Repeat Sprint Ability

Anthony N. Turner, MSc, CSCS*D1 and Perry F. Stewart, MSc, CSCS2

London Sport Institute, Middlesex University, London, United Kingdom; and 2Sport Science and Medicine
department, Queens Park Rangers Football Club, London, United Kingdom

SUMMARY
SPRINT SPEED IS RELATED TO
THE ABILITY TO DEPLETE LARGE
AMOUNTS OF HIGH-ENERGY
PHOSPHATES AT A FAST RATE.
TO SPRINT REPEATEDLY,
THE AEROBIC SYSTEM MUST
RESYNTHESIZE POLYMERASE
CHAIN REACTION, REMOVE
ACCUMULATED INTRACELLULAR
INORGANIC PHOSPHATE, AND
OXIDIZE LACTATE DURING REST
PERIODS. WHETHER THIS CAN
BE APPRECIABLY IMPROVED
VIA A HIGH V O2MAX REMAINS
CONTROVERSIAL. HOWEVER, IT IS
LIKELY IMPROVED VIA ANAEROBIC
QUALITIES SUCH AS STRENGTH,
POWER, AND SPEED, ALONG
WITH THE ATHLETES VELOCITY
AT ONSET OF BLOOD LACTATE
ACCUMULATION. WHEN
REPORTING REPEAT SPRINT
ABILITY TEST RESULTS, TOTAL
OR MEAN TIME SHOULD BE USED.

INTRODUCTION

epeat sprint ability (RSA)

describes the ability of an athlete
to recover and maintain maximal effort during subsequent sprints,
an attribute considered important to
team sports. It is often trained and measured via high-intensity sprints, interspersed with brief recovery bouts
(#30 seconds). Most strength and conditioning coaches agree that for validity and dynamic correspondence, the
RSA training session or testing protocol
should resemble the work to rest ratio
(W:R) and movement mechanics of
the sport in question. What is less clear,
are the physiological variables most
responsible for improving RSA. This,

coupled with how to report results, will

be the topic of this review. For the purposes of this article, the term sprint
refers to efforts of #6 seconds, whereby
peak power/velocity could be maintained throughout the repetition. This
sprint duration is considered valid as
a recent review of RSA by Spencer et al.
(35) found that field-based team sports
are consistent in mean sprint time and
distance, 23 seconds and 1020 m,
respectively.
THE BIOCHEMISTRY OF REPEAT
SPRINT ABILITY

To appreciate RSA, we must first look

at the biochemical production of power.
From a metabolic perspective, power is
dictated by the rate at which adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) is used to fuel muscle contractions. For example, sprint
speed is related to the ability to deplete
large amounts of high-energy phosphates at a fast rate (20). Thus, power
is a reflection of the intensity of muscle
contraction and the rate at which ATP is
being used (37). The human muscle
typically stores 2025 mmol/kg dry
muscle of ATP, at a peak ATP turnover
rate of around 15 mmol/kg dry muscle
per second, which is enough to fuel 12
seconds of maximal work (17). In fact,
ATP is never depleted (as it is used for
basic cellular functioning too), depleting
by 45% in a 30-second sprint (11) and
between 14 and 32% in a 10-second
sprint (24). As ATP stores are broken
down, various metabolic pathways
(energy systems) collaborate to resynthesize ATP and maintain peak rates
of turnover. The contribution of each
energy system is determined by exercise
intensity and duration of rest period (18).
The energy systems are phosphocreatine (PCr), anaerobic glycolysis, and
the aerobic/oxidative system; these are
briefly discussed in turn.

Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association

PHOSPHOCREATINE

There are around 80 mmol/kg dry

muscle of PCr stored in the muscle
(17) and with a turnover rate of around
9 mmol ATP/kg dry muscle per second (23); stores are largely depleted
within 10 seconds of sprinting (18).
However, as with ATP, because of
the contribution made by the other
pathways, PCr is not normally depleted.
For example, more than 30 seconds
PCr is only depleted by 6080% (11),
10 seconds 4070% (24), 6 seconds
3055% (11), and 2.5 seconds (of electrical muscle stimulation) 26% (23);
these results suggest that the ATP for
short sprints is also heavily subsidized
by anaerobic glycolysis.
PCr is resynthesized by the aerobic
system, and thus, its contribution to
subsequent sprints is governed by the
length of rest period; it resynthesizes at
around 1.3 mmol/kg dry muscle per
second (17). Approximately 84% of
PCr stored are restored in 2 minutes,
89% in 4 minutes, and 100% in
8 minutes (19,22). Because the recovery of power output maps the time
course of PCr resynthesis (10,30,33)
and is attenuated by creatine supplementation (25,40), PCr availability is
likely to be a major factor governing
the rate of fatigue (18).
ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS

During brief maximal sprints, the rapid

drop in PCr is offset by increased activation of glycolysis. Glycolysis
describes the breakdown of glycogen
in the muscle or glucose in the blood
to resynthesize ATP. The maximal
turnover rate of ATP production via
KEY WORDS:

multiple sprints; energy systems;

recovery

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37

Repeat Sprint Ability

glycolysis is around 59 mmol/kg

dry muscle per second (17,23,24,28).
This system involves multiple enzymatic reactions, so it is not as fast as
the PCr system, but the 2 combine
to maintain an ATP turnover rate of
1114 mmol/kg dry muscle per second
(11,17). The rapid onset of anaerobic
glycolysis with maximal work can be
noted by studies that report high values
(.4 mmol) of lactate within 10 seconds
(11,24). Surprisingly, values as high as
40 mmol/kg dry muscle (16) and 4
mmol/kg dry muscle (23) have been
recorded after just 6-second sprint
cycling and 1.28 seconds of electrical
stimulation, respectively.
With intramuscular stores of around 300
mmol/kg dry muscle (17), glycogen
availability is not likely to majorly compromise ATP provision during repeated
sprints (using protocols similar to current
investigations) (18). Instead, it may be
the progressive changes in metabolic
environment (as noted by the aforementioned high lactate values, also see
Fatigue section) that ultimately cause
a reduction in ATP provision via this
system. For example, Gaitanos et al.
(17), using 10 3 6-second sprints with
30-second rest periods, found that the
first sprint produced ATP using 50%
PCr and 44% glycolysis, whereas the
tenth used 80% PCr and 16% glycolysis;
this was accompanied by a 27% loss in
power output, an 11.3 mmol/L increase
in lactate, and a significant drop in ATP
production rate (Table 1). Of note, in
field-based team sports, glycogenloading strategies are important in
minimizing performance decrements
(35). For example, in soccer, players
with the lowest glycogen concentration at half time covered less distance

in the second half than those with the

highest concentrations (31). However, the significance of such loading
may only become apparent as sprint
frequency increases and rest periods
become long enough to again fully
engage anaerobic glycolysis.
CAUSES OF FATIGUE

The anaerobic conversion of pyruvate yields lactate and H+, not always
lactic acid (the lactic acid molecule
cannot exist at the physiological pH
of 7); thus, despite the high correlation, lactate is not the cause of fatigue
(12). In fact, lactate can be used as an
energy substrate via gluconeogenesis
(formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources), where it is transported in the blood to the liver,
referred to as the Cori cycle, or converted within the muscle fiber itself. It
is likely that H+ accumulation via lactate formation decreases intracellular
pH and inhibits glycolytic enzymes
(such as phosphofructokinase) and
the binding of calcium to troponin
and thus muscle excitation-contraction coupling (26). Glaister (18) summarizes that fatigue may also be a
consequence of a lack of ATP for
actin-myosin coupling, NA+/K+
pumping, and Ca2+ uptake by the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). Also, intracellular Pi accumulation may interfere
with muscle function by inhibiting
Ca2+ release from SR, control actinmyosin cross-bridge interactions, and
thereby regulate force production.
AEROBIC METABOLISM

This system contributes to ATP provision sooner than commonly believed.

For example, during the first 6 seconds

of a 30-second maximal sprint (28) or

the first 5 seconds of a 3-minute intense
bout (.120% V O2max) (7), an ATP
turnover rate of 1.3 mmol ATP/kg
dry muscle per second and 0.7 mmol
ATP/kg/s, respectively, was hypothesized, both contributing around 10%
of total energy produced. If sprints are
repeated, the V O2 of successive sprints
will increase (17,35) if recovery periods
are not sufficient to resynthesize PCr,
oxidize lactate, and remove accumulated intracellular Pi (via adenosine
diphosphate phosphorylation). However, although V O2 uptake may increase
with successive sprints, the supply of
ATP made by the aerobic system is significantly less than required for repeated
sprints (17) and uses a lower ATP turnover rate. As such, although this could
guard against a buildup of fatiguing
by-products (and sprint frequency/
duration can be increased), it would
not be able to sustain power output
(i.e., sprint performance).
RSA tested under hyperoxic (hypobaric
chamber) (14,21) conditions or those
with enhanced oxygen availability (via
erythropoietin injection) (3) reports
superior results; the opposite is true
for hypoxic conditions (4). The consensus is that a greater quantity of PCr at
the start of each sprint would reduce the
demand on anaerobic glycolysis (and
concomitant fatiguing by-products, e.g.,
H+ and Pi) and enhance ATP turnover
(18). Glaister (18) concludes that the
key role of the aerobic system during
repeated sprints is the return to homeostasis during rest. The natural assumption is that aerobic endurance training,
by virtue of increasing V O2max, will
increase recovery rates and thus
improve RSA; this is discussed later.

Table 1
Estimates of ATP by Gaitanos et al. (17) after 10 3 6-second cycle sprints, with 30-second rest periods
ATP production (mmol/kg dry muscle)

ATP production rate (mmol/kg dry muscle/s)

Sprint 1

Sprint 10

Sprint 1

Sprint 10

Total

89.3 6 13.4

31.6 6 14.7

14.9 6 2.2

5.3 6 2.5

PCr

44.3 6 4.7

25.3 6 9.7

7.4 6 0.8

4.2 6 1.6

Glycolysis

39.4 6 9.5

5.1 6 8.9

6.6 6 1.6

0.9 6 1.5

38

VOLUME 35 | NUMBER 1 | FEBRUARY 2013

SPRINT DURATION, RECOVERY

TIME, AND REPEAT SPRINT
ABILITY

In summary, maximal effort sprints rely

on a fast and constant turnover of ATP,
powered by the PCr system and anaerobic glycolysis (17). As such, sprint
speed is related to the ability to deplete
large amounts of high-energy phosphates at a fast rate. If performance is
to be maintained across successive
sprints, rest periods must be sufficient
enough to allow the aerobic system to
resynthesize PCr, remove accumulated
intracellular inorganic phosphate (Pi),
and oxidize lactate. It is clear that sprint
duration, recovery time, and their interaction affect RSA and energy system
contribution. For example, sprints of
around 5 seconds performed every
120 seconds show no significant decreases in performance after 15 sprints.
Only when recovery is reduced to 90
seconds does fatigue significantly affect
sprint time, but this is only after the
11th sprint (5). Also, Balsom et al. (6)
found that 40 3 15-m sprints (around
2.6 seconds), with 30-second rest, could
be completed without any reduction in
performance. However, 30-m (4.5 seconds) and 40-m (6 seconds) sprint times
increased significantly, and after only
the third 40-m sprint, times were already
significantly longer.
TRAINING REPEAT SPRINT ABILITY

Having discussed the biochemical factors governing RSA, the aim of the following sections is to briefly outline how
we can train to improve RSA: whether
increasing aerobic power (V O2max),
anaerobic power (speed/strength/
power), or lactate threshold is beneficial.
This will be followed by suggestions for
reporting results from RSA testing protocols and the requirements for future
research within this area.
VO 2MAX

Because rest periods are often too

short, the assumption is that a higher
aerobic capacity (V O2max) will lead to
quicker recovery and thus improved
RSA. However, there are conflicting
findings regarding this relationship,
which appear largely attributable to

the RSA test used. For example, a moderate correlation (r 5 20.35) between
V O2max and RSA was found when
using 8 3 40-m sprints with 30 seconds
of active recovery between sprints (1)
but not 6 3 20-m sprints with 20 seconds of recovery between sprints (2).
The discrepancy is likely attributable to
the length of the sprints used, as this
may alter the contribution of the aerobic system (5). In essence, V O2max has
not been reported to relate to RSA
when sprints of less than 40 m (or 6 seconds) have been used (15). Also, in
protocols using W:R $ 1:5, there
may be sufficient recovery provided
for the aerobic system to resynthesize
ATP and PCr despite fitness levels.
Although the issue of whether RSA is
affected by a high V O2max seems
dependent on the protocol used, one
must consider the validity of the tests
to the sport in question (discussed
later: see Ecological Validity and
Future Research section).
LACTATE THRESHOLD

Most studies use V O2max as the major

indicator of aerobic fitness. However,
because V O2max is largely determined
by central factors (8), RSA may more
strongly correlate with peripheral factors (35). For example, Da Silva et al.
(15) showed that an RSA test consisting of 7 3 35-m sprints (involving a
change of direction), and a betweensprint recovery period of 25 seconds,
produced high values of lactate (15.4 6
2.2 mmol/L), thus demonstrating the
large contribution of anaerobic glycolysis. Logically, Da Silva et al. (15) found
that the velocity at onset of blood lactate accumulation (vOBLA) better correlated with RSA performance (r 5
20.49); vOBLA reflects peripheral aerobic training adaptations and is associated with an increased capillary density
and capacity to transport lactate and H+
ions (9,39). Therefore, to improve RSA,
it appears prudent to target the development of vOBLA.
ANAEROBIC POWER

Da Silva et al. (15) (protocol aforementioned) and Pyne et al. (29) (using 6 3
30-m sprints with 20-second rest)

found that the strongest predictor of

RSA was anaerobic power, that is,
the fastest individual sprint time, and
this explained 78% of the variance
and had a relationship (r) of 0.66,
respectively. Results suggest that in
addition to training targeting the
improvement of vOBLA, it should also
focus on improving sprint speed,
strength, and power. Also, type II muscle fibers contain higher amounts of
PCr than type I (32), suggesting that
individuals with a greater percentage
of fast-twitch fibers (either through
genetics or through high-intensity
training) may be able to replenish
ATP faster via the PCr system when
working anaerobically.
ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY AND
FUTURE RESEARCH

Although mean values for W:R are

available, they do not suggest the typical movement patterns. This is likely
to have a significant effect, as changes
in direction, especially those involving
large eccentric contractions and the
need to stop, will affect energy expenditure. Also, most studies investigating
RSA use passive rest during recovery
periods (35) despite active recovery,
showing more promise in reducing
the drop in performance. For example,
an active recovery (versus passive) consisting of cycling at submaximal intensities significantly increased peak
power using 8 3 6-second cycle sprints
with 30-second rest (34). The active
recovery may have reduced muscle acidosis by speeding up the removal of
lactate from the working muscles,
and this would also increase its use as
a fuel source (34). Because the majority
of field-based team sports involve
active recovery, its athletes may indirectly be employing this method (35).
Another significant issue with the validity of RSA testing is the fact that the
players from most sports are expected
to maintain RSA over many more
sprints than the number used in many
of the current protocols. Also, sprints are
not done with a unique and constant
W:R. Therefore, the significance of a high
V O2max may be more important only
after a certain number of sprints (38).

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39

Repeat Sprint Ability

The method of data analysis for RSA

testing is largely a question of 2 alternatives: reporting total (or mean) sprint
time for all sprints or the rate of fatigue
(or performance drop-off). The latter
can be reported by 1 of 2 methods:
sprint decrement (Sdec) or the fatigue
index (FI). The formula (Equations
1 and 2) for each, according to Spencer
et al. (35), is listed below. Unlike the FI,
the Sdec takes into account all sprints
and is less influenced by a good or
bad start or finish (35).

lactate during rest periods. Whether this

ability can be appreciably improved via
a high V O2max still remains controversial. It is likely that sports that require
repeated high-intensity efforts over
a prolonged period, in which athletes
are required to cover .40 meters per
interval and regularly produce efforts
in excess of 6 seconds, would indeed
benefit from training targeting its development. Based on the above, RSA (as
tested by the studies presented) can be
improved via anaerobic qualities such
as strength, power, and speed, along
with the athletes vOBLA; this is
regardless of the between-sport variability in RSA demands. When reporting
RSA test results, total or mean time
should be used.

Sdec % 5 S1 S2 S3
. Sfinal =S1


3 number of sprints

Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding:

The authors report no conflicts of interest
and no source of funding.

Logically, researchers are skeptical to

conclude that V O2max is not an important variable to RSA until protocols of
match duration are performed (13).
REPORTING RESULTS

2 1 3 100

1
REFERENCES

FI % 5 Sslowest


2 Sfastest =Sfastest 3 100:
(2)
To improve reliability, Spencer et al.
(35) advise that 5 minutes before testing, athletes complete a single criterion
sprint. During the first sprint, athletes
must achieve at least 95% of this score.
Should they fail, the test is terminated
and restarted after another 5-minute
break. Although total (or mean) sprint
time demonstrates good reliability
(CV, , 3%), indices of fatigue are much
less reliable (CVs, 1150%); therefore,
the former should be used (27,36).
CONCLUSIONS

Sprint speed is related to the ability to

deplete large amounts of high-energy
phosphates at a fast rate. This is fueled
by the PCr system and anaerobic
glycolysis. Significant involvement
(.10%) from the aerobic system would
reduce ATP production rate and thus
sprint speed. However, the ability to
sprint repeatedly in quick succession
is determined by the aerobic systems
ability to resynthesize PCr, remove
accumulated intracellular Pi, and oxidize

40

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