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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
NOTATION
8.0
8.1
8.2
FLEXURE
8.2.1 Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
8.2.1.1 Theory
8.2.1.1.1 Stage 1 Loading
8.2.1.1.2 Stage 2 Loading
8.2.1.1.3 Stage 3 Loading
8.2.1.1.4 Stage 4 Loading
8.2.1.1.5 Stage 5 Loading
8.2.1.1.5.1 Tensile Stresses - Normal Strength Concrete
8.2.1.1.5.2 Tensile Stresses - High Strength Concrete
8.2.1.1.5.3 Tensile Stresses - LRFD Specifications
8.2.1.2 Allowable Concrete Stresses
8.2.1.2.1 Standard Specifications
8.2.1.2.2 LRFD Specifications
8.2.1.3 Design Procedure
8.2.1.4 Composite Section Properties
8.2.1.4.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.2 Procedure
8.2.1.5 Harped Strand Considerations
8.2.1.6 Debonded Strand Considerations
8.2.1.7 Minimum Strand Cover and Spacing
8.2.1.8 Design Example
8.2.1.8.1 Design Requirement 1
8.2.1.8.2 Design Requirement 2
8.2.1.8.3 Design Requirement 3
8.2.1.8.3.1 Strand Debonding
8.2.1.8.3.2 Harped Strands
8.2.1.8.3.3 Other Methods to Control Stresses
8.2.1.8.4 Design Requirement 4
8.2.1.9 Fatigue
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.2.2 Flexural Strength Design
8.2.2.1 Theory
8.2.2.2 Standard Specifications
8.2.2.2.1 Ultimate Moment Capacity
8.2.2.2.1.1 Required Parameters
8.2.2.2.1.2 Rectangular Section
8.2.2.2.1.3 Flanged Section
8.2.2.2.2 Maximum Reinforcement Limit
8.2.2.2.3 Minimum Reinforcement Limit
8.2.2.3 LRFD Specifications
8.2.2.3.1 Nominal Flexural Resistance
8.2.2.3.1.1 Required Parameters
8.2.2.3.1.2 Rectangular Sections
8.2.2.3.1.3 Flanged Sections
8.2.2.3.2 Maximum Reinforcement Limit
8.2.2.3.3 Minimum Reinforcement Limit
8.2.2.4 Flexural Strength Design Example
8.2.2.4.1 Design Requirement 1
8.2.2.4.1.1 Standard Specifications
8.2.2.4.1.2 LRFD Specifications
8.2.2.4.2 Design Requirement 2
8.2.2.5 Strain Compatibility Approach
8.2.2.6 Design Example - Strain Compatibility
8.2.2.6.1 Part l - Flexural Capacity
8.2.2.6.2 Part 2 - Comparative Results
8.2.3 Design of Negative Moment Regions for Members Made Continuous for Live
Loads
8.2.3.1 Strength Design
8.2.3.2 Reinforcement Limits - Standard Specifications
8.2.3.3 Reinforcement Limits - LRFD Specifications
8.2.3.4 Serviceability
8.2.3.5 Fatigue in Deck Reinforcement
8.3
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CHAPTER 8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.3.2 Strand Development Length
8.3.2.1 Impact on Design
8.3.2.2 Standard Specifications
8.3.2.3 LRFD Specifications
8.3.2.4 Factors Affecting Development Length
8.3.2.5 Bond Studies
8.3.2.6 Recommendations
8.4
SHEAR
8.4.1 Standard Specifications
8.4.1.1 Flexure-Shear Strength, Vci
8.4.1.2 Web-Shear Strength, Vcw
8.4.1.3 Web Reinforcement Contribution, Vs
8.4.1.3.1 Minimum Spacing Requirements
8.4.1.3.2 Minimum Shear Reinforcement
8.4.1.4 Application of Standard Specifications to Continuous Spans
8.4.2 1979 Interim Revisions
8.4.3 LRFD Specifications
8.4.3.1 Shear Design Provisions
8.4.3.1.1 Nominal Shear Resistance
8.4.3.1.2 Concrete Contribution, Vc
8.4.3.1.3 Web Reinforcement Contribution, Vs
8.4.3.1.4 Values of and
8.4.3.2 Design Procedure
8.4.3.3 Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement
8.4.4 Comparison of Shear Design Methods
8.5
8.6
LOSS OF PRESTRESS
8.6.1 Introduction
8.6.2 Definition
8.6.3 Significance of Losses on Design
8.6.4 Effects of Estimation of Losses
8.6.4.1 Effects at Transfer
8.6.4.2 Effect on Production Costs
8.6.4.3 Effect on Camber
8.6.4.4 Effect of Underestimating Losses
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.6.5 Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage and Relaxation Material Properties
8.6.5.1 Prediction of Creep Coefficient of Concrete
8.6.5.1.1 Creep Modification Factors
8.6.5.1.2 Modification Factors for Strength
8.6.5.1.3 Example
8.6.5.2 Prediction of Shrinkage Coefficient of Concrete
8.6.5.2.1 Shrinkage Modification Factors
8.6.5.2.2 Modification Factors for Strength
8.6.5.2.3 Example
8.6.5.3 Prediction of Relaxation of the Prestressing Steel
8.6.6 Methods for Estimating Losses
8.6.7 Elastic Shortening Loss
8.6.7.1 Computation of Elastic Shortening Loss
8.6.7.2 Elastic Shortening Example
8.6.8 Losses from the Standard Specifications
8.6.8.1 Shrinkage Loss
8.6.8.2 Elastic Shortening Loss
8.6.8.3 Creep Loss
8.6.8.4 Steel Relaxation Loss
8.6.8.5 Lump Sum Losses
8.6.9 Standard Specifications Example
8.6.10 Losses from the LRFD Specifications
8.6.10.1 Elastic Shortening Loss
8.6.10.2 Shrinkage and Creep Losses
8.6.10.3 Steel Relaxation Loss
8.6.10.4 Washington State Study
8.6.11 LRFD Specifications Example
8.6.12 Losses by the Tadros Method
8.6.12.1 Tadros Method Example
8.7
8.8
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CHAPTER 8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.8.2 Design of Bridge Decks Using Precast Panels
8.8.2.1 Determining Prestress Force
8.8.2.2 Service Load Stresses and Flexural Strength
8.8.2.3 Standard Specifications
8.8.2.3.1 Minimum Thickness
8.8.2.3.2 Live Load
8.8.2.3.3 Reinforcement Requirements
8.8.2.3.4 Shear Design
8.8.2.3.5 Crack Control
8.8.2.4 LRFD Specifications
8.8.2.4.1 LRFD Specifications Refined Analysis
8.8.2.4.2 LRFD Specifications Strip Method
8.8.2.4.2.1 Minimum Thickness
8.8.2.4.2.2 Minimum Concrete Cover
8.8.2.4.2.3 Live Load
8.8.2.4.2.4 Location of Critical Sections
8.8.2.4.2.5 Design Criteria
8.8.2.4.2.6 Reinforcement Requirements
8.8.2.4.2.7 Shear Design
8.8.2.4.2.8 Crack Control
8.8.3 Other Precast Bridge Deck Systems
8.8.3.1 Continuous Precast Concrete SIP Panel System, NUDECK
8.8.3.1.1 Description of NUDECK
8.8.3.2 Full-Depth Precast Concrete Panels
8.8.4 LRFD Specifications Empirical Design Method
8.9
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CHAPTER 8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.9.4 Lateral Post-Tensioning Detailing for Skewed Bridges
8.10
8.11
8.12
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CHAPTER 8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.12.5 Pier Cap Example
8.12.5.1 Flow of Forces and Truss Geometry
8.12.5.2 Forces in Assumed Truss
8.12.5.3 Bearing Stresses
8.12.5.4 Reinforcement for Tension Tie DE
8.12.5.5 Strut Capacities
8.12.5.6 Nodal Zone at Pier
8.12.5.7 Minimum Reinforcement for Crack Control
8.13
8.14
REFERENCES
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
A
A
Ac
Ac
Acv
Acs
Ag
Ak
Ao
Aps
As
As
Asf
Asr
Ass
Ast
A*s
As
Av
Av
Avf
Avh
Av-min
a
a
a
b
b
b
b
b
bb
bv
bv
bv
bw
Ca
= width of beam
[STD]
= width of top flange of beam
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NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
CRc
CRs
C(t,t0)
C(t,tj)
Cb(t,t3)
Cd(t,t3)
Cu
Cu
c
c
D
D
DC
DW
d
db
de
dext
di
dp
ds
dv
d
E
Ec
Ecb(t3)
Ecd(t3)
Ec(tj)
Ec(t0)
Ec(t,t0)
Eci
Ep
ES
Es
Es
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
E*c
E*cb
E*cd
E*c(t,t0)
E*ck
e
ec
eg
ei
em
ep
FSc
FSf
Fb
Fcj
Fpi
f
fb
f c
f c
fcds
fcir
f ci
f ci
fcgp
fcu
ff
fmin
fpbt
fpc
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[STD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
fpc
fpe
fpe
fpi
fpj
fpo
fps
fpu
fpy
fr
fs
f s
fse
fsi
f *su
f(tj)
fr(t,t0)
f(t0)
fy
fy
fy
f y
fyh
H
h
h
h
hcg
hd
hf
hr
I
= deck thickness
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
I
Ik
IM
Ieff
Ig
K
Kr
K
k
kc
kcp
kla
kh
ks
ksh
kst
L
L
L
L
L
LL
Lr
Lx
l
ld
lt
Mc
Mcr
Mcr(t)
M*cr
Md/nc
Mel
Mg
Mg
Mgmsp
Mk
= impact fraction
= moment of inertia of element k
= dynamic load allowance
= effective cracked section lateral (minor axis) moment of inertia
= gross lateral (minor axis) moment of inertia
= factor used for calculating time-dependent losses
= factor used for calculating relaxation loss in strand that occurs prior
to transfer
= sum of rotational spring constants of supports
= factor used in calculation of average stress in pretensioning steel
for strength limit state; factor related to type of strand
[LRFD]
= product of applicable correction factors for creep = kla kh ks
= correction factor for curing period
= correction factor for loading age
= correction factor for relative humidity
= correction factor for size of member
= product of applicable correction factors for shrinkage = kcp kh ks
= correction factor for concrete strength
= live load
= length in feet of the span under consideration for positive
moment and the average of two adjacent loaded spans for
negative moment
= overall beam length or design span
= span length measured parallel to longitudinal beams
= span length
= vehicular live load
= intrinsic relaxation of the strand
= distance from end of prestressing strand to center of the panel
= overall length of beam
= development length
= transfer length
= moment in concrete beam section
= cracking moment
= restraint moment due to creep at time t
= cracking moment
= moment due to non-composite dead loads
= fictious elastic restraint moment at the supports
= unfactored bending moment due to beam self-weight
= self-weight bending moment of beam at harp point
= self-weight bending moment at midspan
= element moment
[STD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[STD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[STD]
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
Mlat
MLL
Mmax
Mn
Mn
Mn/dc
Mr
Msh
Msr(t)
Msw
Mu
Mx
M0
M0k
m
N
Nk
Nc
Ns
Nu
N0k
N0
n
nk
ns
PPR
Pc
Pn
Pr
Pse
Psi
Q
R
RH
Rn
Ru
r
r
S
S
= stress ratio
= first moment of inertia of the area above the fiber being considered
= radius of curvature
= relative humidity
[STD]
= strength design factor
= radius of stability
= width of precast beam
[STD]
= spacing of beams
[STD], [LRFD]
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NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
S
S
Sb
Sbc
SH
SN
S(t,t0)
St
Su
s
s
s
t
t
t
tf
t0
ts
ts
Vc
Vc
Vci
Vcw
Vd
Vi
Vn
Vnh
Vp
Vp
Vs
Vs
Vu
= slab span
[LRFD]
= span between the inside faces of the beam webs
[LRFD]
= section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the
non-composite precast beam
= thickness of web
= thickness of flange
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
Vuh
vu
W
w
w
w
wc
x
y
yb
ybc
ybs
yk
yr
ys
yt
ytc
z
zmax
z o
z o
1
1
c
= deflection
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
fcdp
= strain
c
= strain in concrete beam
cr
= the time dependent creep strain
f
= the immediate strain due to the applied stress f
fc
= elastic strain in concrete
fk
= element strain
fs
= elastic strain in steel
k
= strain in element k
p
= strain in prestressing steel
s
= strain in mild steel
s
= tensile strain in cracked concrete in direction of tensile tie
sh
= free shrinkage strain
shb(t,t2) = shrinkage strain of the beam from time t2 to time t
shb(t3,t2) = shrinkage strain of the beam from time t2 to time t3
shd(t,t3) = shrinkage strain of the deck from time t3 to time t
shu
= ultimate free shrinkage strain in the concrete, adjusted for member
size and relative humidity
si
= strain in tendons corresponding to initial effective pretension
stress
x
= longitudinal strain in the web reinforcement on the flexural
tension side of the member
0c
= initial strain in concrete
1
= principal tensile strain in cracked concrete due to factored loads
*
= resistance factor
= curvature
c
= curvature at midspan
cr
= curvature due to creep
fk
= element curvature
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
k
0
L
R
i
max
max
b
*
(t,t0)
= curvature of element k
= curvature at support
= parameter used to determine friction coefficient
= Poissons ratio for beams
= coefficient of friction
= angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses
= roll angle of major axis of beam with respect to vertical
= left end rotation of beam due to simple span loads
= right end rotation of beam due to simple span loads
= initial roll angle of a rigid beam
= tilt angle at which cracking begins, based on tension at the top corner
equal to the modulus of rupture
= tilt angle at maximum factor of safety against failure
= reinforcement ratio producing balanced strain condition
= ratio of pretensioning reinforcement
= a factor that reflects the fact that the actual relaxation is less than
the intrinsic relaxation
= aging coefficient
= aging coefficient at certain time
[LRFD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[STD]
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CHAPTER 8
8.0
AASHTO
SPECIFICATION
REFERENCES
The references to the AASHTO Specifications in this chapter are based on the
provisions of the Standard Specifications, 17th Edition, 2002, and the LRFD
Specifications, 2nd Edition, 1998, with revisions through and including the 2003
Interim Revisions.
8.1
PRINCIPLES AND
ADVANTAGES
OF PRESTRESSING
The principles of prestressing have been used for centuries. For example, wooden
barrels have always been made by tightening metal straps around barrel staves. In the
making of early wheels, the wooden spokes and rim were first held together by a hot
metal tire which, upon cooling, became tensioned. This induced radial compression
on the rim and spokes. Other forms of mechanical, chemical and thermal prestressing
have been attempted or used with varying degrees of success.
8.1.1
History
The use of prestressing for concrete bridge members has been employed with great
success for over five decades. Concrete is strong in compression but relatively weak in
tension. Therefore, prestressing is used to control tensile stresses and to precompress
the concrete. This is analogous to providing the concrete with a storage capacity to
resist loads which would otherwise produce tension and cracking in the concrete.
The prestressing of precast concrete bridge members is accomplished by stretching high
strength steel strands, then casting concrete around them. As the concrete hardens, it
bonds to the strands. When the clamps holding the tensioned strands are released, the
force in the strands is applied to (or resisted by) the concrete. This puts the concrete into
compression. This technique of prestressing, through the placing of concrete around
prestretched strands, is called pretensioning. The high strength steel strands used for
pretensioning typically have an ultimate strength, fpu, of 270 ksi and a yield strength,
fpy, of 243 ksi.
8.1.2
High Strength Steel
High strength steel is necessary for achieving prestressed concrete. Strands are typically tensioned initially to 0.75fpu = 202.5 ksi. Although high, this stress is still safely
less than yield (fpy = 243 ksi). Any loss of stress from this level will be elastic, related
to strains by the modulus of elasticity. With time, creep and shrinkage cause shortening of the member, and, since they are bonded, shortening of the strands. The
shortening of the strands relieves some of the prestrain in the strands, so the prestress
is also reduced.
To illustrate why high strength steel is necessary, consider a concrete member pretensioned with high strength strand versus mild steel reinforcement (see Figure 8.1.2-1).
Assume that the shortening of the member produces a corresponding loss of prestress
of 40 ksi. The stress remaining in the strand after losses, which is called the effective prestress, would therefore be 202.5 40 = 162.5 ksi. While the 40 ksi loss is
significant, over 80% of the initial prestress remains. Compare this with the same
member being prestressed using mild reinforcement (fy = 60 ksi). In this case, the
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CHAPTER 8
Figure 8.1.2-1
Use of High Strength Versus
Mild Steel for Prestressing
Concrete
f pj
f pe
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.025
Strain
Stress
fj
fe
0.005
0.010
0.015
fy
0.020
Strain
initial stress can only be about 50 ksi in order to remain safely below the yield stress
and within the elastic range. Since the member and the prestress force are the same,
the losses would also be the same, i.e., 40 ksi. However, in this case, the final conditions are much different, with the effective prestress dropping to 10 ksi, which
leaves only 20% of the prestress remaining. So much of the prestress is lost using
mild reinforcement for prestressing that it becomes ineffective and unreliable. The
high level of prestrain in the strand due to the initial prestress is what makes high
strength strand an effective method of prestressing. The large prestrain reduces the
significance of losses.
Another outstanding benefit of high strength (Grade 270) strand is relative cost.
While strand may cost nearly twice as much as mild reinforcement per pound, it provides over four times the strength of mild reinforcement. Furthermore, prestressing
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Figure 8.1.3-1
Behavior of Conventionally
Reinforced Concrete Members
Section
Service Load
(cracked)
Section
Strains
Stresses
Forces
Section
s > y
fs = f y
Strains
Stresses
Forces
Conditions at Ultimate
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CHAPTER 8
Figure 8.1.3-2
Behavior of Prestressed
Concrete Members
Initial
Section
Service Load
(uncracked)
T
Tc
Section
Strains
Stresses
Forces
Section
s > py
f s = f ps
Strains
Stresses
Forces
Conditions at Ultimate
At ultimate load conditions, conventionally reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete behave similarly. However, due to the lower strength of mild bars, a larger steel
quantity is needed to achieve the same strength as a prestressed member. This increases
the member material costs for a conventionally reinforced member. It should be noted,
however, that strand has a lower ultimate elongation at rupture (about 4 to 6%) than
that of Grade 60 reinforcement (about 10 to 15%). This lower strain capacity or material ductility may lead one to expect that prestressed concrete members may lack ductility or the capacity to deflect adequately prior to failure. However, prestressed concrete
members have been shown both analytically and experimentally to have more than
adequate deflection capability prior to failure. It is not unusual in laboratory experiments to observe 10 to 15 in. deflection in a 40 ft-long prestressed concrete member
before it fails. This deflection easily exceeds minimum ductility requirements.
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CHAPTER 8
Figure 8.1.3-3
Typical Load-Deflection
Behavior of Conventional
Reinforced and Prestressed
Concrete Beams
Load
Prestressed
Ultimate load
Conventionally reinforced
Service load
Load
Deflection
Deflection
Because of the high strength of prestressing strand and the absence of deformations
like those found on the surface of reinforcing bars, anchorage of strand in concrete
must be carefully assessed. For example, while a Grade 60 #4 bar has a typical
development length of 12 to 15 in, the development length of a 1/2-in. diameter
strand is about 72 to 100 in. Development length can be a limiting design factor in
short members such as precast stay-in-place deck panels. It may also be significant
for piles that are subjected to moment near the top end. However, the design and
performance of most precast bridge beams are not significantly affected by strand
development length.
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