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12-116

Session 2002
CIGR

ANALYSIS, SIMULATION AND TESTING OF TRANSFORMER INSULATION

FAILURES RELATED TO SWITCHING TRANSIENTS OVERVOLTAGES.

J.LOPEZ-ROLDAN, H.DE HERDT

J. DECLERCQ
Pauwels Trafo
BELGIUM

T.SELS, D.VAN DOMMELEN. M.POPOV, L.VAN DER SLUIS.

K.U.Leuven
BELGIUM

INTRODUCTION

Transformers in electrical networks can be submitted to

overvoltages with a broad spectrum of frequencies. The
relevant standards can only cover a small part of them.
Worldwide many transformer insulation failures have
been reported caused by switching operations, while
those transformers had previously passed all the
standard tests and complied to all quality requirements.
These phenomena can occur in both distribution and
transmission networks. For distribution transformers,
an investigation is usually only started in case of
repetitive faults [1].
The problem is generally associated to the highfrequency overvoltages produced by the re-strikes and
pre-strikes during the opening or closing of a switching
device. These phenomena are a inherent to all circuit
breakers. Especially the vacuum circuit breaker (VCB),
which shows a high ability of interrupting HF currents
of several hundreds of kHz, may cause switching
overvoltages. However the behaviour of the circuit
breaker depends on the network itself. Furthermore, the
response of each transformer to a wide range of
frequencies will be different. Then it becomes an EMC
problem: circuit breaker and transformer may be
incompatible in a specific network arrangement.
In order to study this problem thoroughly, it is required
to build a proper analytical model of the principal
elements, being the transformer and the circuit breaker.
It is also necessary to have knowledge of the material
behaviour, i.e. the behaviour of the transformer
insulation under the specific HF overvoltages produced.
In this paper a study of the interaction between
transformers and vacuum circuit breakers is presented.

Delft University of Technology

THE NETHERLANDS

TRANSFORMER MODELS

2.1 High-Frequency Transformer Models

To get an accurate view on the behaviour of a
distribution transformer, a detailed high-frequency
transformer model is required. Most transformer
manufacturers already have these models available for
impulse voltage calculations. To simulate very high
frequency phenomena, some of these models even work
on a turn-to-turn level, thus enabling the prediction of
the voltage in every turn of the winding.
2.2 Transient Transformer Model
To simulate the high-frequency behaviour of a
transformer in its electrical environment, a reduced
model is required. The general high-frequency models
are usually too large to be incorporated in a general
system model, but with the appropriate reduction
techniques, these models can be reduced to a more
convenient size.
For efficiency reasons, a second option was selected in
this project: a new model was built, aiming for a
compromise between calculation time, flexibility and
accuracy in the prediction of the first resonance
frequencies, as they are typically excited by transient
network disturbances.
Different modelling techniques can be used. The five
main streams in this field of modelling are based on self
and mutual inductances, on leakage inductances, on the
principle of duality, on transfer function measurements
and on electromagnetic field calculations.
The duality based model, introduced by Cherry [2],
represents the leakage fluxes by an inductive polygon.

Antwerpsesteenweg 167, B-2800 Mechelen, BELGIUM

The elements of this polygon can be derived from the

corresponding short-circuit inductances, that can be
obtained both numerically as well as experimentally.
This approach was chosen by Van Craenenbroeck et al.
[3], since it is flexible, reasonably simple and has
already proven to represent the essential transformer
resonances (Adielson et al. [4]).
In this model, the high voltage layer winding is broken
up into smaller segments. Depending on the required
accuracy, this can be done on a per turn basis, on a per
layer basis, or with any segmentation in between. Fig.1
shows the principle of the model structure. For sake of
clarity the high voltage winding in this figure is only
broken up in 3 segments, which is of course inadequate
for practical calculations.

runs or frequency scans. Extra options are available to

investigate the influence of connected cables and surge
protection devices.
2.3 Results
In fig. 2 - 3 some results are shown for a specific
distribution transformer design.

100
[%]
80

60

40

LV

20

HV1

voltage distribution in the 10 HV layers

34 kHz

HV2

50 Hz

Fig. 2 : Calculated voltage distribution (%) in the HV

layer winding, at 50 Hz and 34 kHz
HV3

Fig. 1: Transient model with 4 winding segments

The model is built around a leakage inductance
polygon, describing the leakage field of the transformer.
The actual winding segments are connected to this
polygon by means of ideal transformers, allowing the
inductive elements to be on a common voltage level,
preferable the voltage level of the (arbitrarily chosen)
reference winding segment.
The leakage inductances are calculated in a four-step
process. The first step consists in the calculation of the
short-circuit reactances Xij. These are calculated using a
modified Rabins' procedure [5]. In a second step the bus
impedance matrix ZBUS is determined. The
corresponding admittance matrix YBUS is then obtained
by inversion (step three), and finally the leakage
inductances are calculated (step four).
The non-linear magnetizing inductance is connected at
the terminals of the inner low voltage winding, by
analogy with the traditional equivalent circuits of a
transformer. A parallel resistance is included here as
well, in order to represent the frequency-dependent core
losses. The model is finally completed with a series
resistance, to account for the copper losses in each
winding segment, with series capacitances for each
winding segment, and with shunt capacitances between
adjacent winding segments.
The whole modelling process has been integrated in an
EMTP [6] preprocessing program. The inputs are the
geometric and material properties of the transformer;
the output is an EMTP-inputfile to be used in transient

In fig. 2 the calculated voltages to ground in the HV

layer winding are plotted for an excitation frequency of
34 kHz. Voltages are expressed in percentage of the
excitation voltage. The winding contains 10 layers,
modelled with 9 nodes each. In most nodes the voltages
to ground are lower than in the 50 Hz distribution, but a
resonance pattern can clearly be distinguished, with
reflections at the end of each layer.
40
[%]
30

20

10

34 kHz

Fig. 3: Calculated voltage differences across the layer

insulation of the HV layer winding, at 34 kHz
The effect of the resonance pattern on the voltage
differences between the layers is shown in fig. 3. For
each pair of layers the calculated voltage differences
along the winding height are plotted.
The graph suggests that a systematic failure observed
between layers 3 and 4 is caused by this specific
resonance pattern at 34 kHz.

VCB MODELLING

When dealing with overvoltage estimation and small

current switching, the model of the VCB has to include
HF reignition components, depending on the properties
of the VCB and the surrounding network. The VCB is
modelled by means of the:
cold withstand voltage characteristic of the VCB,
HF quenching capability,
chopping current.
The cold withstand voltage characteristic of the VCB is
a function of the contact distance. One of the parameters
that is of influence, is the speed of contact separation
and many researchers have investigated the withstand
capability by experiments [7]. It is known that the data
vary with a statistical distribution. Smeets [8]
represented the withstand voltage characteristic with an
exponential expression, while Glinkowski et al. [9]
showed that the reignition can take place at short gaps
(<1 mm), so it is sufficient to use a straight line. This
approach is shown in figure 4.
The HF quenching capability is defined by the slope of
the HF reignited current at HF current zero. Earlier,
many authors assumed the slope to be constant, but later
it has come clear that the slope depends also on the
reignited voltage and that it shows also a time
dependent behaviour.
The chopping current depends mainly on the contact
material, but also the surge impedance of the load side
is of influence. In our calculations however, we consider
the chopping current constant at 3 A. The characteristics
describing whether or not reignition occurs are [9]:

U b = AA t t open + BB

(1)

(2)

di / dt = CC t t open + DD

where topen is the moment of contact opening. The

quantities Ub and di/dt represent the dielectric and arc
quenching capability of the VCB respectively. The
value of the constants chosen in (1) and (2) are:
AA=1.7E7 V/s, BB=3400 V, CC=-3.40E10 A/s2,
DD=255E6 A/s. Those are values proposed by
Glinkowski et al [9]. However those parameters can be
adjusted later using experimental data of the CB, as will
be explained further.
This simple model is sufficient enough for most of the
purposes : it will give a relative estimation of the
overvoltages expected when switching a transformer
under certain conditions.

3
5

7
8
9
10

1.Step-up transformer
3. Shunt capacitor
5. Cable
7. Test transformer
9. Inductive load

Step-up
Generator 15 kVA
0.244/10.75

2. AC VT
4. VCB
6. HF current probe
8. HF voltage probe
10. HF earthing.
Vacuum
Circuit
Breaker

250nF

Test
15 kVA
6.6/0.069
1nF

Fig. 5: Experimental set-up.

4 SWITCHING TESTS
In order to have a better understanding of the
phenomena and the chance to check the computer
models, a series of transformer switching tests were
performed. A laboratory set-up was designed to
reproduce similar switching re-strikes and fast transients
overvoltages as it could be experienced when
disconnecting a transformer from the network.
The disconnection of the transformer with an inductive
load on the LV side was found to cause higher
overvoltages and a more severe re-strike chain, than
switching the unloaded transformer only.
The
transformer with inductive load was therefore chosen as
the test circuit to be benchmarked, in order to improve
the computer model and to study the effects of possible
transformer protective devices, such as surge arresters
and RC snubbers. A single phase circuit was found to be
easier to implement, and sufficient enough to
benchmark the models, but it does not allow to
reproduce virtual-current chopping phenomena [10].
4.1 Test set-up:

AA

BB
t

Fig. 4: Straight line model of Ub (t) for a VCB.

Figure 5 outlines the circuit arrangement. A step-up

transformer (15 kVA, 0.244/10.75 kV) is used to rise
the low voltage of the mains supply to a more suitable
high voltage between 3 and 5 kV simulating the
network source voltage.
A capacitor of 250 nF is
added to keep the source voltage stable during the
switching.

A commercial vacuum circuit breaker rated 17.5 kV,

1250 A and 25 kA is chosen to switch the MV/LV test
transformer (15 kVA, 6600/69 V). This test transformer
was specially designed to be able to measure the voltage
at some internal points in the HV winding which
otherwise could not be reached in standard oil-filled
transformer designs. Extra bushings were internally
connected to the beginning and end of the first and
second HV layer of the layer winding. A Point-onwave switching relay was designed to command the
opening of the circuit breaker so that the opening angle
could be chosen.
The test transformer is connected by 1 meter single
phase cable. A 1nF capacitor is added at the end of the
cable in order to represent the capacitance of a longer
cable. The LV load of the transformer is a 1.4 mH
inductor since inductive loads provide the most
favourable conditions for breaker re-strikes to occur.
Standard high voltage and current transformers measure
the AC voltages and currents. 3 HV Tektronix probes
measure the high frequency voltages at transformer HV
terminals and 2 Pearson HF current probes measure the
current crossing at each side of the breaker. The probes
outputs are collected by a 4 channel High Frequency
Digital Oscilloscope (Nicolet Pro, 10MHz) PC
controlled.
4.2 Experimental and Analytical results:
The first experimental results allowed to fit more
closely the specific values for the constants A and B of
the Ub/t curve shown in figure 4. A straight line is fitted
through the maximum voltage points the re-strike chain
as shown in the figure 7. This fitting was repeated on
several different measurement results and the difference
in slope values was found to be small. However, it can
be seen how after about 1 ms the curve starts diverging
from a straight-line. Thus, the longer the re-striking
time, the more dispersion in the results will be obtained.
This method to characterise the re-striking behaviour of
a vacuum circuit breaker is found to be more practical
than the method described by [7]. There a large number
of dielectric tests has to be performed in the HV lab, for
every contacts position, in order to find each of the
curve points, while the statistical nature of the process
will always limit the accuracy of the simulation anyway.

a more simple ATP model is used to calculate the

voltage at the transformer terminals only: for this
purpose the Saturable Component provided by ATP was
used [6]. To extend the bandwidth of the model, the
capacitances between HV and LV windings and earth
were added to the standard model.
Ub
35 kV

Fig. 7: Measured voltage at transformer terminal.

Figures 6 and 7 show the measured voltage at the HV
terminal of the test transformer during the opening of
the VCB, approximately at the instant of maximum
current. The source voltage was 5 kV rms and the
maximum overvoltage measured at the transformer
terminal was of 35 kV peak (5 pu). Numerous re-strikes
can be observed during a period of 1.2 ms. The
frequency of the voltage oscillation after the re-strikes is
900 Hz and is function of the L and C at the load side of
the breaker.
Due to the limitation of the test set-up, the maximum
primary current was of 1 A. This is below the expected
current chopping level of the breaker (3 A). Then the
current is chopped as soon as the contacts separated.
This is why the maximum overvoltage appears when the
breaker opens at the peak of the current.
For the same opening time of about 0.5ms around
current peak, 8 different openings produced a maximum
overvoltage of 5.7 pu, a minimum of 5 pu and an
average of 5.2 pu. The variations are due to the intrinsic
stochastical nature of the disconnecting operation. It is
not possible to get, for every switching operation, the
same values of current chopping, opening time, contact
speed and circuit breaker parameters, such as
breakdown voltage and HF current quenching
capability.
50
[kV]

Restrikes (V)

35

Ub
40 kV

20

-10

Current pulses

Fig. 6: Re-striking process during CB opening.

Together with the transformer model described above,
developed to calculate the internal voltage distribution,

-25

-40

0.0

0.4

0.8

1.2

1.6

[ms]

Fig. 8: Computed voltages as in figure 7.

2.0

Figure 8 shows the results of the computer simulation at

the same conditions as in figure 7. Here the voltage
peak is about 40 kV (5.7 pu). Considering the statistical
nature of these phenomena, the calculation results match
the experimental results quite well in maximum value,
frequency and re-striking time.
Deviations are due to the random nature of the
phenomena described above, as well as to inaccuracies
in the estimation of the circuit parameters, the load
current at the moment of the opening, and the
approximations made in the circuit breaker model (e.g.
the cold withstand voltage curve).
5 TRANSFORMER SURGE PROTECTION
The Fast Transients problem is well recognized in
motors and generators and the same solutions used to
protect motors and generators apply to transformers.
Several protecting devices are available:
- Surge arresters:
Typically ZnO surge suppressors are used. They do not
affect the rate of rise of the voltage transient and they do
not have any effect on internal resonances. They only
work if the surges pass a clamping limit. Transient
voltages below this limit are not affected, in magnitude
nor in rate of rise. Figure 9 shows the effect of a surge
arrester in the switching test described above.
- Surge capacitors and Combination RC snubbers:
A capacitor will reduce both the surge impedance and
the frequency of the oscillation. Some manufacturers
add a resistor as well, as a matching impedance to avoid
surge reflections at the transformer terminals. Figure 10
shows how re-strikes as in figure 6 are eliminating by
incorporating a RC (30, 0.17 F) to our test set-up.
The RC is connected by a short link to the HV bushing
of the test transformer.
33 kV

SA clamping (23 kV)

Fig. 9: Voltage clamping effect of a surge arrester.

-ZORC: It includes a RC snubber and a ZnO arrester in

parallel. So it combines together both protective
features.

I
CB Opens

Fig. 10: VCB Re-striking is avoided by using a RC

Cd

Rd

C1

TH

Cq
TO

L2

L1

Cp

PD

A
C3

R3

DRIVER

ERA-III

SCOOP

COMPUTER
DATA LOG.

VAC

Fig. 11: Test circuit with Tesla Transformer

6 HF TESTING OF THE INSULATION
It is possible to test in the HV laboratory the strength of
insulation structures against repetitive HF pulses over
imposed to the AC working voltage. This non-standard
application can easily be produced with a circuit
containing an extended Tesla transformer. The theory
around Tesla transformers is well known and the main
basics are described in [11]. Some test circuits
containing a Tesla transformer and recently used for
material testing are shown in [12] and [13].
The main element of the circuit, shown in Fig. 11, is a
Tesla transformer (TT) built with 2 air-coupled coils
L1 - L2. Contrary to the traditional use of a TT,
producing a high voltage with both a constant high
frequency and amplitude, this circuit designed with the
same TT principle generates decaying high frequency
pulse trains superimposed on the 50 Hz mains voltage.
The TT principle is based on energy transmission
between two coupled (through air) resonating circuits
C1 - L1 and C2 - L2. The second capacitor C2 is the
overall capacitive value formed by the capacitors from
the measurement circuit Cd, Cp and Cq, the coupling
capacitor C3 and the capacitor formed by the test object
(TO). The two circuits are theoretically tuned when (3)
is satisfied.
The resonance frequency f2 of the
secondary C2 - L2 circuit is then (4).
L 1 C1 = L 2 C 2
f2 =

R2

R1

RDC
VDC

(3)
2
2
2
2

R
1
1

2 L 2 C 2 4 L

(4)

The primary capacitor C1 is charged by a DC supply to

a certain value. By firing a thyristor TH at the
appropriate time, the capacitor will be discharged across
the primary coil L1. This initiates an RLC-resonance
phenomenon from which only the first half wave cycle
is obtained to produce an oscillating damped sine wave
in the secondary circuit (L2 - C2). Only with perfectly
tuned circuits there will be an RLC-resonance in the
secondary circuit.

The 50 Hz main voltage, VAC, is applied to the

secondary circuit through a coupling capacitor C3,
which acts like a short circuit for the pulses and like an
open circuit for the 50 Hz main voltage.
The final wave (combination of pulse and 50 Hz
waveform) that will be applied to the TO is also shown
in Fig. 11 at the connection point of Rd.
Measuring the ageing of the test object can be done by
looking to the partial discharge (PD) level of the
insulation after the application of a determined number
of HF pulses to the test object.
7 SUMMARY

Numerical and experimental tools have been

developed to analyse transformer insulation failures
due to switching transients.
The two main elements to model are the circuit
breaker and the transformer. As an example a
simple EMTP model to simulate the re-striking
phenomena in a vacuum circuit breaker has been
proposed.
To estimate the voltage at the transformer bushing a
simple 2-terminal model of the transformer is
enough. To calculate the effect of the specific surge
inside the HV windings a more detailed model has
been described.
A series of switching tests on a inductively loaded
transformer has been performed. Computer
simulation results demonstrate good correlation
with the overall statistical results in frequency and
amplitude of the surge.
Several transformer surge protections have been
tested. A surge capacitor at the transformer
terminals eliminates the VCB re-strikes. A
combination of RC with a surge arrester (ZORC)
provides the most complete surge protection.
Once the HF voltage distribution inside the
insulation is known, it is necessary to forecast the
long-term behaviour of the material under repetitive
application of those non-standard voltages. This
special test can be performed using an extended
Tesla transformer circuit.

Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to the IWT of the Flemish
government for providing financial support for this
research.

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