Response Assessment - The determination of the relationship
between the magnitude of exposure (dose) to a chemical, biological or
physical agent and the severity and frequency of associated adverse
health effects (response).
Exposure Assessment - The qualitative and/or quantitative evaluation of
the likely intake of biological, chemical, and physical agents via food as
well as exposures from other sources if relevant.
Hazard - A biological, chemical or physical agent in, or condition of, food
with the potential to cause an adverse health effect.
Hazard Characterization - The qualitative and/or quantitative evaluation
of the nature of the adverse health effects associated with the hazard. For
the purpose of microbiological risk assessment the concerns relate to
microorganisms and/or their toxins.
Hazard Identification - The identification of biological, chemical, and
physical agents capable of causing adverse health effects and which may
be present in a particular food or group of foods.
Quantitative Risk Assessment - A risk assessment that provides
numerical expressions of risk and indication of the attendant uncertainties
(stated in the 1995 Expert Consultation definition on Risk Analysis).
Qualitative Risk Assessment - A risk assessment based on data which,
while forming an inadequate basis for numerical risk estimations,
nonetheless, when conditioned by prior expert knowledge and
identification of attendant uncertainties permits risk ranking or separation
into descriptive categories of risk.
Risk - A function of the probability of an adverse health effect and the
severity of that effect, consequential to a hazard(s) in food.
Risk Analysis - A process consisting of three components: Risk
assessment, risk management and risk communication.

 Risk Assessment - A scientifically based process consisting of the

following steps: (I) hazard identification, (ii) hazard characterization, (iii)
exposure assessment, and (iv) risk characterization.
Risk Characterization - The process of determining the qualitative and/or
quantitative estimation, including attendant uncertainties, of the probability
of occurrence and severity of known or potential adverse health effects in
a given population based on hazard identification, hazard characterization
and exposure assessment.
Risk Communication - The interactive exchange of information and
opinions concerning risk and risk management among risk assessors, risk
managers, consumers and other interested parties.
Risk Estimate - Output of risk characterization.
Risk Management - The process of weighing policy alternatives in the
light of the results of risk assessment and, if required, selecting and
implementing appropriate control[5] options, including regulatory
measures.
Sensitivity analysis - A method used to examine the behavior of a model
by measuring the variation in its outputs resulting from changes to its
inputs.
Transparent - Characteristics of a process where the rationale, the logic
of development, constraints, assumptions, value judgements, decisions,
limitations and uncertainties of the expressed determination are fully and
systematically stated, documented, and accessible for review.
Uncertainty analysis - A method used to estimate the uncertainty
associated with model inputs, assumptions and structure/form.

C.

GENERAL
ASSESSMENT

PRINCIPLES

OF

MICROBIOLOGICAL

RISK

1. Microbiological risk assessment should be soundly based upon

science.
2. There should be a functional separation between risk assessment and
risk management.
3. Microbiological risk assessment should be conducted according to a
structured approach that includes hazard identification, hazard
characterization, exposure assessment, and risk characterization.

 4. A microbiological risk assessment should clearly state the purpose of

the exercise, including the form of risk estimate that will be the output.
5. The conduct of a microbiological risk assessment should be
transparent.
6. Any constraints that impact on the risk assessment such as cost,
resources or time, should be identified and their possible consequences
described.
7. The risk estimate should contain a description of uncertainty and where
the uncertainty arose during the risk assessment process.
8. Data should be such that uncertainty in the risk estimate can be
determined; data and data collection systems should, as far as possible,
be of sufficient quality and precision that uncertainty in the risk estimate is
minimized.
9. A microbiological risk assessment should explicitly consider the
dynamics of microbiological growth, survival, and death in foods and the
complexity of the interaction (including squeal) between human and agent
following consumption as well as the potential for further spread.
10. Wherever possible, risk estimates should be reassessed over time by
comparison with independent human illness data.
11. A microbiological risk assessment may need reevaluation, as new
relevant information becomes available.

D.

GUIDELINES FOR APPLICATION

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
STATEMENT OF PURPOSE OF RISK ASSESSMENT
HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
HAZARD CHARACTERIZATION
RISK CHARACTERIZATION
DOCUMENTATION
REASSESSMENT
These Guidelines provide an outline of the elements of a Microbiological
Risk Assessment indicating the types of decisions that need to be
considered at each step.

A. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

 The elements of risk analysis are: Risk assessment, risk management,

and risk communication. The functional separation of risk assessment
from risk management helps assure that the risk assessment process is
unbiased. However, certain interactions are needed for a comprehensive
and systematic risk assessment process. These may include ranking of
hazards and risk assessment policy decisions. Where risk management
issues are taken into account in risk assessment, the decision-making
process should be transparent. It is the transparent unbiased nature of the
process that is important, not who is the assessor or who is the manager.
Whenever practical, efforts should be made to provide a risk assessment
process that allows contributions by interested parties. Contributions by
interested parties in the risk assessment process can improve the
transparency of the risk assessment, increase the quality of risk
assessments through additional expertise and information, and facilitate
risk communication by increasing the credibility and acceptance of the
results of the risk assessment.
Scientific evidence may be limited, incomplete or conflicting. In such
cases, transparent informed decisions will have to be made on how to
complete the risk assessment process. The importance of using high
quality information when conducting a risk assessment is to reduce
uncertainty and to increase the reliability of the risk estimate. The use of
quantitative information is encouraged to the extent possible, but the
value and utility of qualitative information should not be discounted.
It should be recognized that sufficient resources will not always be
available and constraints are likely to be imposed on the risk assessment
that will influence the quality of the risk estimate. Where such resource
constraints apply, it is important for transparency purposes that these
constraints be described in the formal record. Where appropriate, the
record should include an evaluation of the impact of the resource
constraints on the risk assessment.
B. STATEMENT OF PURPOSE OF RISK ASSESSMENT
At the beginning of the work the specific purpose of the particular risk
assessment being carried out should be clearly stated. The output form
and possible output alternatives of the risk assessment should be defined.
Output might, for example, take the form of an estimate of the prevalence
of illness, or an estimate of annual rate (incidence of human illness per
100,000) or an estimate of the rate of human illness and severity per
eating occurrence.

 The microbiological risk assessment may require a preliminary

investigation phase. In this phase, evidence to support farm-to-table
modeling of risk might be structured or mapped into the framework of risk
assessment.
C. HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
For microbial agents, the purpose of hazard identification is to identify the
microorganisms or the microbial toxins of concern with food. Hazard
identification will predominately be a qualitative process. Hazards can be
identified from relevant data sources. Information on hazards can be
obtained from scientific literature, from databases such as those in the
food industry, government agencies, and relevant international
organizations and through solicitation of opinions of experts. Relevant
information includes data in areas such as: clinical studies,
epidemiological studies and surveillance, laboratory animal studies,
investigations of the characteristics of microorganisms, the interaction
between microorganisms and their environment through the food chain
from primary production up to and including consumption, and studies on
analogous microorganisms and situations.
D. EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
Exposure assessment includes an assessment of the extent of actual or
anticipated human exposure. For microbiological agents, exposure
assessments might be based on the potential extent of food
contamination by a particular agent or its toxins, and on dietary
information. Exposure assessment should specify the unit of food that is
of interest, i.e., the portion size in most/all cases of acute illness.
Factors that must be considered for exposure assessment include the
frequency of contamination of foods by the pathogenic agent and its level
in those foods over time. For example, these factors are influenced by the
characteristics of the pathogenic agent, the microbiological ecology of the
food, the initial contamination of the raw material including considerations
of regional differences and seasonality of production, the level of
sanitation and process controls, the methods of processing, packaging,
distribution and storage of the foods, as well as any preparation steps
such as cooking and holding. Another factor that must be considered in
the assessment is patterns of consumption. This relates to socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds, ethnicity, seasonality, age differences
(population demographics), regional differences, and consumer
preferences and behavior. Other factors to be considered include: the role
of the food handler as a source of contamination, the amount of hand

contact with the product, and the potential impact of abusive

environmental time/temperature relationships.
Microbial pathogen levels can be dynamic and while they may be kept
low, for example, by proper time/temperature controls during food
processing, they can substantially increase with abuse conditions (for
example, improper food storage temperatures or cross contamination
from other foods). Therefore, the exposure assessment should describe
the pathway from production to consumption. Scenarios can be
constructed to predict the range of possible exposures. The scenarios
might reflect effects of processing, such as hygienic design, cleaning and
disinfection, as well as the time/temperature and other conditions of the
food history, food handling and consumption patterns, regulatory controls,
and surveillance systems.
Exposure assessment estimates the level, within various levels of
uncertainty, of microbiological pathogens or microbiological toxins, and
the likelihood of their occurrence in foods at the time of consumption.
Qualitatively foods can be categorized according to the likelihood that the
foodstuff will or will not be contaminated at its source; whether or not the
food can support the growth of the pathogen of concern; whether there is
substantial potential for abusive handling of the food; or whether the food
will be subjected to a heat process. The presence, growth, survival, or
death of microorganisms, including pathogens in foods, are influenced by
processing and packaging, the storage environment, including the
temperature of storage, the relative humidity of the environment, and the
gaseous composition of the atmosphere. Other relevant factors include
pH, moisture content or water activity (a w), nutrient content, the presence
of antimicrobial substances, and competing micro flora. Predictive
microbiology can be a useful tool in an exposure assessment.
E. HAZARD CHARACTERIZATION
This step provides a qualitative or quantitative description of the severity
and duration of adverse effects that may result from the ingestion of a
microorganism or its toxin in food. A dose-response assessment should
be performed if the data are obtainable.
There are several important factors that need to be considered in hazard
characterization. These are related to both the microorganism, and the
human host. In relation to the microorganism the following are important:
microorganisms are capable of replicating; the virulence and infectivity of
microorganisms can change depending on their interaction with the host
and the environment; genetic material can be transferred between
microorganisms leading to the transfer of characteristics such as antibiotic

resistance and virulence factors; microorganisms can be spread through

secondary and tertiary transmission; the onset of clinical symptoms can
be substantially delayed following exposure; microorganisms can persist
in certain individuals leading to continued excretion of the microorganism
and continued risk of spread of infection; low doses of some
microorganisms can in some cases cause a severe effect; and the
attributes of a food that may alter the microbial pathogenicity, e.g., High
fat content of a food vehicle.
In relation to the host the following may be important: genetic factors such
as human leukocyte antigen (HLA) type; increased susceptibility due to
breakdowns of physiological barriers; individual host susceptibility
characteristics such as age, pregnancy, nutrition, health and medication
status, concurrent infections, immune status and previous exposure
history; population characteristics such as population immunity, access to
and use of medical care, and persistence of the organism in the
population.
A desirable feature of hazard characterization is ideally establishing a
dose-response relationship. When establishing a dose-response
relationship, the different end points, such as infection or illness, should
be taken into consideration. In the absence of a known dose-response
relationship, risk assessment tools such as expert elicitations could be
used to consider various factors, such as infectivity, necessary to describe
hazard characterizations. Additionally, experts may be able to devise
ranking systems so that they can be used to characterize severity and/or
duration of disease.
F. RISK CHARACTERIZATION
Risk characterization represents the integration of the hazard
identification, hazard characterization, and exposure assessment
determinations to obtain a risk estimate; providing a qualitative or
quantitative estimate of the likelihood and severity of the adverse effects
which could occur in a given population, including a description of the
uncertainties associated with these estimates. These estimates can be
assessed by comparison with independent epidemiological data that
relate hazards to disease prevalence.
Risk characterization brings together all of the qualitative or quantitative
information of the previous steps to provide a soundly based estimate of
risk for a given population. Risk characterization depends on available
data and expert judgements. The weight of evidence integrating
quantitative and qualitative data may permit only a qualitative estimate of
risk.

 The degree of confidence in the final estimation of risk will depend on the
variability, uncertainty, and assumptions identified in all previous steps.
Differentiation of uncertainty and variability is important in subsequent
selections of risk management options. Uncertainty is associated with the
data themselves, and with the choice of model. Data uncertainties include
those that might arise in the evaluation and extrapolation of information
obtained from epidemiological, microbiological, and laboratory animal
studies. Uncertainties arise whenever attempts are made to use data
concerning the occurrence of certain phenomena obtained under one set
of conditions to make estimations or predictions about phenomena likely
to occur under other sets of conditions for which data are not available.
Biological variation includes the differences in virulence that exist in
microbiological populations and variability in susceptibility within the
human population and particular subpopulations.
It is important to demonstrate the influence of the estimates and
assumptions used in risk assessment; for quantitative risk assessment
this can be done using sensitivity and uncertainty analyses.
G. DOCUMENTATION
The risk assessment should be fully and systematically documented and
communicated to the risk manager. Understanding any limitations that
influenced a risk assessment is essential for transparency of the process
that is important in decision making. For example, expert judgments
should be identified and their rationale explained. To ensure a transparent
risk assessment a formal record, including a summary, should be
prepared and made available to interested independent parties so that
other risk assessors can repeat and critique the work. The formal record
and summary should indicate any constraints, uncertainties, and
assumptions and their impact on the risk assessment.
H. REASSESSMENT
Surveillance programs can provide an ongoing opportunity to reassess
the public health risks associated with pathogens in foods as new relevant
information and data become available. Microbiological risk assessors
may have the opportunity to compare the predicted risk estimate from
microbiological risk assessment models with reported human illness data
for the purpose of gauging the reliability of the predicted estimate. This
comparison emphasizes the iterative nature of modeling. When new data
become available, a microbiological risk assessment may need to be
revisited.

 FOOD SAFETY
Food safety is a scientific discipline describing handling, preparation,
and storage of food in ways that prevent food borne illness. This includes
a number of routines that should be followed to avoid potentially
severe health hazards. The tracks within this line of thought are safety
between industry and the market and then between the market and the
consumer. In considering industry to market practices, food safety
considerations include the origins of food including the practices relating
to food labeling, food hygiene, food additives and pesticide residues, as
well as policies on biotechnology and food and guidelines for the
management
of
governmental import and export inspection
and certification systems for foods. In considering market to consumer
practices, the usual thought is that food ought to be safe in the market
and the concern is safe delivery and preparation of the food for the
consumer.
Food can transmit disease from person to person as well as serve as a
growth medium for bacteria that can cause food poisoning. In developed
countries there are intricate standards for food preparation, whereas
in lesser developed countries the main issue is simply the availability of
adequate safe water, which is usually a critical item. In theory, food
poisoning is 100% preventable. The five key principles of food hygiene,
according to WHO are:
Prevent contaminating food with pathogens spreading from people, pets,
and pests.
Separate raw and cooked foods to prevent contaminating the cooked
foods.
Cook foods for the appropriate length of time and at the appropriate
temperature to kill pathogens.
Store food at the proper temperature.
Use safe water and cooked materials.

ISO 22000 - FOOD SAFETY MANAGEMENT

The ISO 22000 family of International Standards addresses food safety

management. The consequences of unsafe food can be serious and
ISOs food safety management standards help organizations identify and
control food safety hazards. As many of today's food products repeatedly
cross national boundaries, International Standards are needed to ensure
the safety of the global food supply chain.

 The ISO 22000 family contains a number of standards each focusing on

different aspects of food safety management.

ISO 22000:2005 contains the overall guidelines for food safety

management.

ISO 22000:2005 specifies requirements for a food safety management

system where an organization in the food chain needs to demonstrate its
ability to control food safety hazards in order to ensure that food is safe at
the time of human consumption.
It is applicable to all organizations, regardless of size, which are involved
in any aspect of the food chain and want to implement systems that
consistently provide safe products. The means of meeting any
requirements of ISO 22000:2005 can be accomplished through the use of
internal and/or external resources.
ISO 22000:2005 specifies requirements to enable an organization

Plan, implement, operate, maintain and update a food safety

management system aimed at providing products that, according to their
intended use, are safe for the consumer,
Demonstrate compliance with applicable statutory and regulatory food
safety requirements,
Evaluate and assess customer requirements and demonstrate conformity
with those mutually agreed customer requirements that relate to food
safety, in order to enhance customer satisfaction,
Effectively communicate food safety issues to their suppliers, customers
and relevant interested parties in the food chain,
Ensure that the organization conforms to its stated food safety policy,
Demonstrate such conformity to relevant interested parties, and
Seek certification or registration of its food safety management system by
an external organization, or make a self-assessment or self-declaration of
conformity to ISO 22000:2005.

ISO 22000:2005
ISO 22000 is the International Food Safety Management Standard.
It combines and supplements the core elements of ISO 9001 and HACCP
to provide an effective framework for the development, implementation
and continual improvement of a Food Safety Management System
(FSMS).

 ISO 22000 aligns with other management systems, such as ISO 9001 and
ISO 14001, to enable effective systems integration.

Benefits of certification to ISO 22000

Customer satisfaction - through delivery of products that consistently

meet customer requirements including quality, safety and legality.
Reduced operating costs - through continual improvement of processes
and resulting operational efficiencies.
Operational efficiencies - by integrating pre-requisite programs (PRPs
& OPRPs), HACCP with the Plan-Do-Check-Act philosophies of ISO
9001 to increase the effectiveness of the Food Safety Management
System.
Improved stakeholder relationships - including staff, customers and
suppliers.
Legal compliance - by understanding how statutory and regulatory
requirements impact the organization and its customers and testing
compliance through internal audits and management reviews.
Improved risk management - through greater consistency and
traceability of product.
Proven business credentials - through independent verification against
recognized standards.
Ability to win more business - particularly where procurement
specifications require certification as a condition to supply.

Who should use ISO 22000?

ISO 22000 can be used by any organization directly or indirectly involved
in the food chain including:
Farms, fisheries and dairies.
Processors of meats fish and feed.
Manufacturers of bread and cereals, beverages, canned and frozen food.
Food service providers such as restaurants, fast food chains, hospitals
and hotels and mobile caterers.
Supporting services including food storage and distribution and suppliers
of food processing equipment, additives, raw materials, cleaning and
sanitizing products, and packaging.

In summary, part or all of the ISO 22000 requirements will apply to any
products that contact the food industry or the food chain.

BISCUITS
A cup of sugar, two of flour, a stick of butter, a couple of eggs, a dash of
salt, a teaspoon of baking soda, a little vanilla....Ingredients to make
cookies sound simple enough. But are they?
Once upon a time, sugar was simply sugar, flour was simply flour, and
butter was only butter. Eggs are still eggs, but almost everything else has
changed -ingredients have gotten better.
We now have a choice of sugars, flours and shortenings. Ingredients are
now specialized to suit our baking needs. Granulated sugar, comes in
regular grind, fine grind and extra fine grind. We can get all-purpose flour,
cake flour, bread flour and several specialized types of flour. Instead of
butter we may choose a flavored margarine with no cholesterol or an
excellent all-purpose shortening.
Your chance for successful baking has never been better. Your
opportunity to create a personal baking masterpiece is almost assured.
A mix package of biscuit dough, whether in a bag, box, or frozen in a tube
is a mixture of ingredients. Granted, these mixes are great time savers,
but they still demand careful preparation in order to be special.

BAKING POWDER:

Baking Powder and Baking Soda will lose its kick with age. Seal it tightly
after use to keep out moisture and odors.

BAKING SODA:

Baking soda causes cookies to spread when baked. Baking powder

causes cookies to rise and be crunchy.

SUGAR:

Cookies are best when a fine-grind granulated sugar is used. Coarse

sugar causes cookies to spread excessively and crumble. Powdered
sugar causes cookies to be tight-grained and dry.

FLOUR:

All-purpose and pastry flour is fine for most cookies. A mixture of one third
cake flour to two thirds all-purpose flour is better. Use straight cake flour in
your sugar cookies.

SHORTENING:

All-purpose shortening or hydrogenated shortening will make almost any

cookie. A mixture of three-fourths all-purpose flour and one-fourth real
butter better tastes. The butter should be cool, but not hard, when
blending with the shortening.

EGGS:

Eggs should always be fresh. The egg's size is very important. When the
recipe doesn't say - use large eggs. Frozen eggs come in 4 packages;
whole eggs, egg whites, 2 yolks to 1 white; and sugar yolks. If you use
frozen eggs the kind that comes 2 yolks to 1 white is best. Whole eggs
are second best.

SALT:

Use very little salt and add at the end of mixing, before flour is completely
mixed in. Salt causes flour to toughen and can make your cookies tough.

COLORING:

Never use excessive food coloring. Some food coloring has a taste and
may give your cookies an off flavor.

WATER:

Use very cold water in making cookies (unless the recipe reads
differently). Cold water will help keep the mix from separating. Cold fruit
juice is a great substitute for water if you like the fruit flavor.

BROWN SUGAR:

Brown sugar frequently gets dry and lumpy. Lumpy brown sugar can be
brought back to life by adding a little cold water and either sifted or placed
in a blender.

FRUIT:

Dried fruit (such as raisins) should be soaked in a bowl of hot water for
about 10 minutes. This will plump them a little, but will not make them too
tender.

NUTS:

Nut-meats should always be sampled before using. The oil they contain
goes rancid rather quickly and can ruin the taste of your cookies. Nutmeats freeze well and should be stored in the freezer, not in the
refrigerator. Nut-meats absorb odors.

COCONUT:

Freshen up coconut by adding a little hot water and tumbling until the
water is absorbed.

CHOCOLATE:

If you've stored chocolate morsels in the refrigerator and they are covered
with a white haze, don't worry, that's normal. However, chocolate will
absorb odors and should always be sealed tightly and stored at a cool
temperature. Also, chocolate will haze over when allowed to heat over
100 degrees while melting.
Melt chocolate in your microwave when possible. If you must melt it on
the stove, use very low heat. Put the chocolate in a bowl, then place the
bowl in a pan containing water. You must avoid getting water in your
melting chocolate. Water will cause chocolate to lump. When the melted
chocolate is very thick, add a small amount of vegetable oil or cocoa
butter to thin it down. Never add water to thin melted chocolate.

COCOA:

If you like your chocolate cookies more flavorful, add a little more cocoa to
the mix. Cocoa will dry the batter out, so you must add a little more
shortening or an extra egg yolk. Make a thick paste out of Cocoa and
vegetable oil for use in cookie mixes and icing toppings.

SPICE:

Use fresh spices in cookies. Spice loses flavor with age and can
sometimes taste like something else altogether. Remember, a little spice
goes a long way.

VANILLA EXTRACT:

Use plenty of Vanilla extract. Extracts are alcohol based and much of the
flavor may bake out in the oven.

ALMOND EXTRACT:

Use Almond extract along with Vanilla extract to make cherry cookies
taste like cherries.

ORANGE EXTRACT:

A little Orange extract added to a chocolate cookie gives it a special

flavor. Don't be afraid to experiment with flavors. Always use a little and
build the flavor up.

FLOUR
Flour that is used in baking comes mainly from wheat, although it can be
milled from corn, rice, nuts, legumes, and some fruits and vegetables. The
type of flour of flour used is vital at getting the product right. Different
types of flour are suited to different items and all flours are different you
cannot switch from one type to another without consequences that could
ruin the recipe. To achieve success in baking, it is important to know what
the right flour is for the job!

All-Purpose Flour is a blend of hard and soft wheat; it may be bleached

or unbleached. It is usually translated as "plain flour." All-Purpose Flour
has 8% to 11% protein (gluten). All-purpose flour is one of the most
commonly used and readily accessible flour in the United States.
Flour that is bleached naturally as it ages is labeled "unbleached," while
chemically treated flour is labeled "bleached." Bleached flour has less
protein than unbleached. Bleached is best for pie crusts, cookies, quick
breads, pancakes and waffles. Use unbleached flour for yeast breads,
Danish pastry, puff pastry, strudel, Yorkshire pudding, clairs, cream puffs
and popovers.

INGREDIENTS, EQUIPMENTS AND RECIPES

 Gluten-Free Chocolate Chip biscuit - These biscuit use sweet rice flour,
also known as glutinous rice flour. Don't be fooled by the name; there's no
gluten in glutinous rice flour (or any rice flour, for that matter). This flour,
like most gluten-free flours, is easy to find if an Asian grocery can be
located. It can also be found in many boutique grocery stores, such as
Trader Joe's or Whole Foods. Other gluten-free flours may be substituted,
but be prepared to adjust the amount of flour needed to compensate for
variations in starchiness.
It should go without saying, for any household coping with celiac disease
that it is imperative to make sure all your ingredients, work surfaces, and
utensils are free of gluten contamination. Special care should be taken
with compound ingredients such as baking powder; make sure its
ingredients list does not include gluten-containing items such as modified
food starch.
The cookies are pictured to the right with various additions to the dough.
Experimenting is encouraged, but please be careful choosing additions.
Some of the cookies pictured have oats added, which introduce trace
amounts of gluten and are not safe for celiac.

BISCUIT PRODUCTION FLOWCHART:

Equipment
I.
II.
III.

Large mixing bowl

Stand mixer and bowl (or a hand-held mixer and a medium mixing bowl)
Wooden spoon

IV.
V.

Cookie sheet
Non-stick silicone baking sheet liner (Silpat, etc.)

BISCUITS

SERVINGS: 12 PEOPLE

Ingredients
cup (1 stick) (120ml) butter
cup (120ml) sugar
cup (120ml) brown sugar
2 eggs
tsp vanilla extract

1 cup (300ml) (1 cup + 2

tablespoons) sweet rice flour
1 tsp xanthenes gum
tsp baking powder
tsp baking soda
Chocolate chips (as many as
you like)

Procedure
Preheat oven to 350F (180C).
Mix the sweet rice flour, xanthenes gum, baking powder and baking soda
in a large mixing bowl.
In a smaller mixing bowl or stand mixer, cream the butter, sugar, and
brown sugar. Add the eggs and vanilla and continue mixing.
Add the wet ingredients to the dry ingredients and mix thoroughly with a
wooden spoon. Don't worry about over-mixing; since there is no gluten in
the flour, there is no danger of overworking it.
Fold in the chocolate chips.
Line cookie sheet with silicone mat and spoon on balls of dough, about
1" (4cm) in diameter.
Put cookie dough in the fridge for 30-40 minutes or into the freezer for 1020 minutes.

 Using a tablespoon, spoon dough out and form little balls. Set them on the
baking sheet a couple inches apart.
Bake until golden brown. Makes approximately 30 cookies.
Notes
This will likely take longer to bake than a gluten-containing cookie recipe
perhaps about 25 minutes. Baking time will depend on the flour you
use, since the protein content of the flour will determine the rate of
browning from the Mallard reaction.
The silicone baking sheet liner is important, as these cookies tend to stick
to the pan more than most. If you don't have one, parchment paper might
also work.

BISCUIT FORMULATION AND PREPARATION

Cookies were prepared according to the formula from Mitsubishi-Kagaku

Foods Corporation, Japan (2001) with slight modification. The formula
used is shown in Table 1. The dry ingredients were weighed using an
analytical balance and thoroughly mixed in Kitchen Aid Mixer (Model
K5SS, USA). Shortening was added and rubbed in until uniform. The egg
was added and the dough thoroughly kneaded for four minutes. The
dough was then rolled and cut with a round cutter with a diameter of 32
mm and thickness of 5 mm and baked on greased pan for 5 minutes at
180 C in a Turbofan Oven (Bakbar Versatile Bench Top Model E32,
Germany).The cookies were cooled on a wire racks at 27 dsa for 30
minutes before packing in an airtight plastic container prior to physical and
chemical evaluation.
Table 1

Ingredients

Control
(%)

Mung
bean
Biscuits
(%)

Chickpea
Biscuits
(%)

Wheat flour

42.5

21.2

21.2

Corn flour

0.0

6.5

6.5

Mung bean
flour

0.0

14.8

0.0

Chickpea
flour

0.0

0.0

14.8

Sugar

20.5

20.5

20.5

Shortening

20.5

20.5

20.5

Egg

15.0

15.0

15.0

Baking
powder

1.0

1.0

1.0

Salt

0.4

0.4

0.4

Flavor

0.1

0.1

0.1

Formulation of Biscuits
Resistant starch (RS):

 Result indicated that mung bean flour was significantly higher in resistant
starch (9.95%) as compared to chickpea flour (5.47%) However the RS
content showed no significant different between the mung bean(1.84%)
and the chickpea (2.09%) cookies. However both legume based cookies
differ significantly with the control cookies (1.03%). Tanha and Zami
(1997) stated that heat treatment (roasting) caused the decreased of IDF
(insoluble dietary fiber) in cereals and legumes. RS is one of the IDF
components.
Marlett and Longacre (1996) also reported that legumes contain high RS
beside raw food and chilled-cook food. RS was produced from
retrogradation of amylase in legumes. Mung bean and chickpea contain
high percentage of amylase i.e 28.8% and 31.8% (Salunkhe and Khadam,
1989).

Physical analyses:
The physical characteristics of the three types of Biscuits are shown in
Table 2. Results of these studies indicated that there is significant
difference (p<0.05) between each samples in terms of weight, diameter,
height and spread ratio. Lowest weight was indicated in chickpea cookies
at 7.36%. This result suggested that the chickpea cookies have high
water holding capacity (WHC) as compared to mung bean and control
cookies due to the high protein content. In non-wheat protein water
holding capacity was higher than in wheat flour (Hoojjat and Zabik, 1984).

Table 2
Types
of
Biscui
ts
Contro
l (%)
Mung
bean
(%)
Chickp
ea (%)

Weigh
t

Diame
ter

Height

Sprea
d
Ratio

10.11

13.13

74.06

4.16

8.68

11.25

75.41

4.06

7.36

23.13

56.11

5.05

Physical Characteristics of Three Types Biscuits

 Mung bean Biscuits resulted from dough that goes through the apparent
glass transition at a lower temperature as reported by Does her et al.
(1987) and Miller et al. (1996). They suggested that cookie set time is
determined by an apparent glass transition of the gluten protein in the
flour.
Protein content influences the viscosity of dough cookies. This is because
the expansion of protein gluten is not resumed in the making of cookies.
Inverse

correlation was obtained between diameter and protein content (Leon,

1996). Protein gluten in flour will form a web in cookie dough when
heated. During baking, the gluten goes through an apparent glass
transition, thereby, gaining mobility that allows it to interact and form a
web.
The formation of continuous gluten web increases the viscosity and stops
the flow of cookie dough (Miller and Honeney, 1997). But, chickpea
cookies have the highest diameter even though the protein content is
high. Barron and Esponiza (1993) reported that addition of 15% chickpea
flour or more in the corn flour mixture will decrease it viscosity. This may
because the viscosity of chickpea dough reduce and increase the spread
rate. Dough with lower viscosity causes cookies to spread at faster rate
(Hoseney and Roger, 1994; Hoseney et al., 1988). In this formulation,
35% chickpea flour was added and allows it to reduce the viscosity of
cookie dough furthermore increase the spread rate even though the
protein content is high.
Significant difference occurs in the spread potential at difference soft flour
varieties (Mehri, 2009). Cookie spread rate appears to be controlled by
dough viscosity (Yamazaki, 1959, Hoseney et al., 1988, Hoseney and
Rodger, 1994; Miller, 1997). When more water is present in the dough,
more sugar is dissolved during mixing.
This lowers the initial dough viscosity and the cookie is able to spread at a
faster rate during heating. The flour components that absorb large
quantities of water reduce the amount of water that is available to dissolve
the sugar in the formula. Thus, initial viscosity is higher and the cookies
spread less during baking (Hoseney and Rodger, 1994). The spread in
mung bean cookies was the cookies. The chickpea cookies had the
highest spread ratio because the flour has low hydration properties.
Similar report was also report by Yamazaki (1962) and Rababah et al.
(2006).


Texture:
Texture result of the three types of cookies was shown in Table 3.
Hardness differs significantly (p<0.05) among samples. The highest value
in hardness was found in chickpea cookies at 61.87 N. This might have
resulted from incorporation of protein rich flour which need more water to
obtain good cookie dough, and the cookies prepared from high-absorption
dough tend to be extremely hard (Hoojjat and Zabik, 1984). Similar finding
by Lee and Beuchat (1991) reported that more strength was needed to
break cookies incorporated with legumes flour.
Table 3

Control

Mung
Bean

Chickpea

Hardness

41.50

53.00

61.87

Crispiness

9.38

4.47

27.48

Elasticity,
mm

0.87

0.81

1.17

Gumminess

0.55

0.25

1.27

Cohesivene
ss

0.01

0.01

0.02

Chewiness,
Nmm

0.48

0.19

1.50

Factors

Results of Texture of Tree Types Biscuits

Crispiness was observed to be the highest value in chickpea Biscuits with

a value of 27.48 N. Del Rosario and Flores (1981) indicate that it might
have resulted from the water binding effort in mung bean flour which
increased with heating denaturation of protein content. Chickpea cookies
had significantly highest (p<0.05) value in terms of elasticity, chewiness
and gumminess.

Various type of Biscuits:

 Na
me

Image

Place

The
city
of Aac
henin
Germa
ny

Aachener Printen are a type

of Lebkuchen. The term is
a protected designation of
origin and
so
all
manufacturers can be found
in or near Aachen. Printen
are made from a variety of
ingredients
including cinnamon, aniseed
, clove,cardamom, coriander
, allspice and also ginger.

New
Zealan
d,
Australi
a

It is a traditional New
Zealand biscuit and is made
from cocoa powder, butter,
flour and cornflakes. It is
then
topped
with chocolate icing and half
a walnut. The origin of both
the recipe and name are
unknown, but the recipe has
appeared in many editions of
cookbooks sold in New
Zealand.

Aach
ener
Printe
n

Afgha
n
biscui
ts

Alfajo
r

Description

some
regions
of
Spain

and
countri
es
of Latin
Americ
a

Its basic form consists of two

round sweet biscuits joined
together
with dulce
de
leche or jam and
covered
with powdered. In most
alfajores there are two layers
of cake, and a filling in
between.

WHEAT QUALITY

 Flour Analysis:
The production of uniform bakery products requires control over the raw
materials used in their formation. Flour is a biological material and when
obtained from different sources can vary considerably in its protein quality,
protein quantity, ash, moisture, enzymatic activity, color, and physical
properties. It is essential for the baker to be aware of any variations in
these characteristics from one flour shipment to the next. The purpose of
flour testing is to measure specific properties or characteristics of flour.
Ideally the results of these tests can be related to the flours performance
in the bakery.
The American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC) publishes
approved methods for determining various properties of flour and bakery
products.

Moisture:
The simple air-oven method is sufficiently accurate for the routine analysis
of flour moisture at the flour mill or bakery. The procedure involves
heating a small sample of flour (~2g) for 1 hr at 266F (130C + 1C) and
taking the loss in weight as the moisture content.
The moisture content of the flour is important for two reasons. First, the
higher the moisture content, the lower the amount of dry solids in the flour.
Flour specifications usually limit the flour moisture to 14% or less. It is in
the millers interest to hold the moisture as close to 14% as possible.
Secondly, flour with greater than 14% moisture is not stable at room
temperature. Organisms naturally present in the flour will start to grow at
high moistures, producing off odors and flavors.

Ash:
Ash is the mineral material in flour. The ash content of any given flour is
affected primarily by the ash content of the wheat from which it was milled
and its milling extraction. The test for determining the ash content
involves incinerating a known weight of flour under controlled conditions,
weighing the residue, and calculating the percentage of ash based upon
the original sample weight.
The ash content of wheat varies from about 1.50 to about 2.00%. The
pure endosperm contains about 0.35% ash. Considering that the wheat

kernel contains about 80% endosperm, it becomes clear that the nonendosperm parts of the kernel (pericarp, aleurone, and germ) are very
high in ash when compared to the endosperm. Thus, the ash content is a
sensitive measure of the amount of non-endosperm material that is in the
flour.
The goal of milling is to separate the endosperm from the non-endosperm
parts of the wheat kernel. This separating is difficult and never clean.
Thus, there is always contamination of endosperm with non-endosperm
and vice versa. As flour yield is increased, the amount of contamination
with non-endosperm increases and the ash content increases. Thus, the
ash content is a good and sensitive measure of the contamination of the
endosperm.
Millers will often comment that the ash does not affect the baking
performance of flour. This is probably true. However, the non-endosperm
parts of the wheat kernel are known to decrease baking quality and as the
ash content increases so does the level of non-endosperm material.
The ash content of white pan bread flour has increased over the years
from 0.45% in the 1950s to the current level of 0.50-0.55%. This has
undoubtedly resulted from negotiations where the miller has agreed to the
flour buyers price but only if he can raise the ash content of the flour a
couple of points (0.02%).

Protein:
The amount of protein in a food material is usually determined by
measuring the nitrogen content of the material and multiplying that value
by a factor. The nitrogen content of a given protein varies depending on
its source. For milk products a factor of 6.38 is used, for most cereal
grains the factor is 6.25, and in wheat products the factor is 5.70. These
factors depend on the percentage of nitrogen in the respective proteins.
The flour protein content is an important parameter for bread flour. Flours
containing higher protein contents are more expensive than flours of lower
protein content. Likewise, flours with very low proteins for cakes are also
more expensive. There is usually, but not always, a good correlation
between protein content and bakery performance of a flour.
The classic procedure to determine the nitrogen was the Kjeldahl
procedure. This involved digesting the sample in concentrated sulfuric
acid, then neutralizing the acid with concentrated sodium hydroxide,
followed by distillation of the ammonia (derived from the nitrogen in the

protein) into a standard acid. The procedure worked well, however it was
an environmental nightmare. In addition to the strong acid and base, the
catalysts used to speed the digestion included such materials as mercury
and selenium. It should surprise no one that the procedure is seldom used
today.
The Kjeldahl procedure has been replaced by the Dumas combustion
procedure. In the original Dumas procedure the sample is mixed with
cupric oxide and heated in a stream of carbon dioxide in a combustion
tube packed with cupric oxide and copper metal. The organic material is
converted to carbon dioxide, water and nitrogen. The gas stream is led
into 50% potassium hydroxide. This absorbs the carbon dioxide and any
oxides of sulfur, leaving only nitrogen as a gas. The volume of nitrogen is
then determined. Various machines have been developed to carry out the
analysis automatically. The percent nitrogen is then converted to protein
using the appropriate factor. Both the Dumas combustion and the Kjeldahl
procedures estimate the quantity (total amount) of protein and not the
protein quality. As discussed elsewhere, the quantity of protein is
extremely important in the baking performance of a flour.

Free Fatty Acids:

The level of free fatty acids in flour milled from sound wheat is very low.
However, if either the wheat or the flour is subjected to poor storage
conditions (high moisture and/or high temperature), enzymes will degrade
the native grain lipids and produce free fatty acids. Thus, the level of free
fatty acids is a good measure of the storage conditions of either the grain
or the flour. Flours with high levels of free fatty acids will be more
subjected to rancidity than will sound flours. This is of little importance in
bread but quite important in dry products (cookies, crackers, croutons,
pretzels, etc.).
The procedure for determining free fatty acids is quite simple. The lipids
are extracted with a suitable solvent such as petroleum ether. The
petroleum ether is then evaporated off and the lipid is dispersed in a
toluene-alcohol mixture and titrated with standard potassium hydroxide.

Flour Color:
Flour color is important because it affects the crumb color of the finished
product. The color of the flour used for variety breads, that have a dark
color because of non-wheat components in the formula, is not important.

Unbleached flours have a creamy color because of the presence of

carotenoid pigments in the endosperm. The level of these pigments and
therefore the color of the flour will vary from one flour to another. The level
of pigments is under genetic control. The pigments can be readily
bleached with benzyl peroxide (mixed with the dry flour at the mill) or by
enzyme active soy flour in the bread formula.
Flour color can be judged by visual comparison with a standard patent
flour. In the Pekar (slick test), the sample flour is slicked alongside the
standard sample and their colors compared visually. This procedure is
also useful to determine if the sample is contaminated with bran.
In the procedure, 10-15 grams of the flour to be tested is placed on a
glass, plastic, or metal plate. The surface of the flour is smoothed with a
clean flour slick to a wedge approximately one-fourth inch thick at the top
end of the flour sample down to a thin film at the bottom edge of the plate.
The sides of the flour sample are trimmed so they form a straight edge.
Next, similarly slick a second flour besides the first making certain that the
two flours join and a straight edge forms between the two samples. If
addition flours are to be compared, they can be placed on the plate next
to the other flours and slicked so that there is one continuous wedge of
all the flours, with a distinct line of demarcation between them. Any color
differences between the samples can then be readily evaluated.
Color difference attributable to bran can be further accentuated by
submerging the same samples at an angle into fresh clean water until air
bubbles cease to rise (1-2 minutes). The plate is then carefully removed
and placed in a warm place for the surface to dry. The relative intensity of
the sample colors can then be noted after the surface has dried. The
above experiment can also be carried out by dripping the glass plate
containing freshly prepared flour wedges into a solution containing
pyrocatechin. The bran contains the enzyme polyphenol oxidize that will
convert the pyrocatechin into brown pigments. After the surface has dried,
the samples are inspected for the presence of bran specks.
A number of instruments have been developed to measure the color of
solids and foods. Although they may be useful with flour and baked
products, they have not been readily accepted by the milling or baking
industries.

Enzyme Activity:
Although flour contains a large number of enzymes, only a few are
measured and/or controlled. Clearly, the most important enzymes in bread

flour are the amylases. Beta amylase is found in sufficient quantities in all
flours. It has no action on native starch granules but does attack
gelatinized and damaged starch. It acts from the non-reducing end of the
gelatinized starch chain to produce maltose. It cannot go past a branch
point so its action is stopped with a large part of the molecule still intact.
This is called the beta limit dextrin. It will convert about 30% of the
amylase and 45% of the amylopectin to maltose.
The other amylase of importance in wheat flour is -amylase. Flour milled
from sound wheat contains little or no -amylase. Bread produced from
flours with low levels of -amylase will be low in volume and have a rough
textured crumb. Thus, it is common to add malted barley or malted wheat
flour to increase the -amylase activity. Some millers will add fungal
amylase preparations to increase the -amylase activity. This requires a
modified method of analysis.
Although sound grain contains low levels of -amylase, the level of
activity increases rapidly if the grain is sprouted. After the grain is mature,
raising the moisture content (i.e. rain) may cause the grain to lose its
dormancy and it may start to sprout while still in the field before harvest.
This greatly increases the level of -amylase and other enzymes.

-Amylase Activity:
-Amylase breaks the -1 4 bonds in starch in a more or less random
attack. It is not truly random as it does not break those bonds near an -1
6 branch point. Because of its attack pattern, each break dramatically
reduces the size of the resulting dextrin. As a result the viscosity of the
starch-water paste decreases rapidly. This is why -amylase is sometimes
referred to as the liquefying enzyme. Because of the rapid decrease in
viscosity with each bond broken, measurement of viscosity is a sensitive
measure of enzyme activity. The following three methods to measure amylase activity are all viscosity measuring procedures.

Falling Number:
The falling number apparatus consists of a boiling water bath, matched
test tubes (to conduct heat at the same rate), a stirrer, a stirring
apparatus, and a timing mechanism. Flour plus a known amount of
excess water is placed in a test tube and shaken to disperse the flour. The
tube is placed in the apparatus that stirs the sample as if it is heated. At
the end of stirring, the stirrer is dropped from the top position. The number

of seconds required for the stirrer to fall through the flour-water paste is
the falling number.
Sound flour will have a falling number of 400 seconds or greater.
Increased enzyme activity will decrease the falling number. Flour milled
from badly sprouted wheat may have falling numbers of 50 to 100 sec.
Bakery flours are generally adjusted to 250-300 seconds. The procedure
is rapid and reasonably reproducible. It can be used for either wholewheat meal or flour.
Amylograph:
In this procedure, flour and a buffer solution are stirred in a rotating bowl
that is heated by an air bath. The sample is heated from room
temperature to 95C (203F) at a rate of 1.5C/minute. If one is only
interested in the -amylase activity, the test can be ended when the slurry
reaches 95C (203F). If the flour contains no -amylase activity the
viscosity (consistency) of the sample will continue to increase as the
temperature rises to 95C. Optimally treated bread flours are in the range
of 400-600 BU. If there is increased enzyme activity, the curve will peak at
a lower viscosity (consistency) and at a lower temperature. The peak
height is taken as the measure of enzyme activity. The amyl graph
procedure is relatively slow and requires a relatively are sample. The
procedure is reproducible and still widely used to control the level of malt
addition.

Rapid ViscoAnalyzer (RVA):

The RVA was developed as a faster and more rugged version of the amyl
graph. Stimulating the amyl graph, the temperature control can be
programmed to heat at various rates. This viscosity is determined by the
load on the stirring motor. As is the case with the amyl graph, the height of
the viscosity vs. temperature curve is related to the -amylase activity of
the sample. Because of the flexibility in controlling heating/cooling profile,
the RVA has found many uses in cereal laboratories in addition to
determining -amylase activity. The RVA can also stimulate the falling
number method when samples are heated at 95C (203F) for three
minutes. Stirring number is reported as the viscosity at the tests end.

Proteolytic Activity:

 Proteolytic enzymes hydrolyze proteins. Proteolytic activity can be divided

into two basic types. Some enzymes hydrolyze an amino acid from the
end of a protein molecule while other proteolytic enzymes attack the
protein chain internally. The attack is not random but instead occurs
between specific amino acids. The two types of enzyme are classified as
exo- (which releases amino acids from the exterior) and endo- (which
breaks the protein chain internally).

Wet gluten:
Wet gluten provides a quantitative measure of the gluten forming proteins
in flour that are primarily responsible for its dough mixing and baking
properties.

SHELF LIFE OF BISCUITS

How
long
do
Biscuit
last? Most
cookies
are
made
of sugar, butter, flour and an unlimited number of other ingredients.
The shelf life of Biscuits depends on a variety of factors, such as the sell
by date, the preparation method and how the cookies were stored.
Because of their relatively low cost and high calorie density, cookies are a
popular and very portable dessert.

Table(i):

Pantry

{Unopened}

F
r
e
e
z
e

Past Printed
Date

Bakery Biscuit last for

2-3 Days

Packaged Biscuit (Soft) last for

1-2 Months

Packaged Biscuit(Hard) last for

1-2 Months

P
a
st
P
ri
n
t
e
d
D
a
t
e
4
5
M
o
n
t
h
s
4
5
M
o
n
t
h
s
4
5

 (Opened)

Pantry

M
o
n
t
h
s
F
r
e
e
z
e
r

Shelf Life of Biscuits

How long do biscuits last?

When properly stored, the shelf life of most cookies past their best by
date is approximately of course, all foods last for a shorter period of time if
they are not stored properly. But remember, cookies, like a lot of other
baked, usually have a sell by date or a best before date and not a use by
date. Because of this distinction, you may safely use them to satisfy your
sweet tooth even after the best before date has lapsed.

How to store biscuits to extend their shelf life?

Proper food storage is the key to extending the expiration date of food.
You can help keep biscuit dough fresh by storing it in an air-tight container
in the fridge. Once prepared, cookies should be stored in a tightly closed
container or wrapped with plastic wrap to keep out air and other
contaminants. For a long-term option, you can freeze your cookies while
preserving their taste if you use an air-tight freezer safe container. Some
benefits of proper food storage include eating healthier, cutting food costs
and helping the environment by avoiding waste.

 Preservation of Biscuits

Keeping biscuits fresh is a trick that many bakers or cookie-lovers would

like to learn. To preserve the freshness of cookies, you'll have to store
them appropriately, with the type of cookies that they are in mind. Read
the following tips to learn how to extend cookies' shelf life and keep them
edible.

1. Store soft biscuits in containers with very tight lids.

Tight lids keep moisture out of the
container and can keep cookies from
becoming too soggy to eat.

2. Place hard biscuits in containers that have easily removable lids.

The traditional cookie jar is a good
example of this type of container.
The little ventilation that cookie jars
allow can keep the cookies hard and
crisp.

3. Separate your biscuits with

wax paper if you need to layer
them in a container.
Keeping wax paper in between
cookies prevents cookies from
sticking together and crumbling
when you try to remove them.

4. Put different types of biscuits in different containers.

Avoid the temptation to store cookies
of all types in 1 container. Doing so
increases the likelihood that scents
and flavors will transfer.

5. Freeze your biscuits if you want them to stay fresh for as long as
half a year.
Before freezing cookies, be sure to wrap them in freezer-safe plastic and
place the cookies in an airtight container. This procedure protects against
freezer burn, preserves flavors, and guards against the unwanted
absorption of scents of other foods in your freezer.
Important TIPS:
If you've baked your own cookies, be sure to allow them to cool
completely before storing them. This helps keep cookies fresh because
extra heat in a small, confined space speeds up the process of spoilage.
Generally, once cookies have reached room temperature, they are safe to
store.
If you're planning on shipping freshly baked cookies, pack them with a
piece of bread and send them the same day that they are baked. This can
preserve their freshness until they reach their destination. You can also
use wax paper to help keep cookies separated from each other and apart
from the piece of bread.
Cookies can stay fresh for about 7 days if you store them properly and at
room temperature.
To keep home-baked cookies soft naturally, try adding pieces of dried fruit
to their recipes.
If you find that your cookies are too dry, place a piece of apple in the
container in which they are stored. The apple's components can help
restore cookies' softness. Similarly, if youre hard cookies become too
soft, place a piece of bread into their container. The bread will naturally
soak up the unwanted moisture that is making them unnecessarily soft.
Replace the piece of bread with a fresh slice when it becomes stale.

 Containers made out of tin or durable food-grade plastic are best to store
cookies.
Warnings:
Moist cookies, or cookies that require moisture to remain fresh, often
present mold faster than crisp cookies

Results and Discussion

Flour composition:
Proximate composition data of mung bean and chickpea flours was
shown in Table 4. Mung bean flour was found to have high moisture, ash,
carbohydrate and crude fiber content as compared to chickpea flour.
Protein content was higher in the chickpea flour.

Table 4
Mung bean flour (%)

Chickpea flour (%)

Moisture

11.500.30

9.530.20

Ash

3.700.01

2.530.03

Fat

0.800.01

1.250.10

Protein

16.100.10

19.900.10

Crude fiber

3.700.04

2.850.02

Carbohydra
te

67.900.11

66.800.10

Proximate Composition of Mung Bean and Chickpea Flour

Biscuit composition:
Table 5 showed that there is significant difference (p<0.05) between the
cookies samples in terms of protein, ash, crude fiber, carbohydrate and
calorie content. Protein content was shown to be significantly highest
(P<0.05) in chickpea cookies at 7.04%. Ash content was significantly

highest (P<0.05) in mung bean cookies and this is related to the high
mineral content. Mung bean cookies was significantly lower (P<0.05) in
calorie content as compared to other samples.
Table 5
Mung
bean
Biscuit (%)

Control
(%)

Chickpea
biscuit(%)

Moisture

2.44

2.75

2.92

Ash

0.82

1.28

1.12

Fat

24.43

23.92

24.36

Protein

5.65

6.55

7.04

Crude
fiber

1.95

1.69

1.56

Carbohydr
ate

66.66

65.50

64.56

Calorie(kc
al/100g)

509.11

503.4

505.64

Proximate Composition of Three Types of Biscuit

SENSORY EVALUATION

The sensory scores of the cookies were presented in Table 6. Cookies

prepared from legumes were rated high in flavor, crispiness, aftertaste,
color and overall acceptability with significant difference (p<0.05) as
compared to control. Although after taste was found to be pronounced in
the mung bean and chickpea cookies but these cookies are significantly
acceptable than the control. McWatters (1978) suggested that the bean
flavour in legumes flour could be reduced by exposing the material to
moist heat. The aftertaste could have resulted from the bean flavour from
the legumes. In spite of 35% legumes flour substitution, the cookies were
scored high by the panelists. This was contradicting with the result
reported by Hoojjat and Zabik (1984), whereby the cookies were scored
low with more than 10% sesame seed.
Table 6

Control

Mung

Chickpea

bean
Color

6.46

7.09

6.64

Aroma

7.09

6.27

6.64

Flavor

6.00

6.91

7.45

Crispiness

7.09

7.00

7.45

Aftertaste

5.09

6.45

6.91

Acceptability
(overall)

6.64

7.00

7.36

Results of Sensory Evaluation of Three Types Biscuits

PANEL TEST

A twelve member panel (4 males, 8 females) comprising of students from

the Food Technology Department evaluated the samples using the 9
points hedonic scale method: 9 (excellent) to 1 (very poor). Evaluation of
the cookies was conducted 24 hours after baking. Sensory testing was
done on all 6 types of cookies. Each panelist was presented with 6 coded
randomized samples. Each sample was coded with three random digit
numbers and the positions of the samples were randomized. Panelists
were seated in individual sensory booths. Each sample was replicated
twice. The score were analyzed by the panel members.

CONCLUSION
Quality in the food manufacturing industry can be defined in different
ways. One definition of quality is meeting or exceeding customer
expectations and requirements. This aspect of quality certainly applies to
the food industry as customers expect nutrition, good taste and pleasing
appearance in the products they purchase. Another definition of quality
that is applicable to the food industry is the assurance that the product is
safe to eat and that the food is sanitary and has a maintained integrity that
is without physical or chemical contamination. Many consumers expect
pleasing appearance and taste, and that the food is safe to eat.

There are two parameters that can be used to address quality within the
food industry. The first is Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA),
which is widely used within multiple industries to improve and manage
overall quality. The second is more commonly used for the food safety
aspects of quality, Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP),

which identifies potential safety risks in food products and proactively

seeks to reduce or eliminate them. When integrated, these powerful tools
can improve both quality performance and conformance within the food
industry.

HACCP originated with the Pillsbury Company when they were asked to
supply food for the space Program in 1959. They developed a non-testing
approach to food safety to ensure the safety of foods that the astronauts
would take with them on spaceflights. It was introduced to the U.S. food
industry in 1971 at the National Conference on Food Protection.

Since then, the HACCP program has grown to be a staple food protection
program in the United States and internationally. It is a mandatory
program for all U.S. meat, egg and fruit juice producers. The U.S. Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) and the U.S. Department of Agriculture
(USDA) also encourage it for other food producers in the U.S.

Incorporation of chickpea flour and mung bean flour into wheat flour did
not change the functional properties but increases the protein, RS content
and acceptability of cookies.

REFERENCES

HACCP (www.fao.org),FAO corporate document repository produced by

agriculture & consumer protection.
Food Safety
ISO 22000 and Food Safety Management.
ISO 22000(ISO management system, www.iso.org/ims)
ISO 22000 (www.iso.org)
ISO 22000(www.nqa.com)
lynnescountrykitchen.net/cookies/ingredients.html
Katy linsao, Victoria sauder, Chris and others.
Cies food safety conference Barcelona, February 2009
www.ifsqn.com

 Physicochemical and organoleptic properties of cookies incorporated with

legume flour, food technology division, school of industrial technology,
university sains Malaysia, 11800 penang, Malaysia.
Food Processing & Preservation, publication_2008(by_B.Sivasankar)