1)

Limestone

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which
are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Most limestone is composed of
skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral, forams and molluscs.
Limestone makes up about 10% of the total volume of all sedimentary rocks. The solubility of
limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes, in which water erodes the
limestone over thousands to millions of years. Most cave systems are through limestone bedrock.
Limestone has numerous uses: as a building material, as aggregate for the base of roads, as white
pigment or filler in products such as toothpaste or paints, and as a chemical feedstock.
The first geologist to distinguish limestone from dolomite was Belsazar Hacquet in 1778.[1]

Description
Like most other sedimentary rocks, most limestone is composed of grains. Most grains in
limestone are skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera. Other
carbonate grains comprising limestones are ooids, peloids, intraclasts, and extraclasts. These
organisms secrete shells made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these shells behind after the
organisms die.
Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert (chalcedony, flint,
jasper, etc.) or siliceous skeletal fragment (sponge spicules, diatoms, radiolarians), and varying
amounts of clay, silt and sand (terrestrial detritus) carried in by rivers.
Some limestones do not consist of grains at all, and are formed completely by the chemical
precipitation of calcite or aragonite, i.e. travertine. Secondary calcite may be deposited by
supersaturated meteoric waters (groundwater that precipitates the material in caves). This
produces speleothems, such as stalagmites and stalactites. Another form taken by calcite is
oolitic limestone, which can be recognized by its granular (oolite) appearance.
The primary source of the calcite in limestone is most commonly marine organisms. Some of
these organisms can construct mounds of rock known as reefs, building upon past generations.
Below about 3,000 meters, water pressure and temperature conditions cause the dissolution of
calcite to increase nonlinearly, so limestone typically does not form in deeper waters (see
lysocline). Limestones may also form in lacustrine and evaporite depositional environments.[2][3]

Calcite can be dissolved or precipitated by groundwater, depending on several factors, including

the water temperature, pH, and dissolved ion concentrations. Calcite exhibits an unusual
characteristic called retrograde solubility, in which it becomes less soluble in water as the
temperature increases.
Impurities (such as clay, sand, organic remains, iron oxide, and other materials) will cause
limestones to exhibit different colors, especially with weathered surfaces.
Limestone may be crystalline, clastic, granular, or massive, depending on the method of
formation. Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities in the rock.
When conditions are right for precipitation, calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the
existing rock grains together, or it can fill fractures.
Travertine is a banded, compact variety of limestone formed along streams; particularly where
there are waterfalls and around hot or cold springs. Calcium carbonate is deposited where
evaporation of the water leaves a solution supersaturated with the chemical constituents of
calcite. Tufa, a porous or cellular variety of travertine, is found near waterfalls. Coquina is a
poorly consolidated limestone composed of pieces of coral or shells.
During regional metamorphism that occurs during the mountain building process (orogeny),
limestone recrystallizes into marble.
Limestone is a parent material of Mollisol soil group.

2)

What are porous rocks?

This is because the water can get into the gaps between the grains. Rocks that
absorb water are called porous. Rocks with rounded grains are usually softer and
more crumbly than rocks with interlocking grains. So porous rocks tend to be
softer than non-porous rocks.

What are permeable rocks?

Permeable rocks are those that have large enough interconnected spaces between particles to
allow the movement of gas or liquid through them.
Porosity and Permeability

Two separate characteristics of rocks control how effective they are as aquifers:
Porosity is a measure of how much of a rock is open space. This space can be
between grains or within cracks or cavities of the rock.
Permeability is a measure of the ease with which a fluid (water in this case) can
move through a porous rock.

3)

Weathering

Chemical weathering
The weathering of rocks by chemicals is called chemical weathering. Rainwater is naturally
slightly acidic because carbon dioxide from the air dissolves in it. Minerals in rocks may react
with the rainwater, causing the rock to be weathered.
Some types of rock are easily weathered by chemicals. For example, limestone and chalk are
made of a mineral called calcium carbonate. When acidic rainwater falls on limestone or chalk, a
chemical reaction happens. New soluble substances are formed in the reaction. These are washed
away and the rock is weathered.
Chemical weathering can hollow out caves form and make cliffs fall away.
Some types of rock are not easily weathered by chemicals. For example, granite and gabbro are
hard rocks that are weathered only slowly. Still some of their minerals do react with the acids in
rainwater to form new, weaker substances that crumble and fall away.

Acid rain
When fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas are burned, carbon dioxide and sulphur
dioxide escape into the air. These dissolve in the water in the clouds and make the rainwater
more acidic than normal. When this happens, we call the rain 'acid rain'.
Acid rain makes chemical weathering happen more quickly. Buildings and statues made from
rock are damaged as a result. This is worse when the rock is limestone rather than granite. Acid
rain also kills trees and fish.

4)

Sinkhole

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A sinkhole, also known as a cenote, sink, sink-hole,[1] shakehole,[2] swallet, swallow hole, or
doline (the different terms for sinkholes are often used interchangeably[3]), is a depression or hole
in the ground caused by some form of collapse of the surface layer. Some are caused by karst
processesfor example, the chemical dissolution of carbonate rocks[4] or suffosion processes.[5]
Sinkholes may vary in size from 1 to 600 m (3.3 to 2,000 ft) both in diameter and depth, and
vary in form from soil-lined bowls to bedrock-edged chasms. Sinkholes may be formed
gradually or suddenly, and are found worldwide.[6] On 2 July 2015, scientists reported that active
pits, related to sinkhole collapses and possibly associated with outbursts, have been found on the
comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko by the Rosetta space probe.[7][8]

doline
1. (Physical Geography) a shallow usually funnel-shaped depression of the ground
surface formed by solution in limestone regions

Doline
A doline, sink or sinkhole is a closed depression draining underground in karst areas. It can be
cylindrical, conical, bowl- or dish-shaped. The diametre ranges from a few to many hundreds of
meters.
The name doline comes from dolina, the Slovenian word meaning valley. So this was originally
a colloquial Slovenian word which was used by the geologists to describe a geologic feature.
There are two different mechanisms for the forming of dolines:

solution
The corrosive solution of limestone by rainwater is very high in the area fo crack,
allowing the water to run into the rock. This normally forms the bowlshaped type of
dolines.
The solution produces large amouts of clay (depending on the pureness of the limestone).
This clay is water resistant and sometimes plugs the drainage, so little lakes of rain water
can sometimes be found in dolines, a rare thing in waterless karst areas.

collapse
When a cave grows, there may be a point where the roof of a cavern is not stable enough.

This results in (several) collapses that shape the roof like a dome. This process runs out,
when the shape is able to hold the weight of overlying rocks.
If the impact of this collapse reaches the surface, if the overlying layers are too thin. The
ceiling collapses and a doline is formed. The doline is often a natural entrance to the
cave.

Losing stream
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A losing stream, disappearing stream or influent stream, is a stream or river that loses water
as it flows downstream. The water infiltrates into the ground recharging the local groundwater,
because the water table is below the bottom of the stream channel. This is the opposite of a more
common gaining stream (or effluent stream) which increases in water volume farther down
stream as it gains water from the local aquifer.
Losing streams are common in arid areas.[1] Losing streams are also common in regions of karst
topography where the streamwater may be completely captured by an underground cavern
system, becoming a subterranean river.

LIMESTONE - COCKPIT
Limestone is formed over millions of years from the accumulated skeletons of sea-dwelling
creatures such as mollusc and corals.
As the island of Jamaica slowly subsided beneath the sea during the early Cenozoic, about 45
million years ago, the initial deposits of limestone were contaminated by debris still being
washed off the remaining land area and were given the name Yellow Limestone during the
nineteenth century. This impure limestone lies directly on the eroded remnants of the volcanoes
of the Cretaceous period.
As the island sank completely below sea level, the contaminating run-off from the land area
ceased and pure White Limestone was deposited on top of the Yellow for a period of about thirty
million years. This White Limestone presently covers about 70% of the island. The drawing on
the right shows the present distribution (igneous rocks protruding through the limestone are
colour-coded green and the red boundary delimits the Cockpit Country)

The Cockpit Country comprises much of the Troy-Claremont Limestone Formation, the oldest
layer of the White Limestone Group that was laid down on the Yellow Limestone Group during
the mid Eocene age. The Troy Limestone (to the west) consists of well-bedded to massive
yellow-brown to pink recrystallized limestones and dolomites that are generally unfossiliferous
because it was resubmerged by tectonic activity and has recrystalised. The Claremont Formation
(on the east) is more recent and consists of evenly-bedded, bioclastic, limestones. which are rich
in fossilised molluscs upto five feet in diameter. The Barbecue Bottom fault marks the division
between these two formations.
Low-lying areas and flanks of the Cockpit Country are floored by alluvial clay, derived from the
weathering of limestone.
Clints and Grikes
Due to the solubility of limestone, limestone pavements are associated with some very curious
and unusual landforms. The most characteristic surface feature of limestone pavements is their
division into blocks, called clints, bounded by deep vertical fissures known as grikes. Clints and
grikes form under relatively deep cover of soil where water, carrying carbonic acid which is
formed from dissolved carbon dioxide as well as organic acids from decaying vegetation, picks
out vertical lines of weakness (joints) in the rock. These fissures widen over the years as the
acidic water preferentially attacks the lines of weakness. Grikes take many thousands of years to
form under the soil as the rate of solution is slow.
Over time, the soil on the top of the limestone platform began to disappear down the newly
eroded grikes, and was gradually eroded from the tops of the platforms. Some of the material lost
into the grikes was washed deep into the drainage systems of the limestone pavements through
connecting fissures, leaving open grikes of a metre or more in depth. These erosional processes
were increased when forest clearance and grazing was introduced by humans onto the buried
pavements leading to a more rapid exposure of pavements.

Cave
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A cave or cavern is a hollow place in the ground,[1][2] especially a natural underground space
large enough for a human to enter. Caves form naturally by the weathering of rock and often
extend deep underground. The word "cave" can also refer to much smaller openings such as sea
caves, rock shelters, and grottos.
Speleology is the science of exploration and study of all aspects of caves and the cave
environment. Visiting or exploring caves for recreation may be called caving, potholing, or
spelunking.

Stalactite
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A stalactite (UK /stlktat/, US /stlktat/; from the Greek stalasso, (), "to drip",
and meaning "that which drips") is a type of formation that hangs from the ceiling of caves, hot
springs, or manmade structures such as bridges and mines. Any material which is soluble, can be
deposited as a colloid, or is in suspension, or is capable of being melted, may form a stalactite.
Stalactites may be composed of amberat, lava, minerals, mud, peat, pitch, sand, and sinter.[1][2] A
stalactite is not necessarily a speleothem, though speleothems are the most common form of
stalactite because of the abundance of limestone caves.[
A stalagmite (UK /stlmat/ or US /stlmat/; from the Greek - stalagmits,
from - stalagmias, "dropping, trickling")[1] is a type of rock formation that rises from
the floor of a cave due to the accumulation of material deposited on the floor from ceiling
drippings. Stalagmites may be composed of amberat, lava, minerals, mud, peat, pitch, sand, and
sinter.[2][3]
The corresponding formation hanging down from the ceiling of a cave is a stalactite. Mnemonics
have been developed for which word refers to which type of formation; one is that stalactite has
a C for "ceiling", and stalagmite has a G for "ground".[4]

5)

COCKPIT COUNTRY

Cockpit Country in Jamaica is the type location for cockpit karst. Cockpit Country was the name
given to the area by the British during the First Maroon War (~1730-1738) because it reminded
them of the "cockpit" in the aft lower deck of a man-of-war where the wounded were taken
(MerriamWebster Dictionary gives the "ORIGIN late 16th cent. (sense 2) : from cock 1 + pit 1 .
In the early 18th cent. the term was in nautical use, denoting an area in the aft lower deck of a
man-of-war where the wounded were taken, later coming to mean [the pit or well in a sailing
yacht from which it was steered] ; hence the place housing the controls of other vehicles ( sense
1, early 20th cent.).
The word "karst" derives from 'Kras' in Slovenia:- "a dry, waterless place". Although the Cockpit
Country receives high rainfall annually (1500mm to 2500mm), it is still considered "waterless"
because limestone acts as a sponge: surface water is drained vertically and rapidly and each
cockpit bottom ("sink") is drained by a sinkhole. (seemovie)
Don't hike without a guide! (See one group's experience)

The formation of Cockpit Country started about 12 million

years ago with a faulted limestone plateau when Jamaica
emerged from the sea. The plateau rose to about 600m
(2000ft) above sea level. Erosion of this plateau formed the
regular array of round-topped, conical hills and sinks that we
know today.
There are at least two theories as to how cockpit karst forms
(see movie). The "solution" theory holds that heavy tropical
rainfall washing through a fissured limestone plateau over
millions of years dissolved and eroded the fissures and
washed the debris through the sinkholes eventually out to
sea.A recent researcher measured the orientation of the faults
in the area and found them to be largely aligned along three
primary axes mutually at 120 degrees.
He surmises that a sinkhole forms when three faults
intersect.This theory provides an explanation of the typical,
regularly-spaced, round-topped, conical hills.At the top of the
hill, the water moves slowly so that little erosion takes place;
as the water runs down the hill, it gathers momentum and
also gathers debris so that its scouring action becomes more
and more pronounced. This accounts for the slope being so
steep at the base. Of course, each cockpit has one or several
sinkholes but there is a tendency for these to become blocked
by debris.

One of the puzzles for a layman is how the bottom of each cockpit is so flat: this is because,
during times of heavy rain, water also comes UP the sinkholes and floods the sink or cockpit. It
is this flooding over the millenia which redistributes debris over the entire bottom of the sink.

The other "collapse" theory maintains that the formation and subsequent collapse of cave
systems is the primary mechanism for cockpit karst formation. It is not generally realised that
caves in limestone hills have a finite life as they migrate upwards through the hillside. This
migration is caused by successive collapses of the ceiling due to the solutional effects of water
percolating downwards. Obviously, every time the ceiling collapses, the ceiling gets higher and
the floor is raised by the debris: so the whole chamber gets higher. Eventually the cave opens to
the sky.