Master of Business Administration- MBA Semester 3

Research Methodology

Assignment Set- 1

1. What do you mean by research? Explain its significance in social and business sciences.

Answer : Research simply means a search for facts – answers to questions and solutions to
problems. It is a purposive investigation. It is an organized inquiry. It seeks to find
explanations to unexplained phenomenon to clarify the doubtful facts and to correct the
misconceived facts.

Significance of Research in Social and Business Sciences

According to a famous Hudson Maxim, “All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often
better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention”. It
brings out the significance of research, increased amounts of which makes progress
possible. Research encourages scientific and inductive thinking, besides promoting the
development of logical habits of thinking and organization.

The role of research in applied economics in the context of an economy or business is

greatly increasing in modern times. The increasingly complex nature of government and
business has raised the use of research in solving operational problems. Research
assumes significant role in formulation of economic policy, for both the government and
business. It provides the basis for almost all government policies of an economic system.
Government budget formulation, for example, depends particularly on the analysis of
needs and desires of the people, and the availability of revenues, which requires research.
Research helps to formulate alternative policies, in addition to examining the
consequences of these alternatives. Thus, research also facilitates the decision making of
policy-makers, although in itself it is not a part of research. In the process, research also
helps in the proper allocation of a country’s scare resources. Research is also necessary
for collecting information on the social and economic structure of an economy to
understand the process of change occurring in the country. Collection of statistical
information though not a routine task, involves various research problems. Therefore,
large staff of research technicians or experts is engaged by the government these days to
undertake this work. Thus, research as a tool of government economic policy formulation
involves three distinct stages of operation which are as follows:

• Investigation of economic structure through continual compilation of facts

• Diagnoses of events that are taking place and the analysis of the forces underlying
them; and
• The prognosis, i.e., the prediction of future developments
Research also assumes a significant role in solving various operational and planning
problems associated with business and industry. In several ways, operations research,
market research, and motivational research are vital and their results assist in taking
business decisions. Market research is refers to the investigation of the structure and
development of a market for the formulation of efficient policies relating to purchases,
production and sales. Operational research relates to the application of logical,
mathematical, and analytical techniques to find solution to business problems such as
cost minimization or profit maximization, or the optimization problems. Motivational
research helps to determine why people behave in the manner they do with respect to
market characteristics. More specifically, it is concerned with the analyzing the
motivations underlying consumer behaviour. All these researches are very useful for
business and industry, which are responsible for business decision making.

Research is equally important to social scientist for analyzing social relationships and
seeking explanations to various social problems. It gives intellectual satisfaction of
knowing things for the sake of knowledge. It also possesses practical utility for the social
scientist to gain knowledge so as to be able to do something better or in a more efficient
manner. This, research in social sciences is concerned with both knowledge for its own
sake, and knowledge for what it can contribute to solve practical problems.

2. What is meant by research problem? And what are the characteristics of a good
research problem?

Answer : Research really begins when the researcher experiences some difficulty, i.e., a
problem demanding a solution within the subject-are of his discipline. This general area
of interest, however, defines only the range of subject-matter within which the researcher
would see and pose a specific problem for research. Personal values play an important
role in the selection of a topic for research. Social conditions do often shape the
preference of investigators in a subtle and imperceptible way.

The formulation of the topic into a research problem is, really speaking the first step in a
scientific enquiry. A problem in simple words is some difficulty experienced by the
researcher in a theoretical or practical situation. Solving this difficulty is the task of
research.

R.L. Ackoffs analysis affords considerable guidance in identifying problem for research.
He visualizes five components of a problem.

1. Research-consumer: There must be an individual or a group which experiences

some difficulty.
2. Research-consumer’s Objectives: The research-consumer must have available,
alternative means for achieving the objectives he desires.
3. Alternative Means to Meet the Objectives: The research-consumer must have
available, alternative means for achieving the objectives he desires.
 4. Doubt in Regard to Selection of Alternatives: The existence of alternative courses
of action in not enough; in order to experience a problem, the research consumer
must have some doubt as to which alternative to select.
5. There must be one or More Environments to which the Difficulty or Problem
Pertains: A change in environment may produce or remove a problem. A
research-consumer may have doubts as to which will be the most efficient means
in one environment but would have no such doubt in another.

Horton and Hunt have given following characteristics of scientific research:

1. Verifiable evidence: That is factual observations which other observers can see
and check.
2. Accuracy: That is describing what really exists. It means truth or correctness of a
statement or describing things exactly as they are and avoiding jumping to
unwarranted conclusions either by exaggeration or fantasizing.
3. Precision: That is making it as exact as necessary, or giving exact number or
measurement. This avoids colourful literature and vague meanings.
4. Systematization: That is attempting to find all the relevant data, or collecting
data in a systematic and organized way so that the conclusions drawn are reliable.
Data based on casual recollections are generally incomplete and give unreliable
judgments and conclusions.
5. Objectivity: That is free being from all biases and vested interests. It means
observation is unaffected by the observer’s values, beliefs and preferences to the
extent possible and he is able to see and accept facts as they are, not as he might
wish them to be.
6. Recording: That is jotting down complete details as quickly as possible. Since
human memory is fallible, all data collected are recorded.
7. Controlling conditions: That is controlling all variables except one and then
attempting to examine what happens when that variable is varied. This is the basic
technique in all scientific experimentation – allowing one variable to vary while
holding all other variables constant.
8. Training investigators: That is imparting necessary knowledge to investigators
to make them understand what to look for, how to interpret in and avoid
inaccurate data collection.

3. What is hypothesis? Examine the procedures for testing hypothesis

Answer : A hypothesis is an assumption about relations between variables. It is a tentative

explanation of the research problem or a guess about the research outcome. Before
starting the research, the researcher has a rather general, diffused, even confused notion
of the problem. It may take long time for the researcher to say what questions he had
been seeking answers to. Hence, an adequate statement about the research problem is
very important. What is a good problem statement? It is an interrogative statement that
asks: what relationship exists between two or more variables? It then further asks
questions like: Is A related to B or not? How are A and B related to C? Is A related to B
under conditions X and Y? Proposing a statement pertaining to relationship between A
and B is called a hypothesis.

Testing of Hypothesis

The hypothesis testing determines the validity of the assumption (technically described as
null hypothesis) with a view to choose between the conflicting hypotheses about the
value of the population hypothesis about the value of the population of a population
parameter. Hypothesis testing helps to secede on the basis of a sample data, whether a
hypothesis about the population is likely to be true or false. Statisticians have developed
several tests of hypothesis (also known as tests of significance) for the purpose of testing
of hypothesis which can be classified as:

• Parametric tests or standard tests of hypothesis ;

• Non Parametric test or distribution – free test of the hypothesis.

Parametric tests usually assume certain properties of the parent population from which
we draw samples. Assumption like observations come from a normal population, sample
size is large, assumptions about the population parameters like mean, variants etc must
hold good before parametric test can be used. But there are situation when the researcher
cannot or does not want to make assumptions. In such situations we use statistical
methods for testing hypothesis which are called non parametric tests because such tests
do not depend on any assumption about the parameters of parent population. Besides,
most non-parametric test assumes only nominal or original data, where as parametric test
require measurement equivalent to at least an interval scale. As a result non-parametric
test needs more observation than a parametric test to achieve the same size of Type I &
Type II error.

4. Write an essay on the need for research design and explain the principles of
experimental designs.

Answer : The research designer understandably cannot hold all his decisions in his head.
Even if he could, he would have difficulty in understanding how these are inter-
related. Therefore, he records his decisions on paper or record disc by using relevant
symbols or concepts. Such a symbolic construction may be called the research design
or model. A research design is a logical and systematic plan prepared for directing a
research study. It specifies the objectives of the study, the methodology and
techniques to be adopted for achieving the objectives. It constitutes the blue print for
the collection, measurement and analysis of data. It is the plan, structure and strategy
of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions. The plan is
the overall scheme or program of research. A research design is the program that
guides the investigator in the process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting
observations. It provides a systematic plan of procedure for the researcher to follow
elltiz, Jahoda and Destsch and Cook describe, “A research design is the arrangement
of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.”
Needs of Research Design

The need for the methodologically designed research:

a- In many a research inquiry, the researcher has no idea as to how accurate the
results of his study ought to be in order to be useful. Where such is the case, the
researcher has to determine how much inaccuracy may be tolerated. In a quite few cases
he may be in a position to know how much inaccuracy his method of research will
produce. In either case he should design his research if he wants to assure himself of
useful results.

b- In many research projects, the time consumed in trying to ascertain what the data
mean after they have been collected is much greater than the time taken to design a
research which yields data whose meaning is known as they are collected.

c- The idealized design is concerned with specifying the optimum research procedure that
could be followed were there no practical restrictions.

When the objective of a research is to test a research hypothesis, it is known as a

hypothesis-testing research. Such research may be in the nature of experimental design or
non-experimental design. A research in which the independent variable is manipulated is
known as ‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’, where as a research in which the
independent variable is not manipulated is termed as ‘non-experimental hypothesis-
testing research’. E.g., assume that a researcher wants to examine whether family income
influences the social attendance of a group of students, by calculating the coefficient of
correlation between the two variables. Such an example is known as a non-experimental
hypothesis-testing research, because the independent variable family income is not
manipulated. Again assume that the researcher randomly selects 150 students from a
group of students who pay their school fees regularly and them classifies them into tow
sub-groups by randomly including 75 in Group A, whose parents have regular earning,
and 75 in group B, whose parents do not have regular earning. And that at the end of the
study, the researcher conducts a test on each group in order to examine the effects of
regular earnings of the parents on the school attendance of the student. Such a study is an
example of experimental hypothesis-testing research, because in this particular study the
independent variable regular earnings of the parents have been manipulated
 5. Distinguish between primary and secondary of data collection. Explain the features,
uses, advantages and limitations of secondary data. Which is the best way of collecting
the data for research” Primary or secondary”. Support your answer.

Answer : Primary Sources of Data - Primary sources are original sources from which
the researcher directly collects data that have not been previously collected e.g..,
collection of data directly by the researcher on brand awareness, brand preference, brand
loyalty and other aspects of consumer behaviour from a sample of consumers by
interviewing them,. Primary data are first hand information collected through various
methods such as observation, interviewing, mailing etc.

Advantage of Primary Data

• It is original source of data

• It is possible to capture the changes occurring in the course of time.
• It flexible to the advantage of researcher.
• Extensive research study is based of primary data

Disadvantage of Primary Data

1) Primary data is expensive to obtain

2) It is time consuming
3) It requires extensive research personnel who are skilled.
4) It is difficult to administer.

Methods of Collecting Primary Data

Primary data are directly collected by the researcher from their original sources.
In this case, the researcher can collect the required date precisely according to his
research needs, he can collect them when he wants them and in the form he needs
them. But the collection of primary data is costly and time consuming. Yet, for
several types of social science research required data are not available from
secondary sources and they have to be directly gathered from the primary sources.

In such cases where the available data are inappropriate, inadequate or obsolete,
primary data have to be gathered. They include: socio economic surveys, social
anthropological studies of rural communities and tribal communities, sociological
studies of social problems and social institutions. Marketing research, leadership
studies, opinion polls, attitudinal surveys, readership, radio listening and T.V.
viewing surveys, knowledge-awareness practice (KAP) studies, farm
managements studies, business management studies etc.

There are various methods of data collection. A ‘Method’ is different from a

‘Tool’ while a method refers to the way or mode of gathering data, a tool is an
instruments used for the method. For example, a schedule is used for
interviewing. The important methods are

(a) observation, (b) interviewing, (c) mail survey, (d) experimentation,

(e) simulation and (f) projective technique. Each of these methods is discussed in
detail in the subsequent sections in the later chapters.

Secondary Sources of Data

These are sources containing data which have been collected and compiled for
another purpose. The secondary sources consists of readily compendia and
already compiled statistical statements and reports whose data may be used by
researchers for their studies e.g., census reports , annual reports and financial
statements of companies, Statistical statement, Reports of Government
Departments, Annual reports of currency and finance published by the Reserve
Bank of India, Statistical statements relating to Co-operatives and Regional
Banks, published by the NABARD, Reports of the National sample survey
Organization, Reports of trade associations, publications of international
organizations such as UNO, IMF, World Bank, ILO, WHO, etc., Trade and
Financial journals newspapers etc.

Secondary sources consist of not only published records and reports, but also
unpublished records. The latter category includes various records and registers
maintained by the firms and organizations, e.g., accounting and financial records,
personnel records, register of members, minutes of meetings, inventory records
etc.

Features of Secondary Sources

Though secondary sources are diverse and consist of all sorts of materials, they
have certain common characteristics.

First, they are readymade and readily available, and do not require the trouble of
constructing tools and administering them.

Second, they consist of data which a researcher has no original control over
collection and classification. Both the form and the content of secondary sources
are shaped by others. Clearly, this is a feature which can limit the research value
of secondary sources.

Finally, secondary sources are not limited in time and space. That is, the
researcher using them need not have been present when and where they were
gathered.
 Use of Secondary Data

The second data may be used in three ways by a researcher. First, some specific
information from secondary sources may be used for reference purpose. For
example, the general statistical information in the number of co-operative credit
societies in the country, their coverage of villages, their capital structure, volume
of business etc., may be taken from published reports and quoted as background
information in a study on the evaluation of performance of cooperative credit
societies in a selected district/state.

Second, secondary data may be used as bench marks against which the findings of
research may be tested, e.g., the findings of a local or regional survey may be
compared with the national averages; the performance indicators of a particular
bank may be tested against the corresponding indicators of the banking industry
as a whole; and so on.

Finally, secondary data may be used as the sole source of information for a
research project. Such studies as securities Market Behaviour, Financial Analysis
of companies, Trade in credit allocation in commercial banks, sociological studies
on crimes, historical studies, and the like, depend primarily on secondary data.
Year books, statistical reports of government departments, report of public
organizations of Bureau of Public Enterprises, Censes Reports etc, serve as major
data sources for such research studies.

Advantages of Secondary Data

Secondary sources have some advantages:

a) Secondary data, if available can be secured quickly and cheaply. Once their
source of documents and reports are located, collection of data is just matter of
desk work. Even the tediousness of copying the data from the source can now be
avoided, thanks to Xeroxing facilities.
b) Wider geographical area and longer reference period may be covered without
much cost. Thus, the use of secondary data extends the researcher’s space and
time reach.
c) The use of secondary data broadens the data base from which scientific
generalizations can be made.
d) Environmental and cultural settings are required for the study.
e) The use of secondary data enables a researcher to verify the findings bases on
primary data. It readily meets the need for additional empirical support. The
researcher need not wait the time when additional primary data can be collected.
 Disadvantages of Secondary Data

The use of a secondary data has its own limitations.

f) The most important limitation is the available data may not meet our specific
needs. The definitions adopted by those who collected those data may be
different; units of measure may not match; and time periods may also be different.
g) The available data may not be as accurate as desired. To assess their accuracy we
need to know how the data were collected.
h) The secondary data are not up-to-date and become obsolete when they appear in
print, because of time lag in producing them. For example, population census data
are published tow or three years later after compilation, and no new figures will
be available for another ten years.
i) Finally, information about the whereabouts of sources may not be available to all
social scientists. Even if the location of the source is known, the accessibility
depends primarily on proximity. For example, most of the unpublished official
records and compilations are located in the capital city, and they are not within
the easy reach of researchers based in far off places.

6. Describe interview method of collecting data. State the conditions under which it is
considered most suitable. You have been assigned to conduct a survey on the reading
habits of the house wives in the middle class family. Design a suitable questionnaire
consisting of 20 questions you propose to use in the survey.

Answer : Interviewing is one of the prominent methods of data collection. It may be

defined as a two way systematic conversation between an investigator and an
informant, initiated for obtaining information relevant to a specific study. It involves
not only conversation, but also learning from the respondent’s gesture, facial
expressions and pauses, and his environment. Interviewing requires face to face
contact or contact over telephone and calls for interviewing skills. It is done by using
a structured schedule or an unstructured guide.

Interviewing as a method of data collection has certain features. They are:

The Participants: The interviewer and the respondent – are strangers. Hence, the
investigator has to get him introduced to the respondent in an appropriate manner.

The Relationship between the Participants is a Transitory one: It has a fixed

beginning and termination points. The interview proper is a fleeting, momentary
experience for them.
Interview is not a mere casual conversational exchange: Interview is a conversation
with a specific purpose, viz., obtaining information relevant to a study.

Interview is a mode of obtaining verbal answers to questions put verbally: The

interaction between the interviewer and the respondent need not necessarily be on a face-
to-face basis, because interview can be conducted over the telephone also. Although
interview is usually a conversation between two persons, it need not be limited to a single
respondent. It can also be conducted with a group of persons, such as family members, or
a group of children or a group of customers, depending on the requirements of the study.

Interview is an inter-actionable process: The interaction between the interviewer and

the respondent depends upon how they perceive each other.

The respondent reacts to the interviewer’s appearance, behaviour, gestures, facial

expression and intonation, his perception of the thrust of the questions and his own
personal needs. As far as possible, the interviewer should try to be closer to the social-
economic level of the respondents. Moreover, he should realize that his respondents are
under no obligations to extend response.

One should, therefore, be tactful and be alert to such reactions of the respondents as
lame-excuse, suspicion, reluctance or indifference, and deal with them suitably. One
should not also argue or dispute. One should rather maintain an impartial and objective
attitude. Information furnished by the respondent in the interview is recorded by the
investigator. This poses a problem of seeing that recording does not interfere with the
tempo of conversation.

Interviewing is not a standardized process: Like that of a chemical technician; it is

rather a flexible psychological process. The implication of this feature is that the
interviewer cannot apply unvarying standardized technique, because he is dealing with
respondents with varying motives and diverse perceptions. The extent of his success as an
interviewer is very largely dependent upon his insight and skill in dealing with varying
socio-physiological situations.

The Questionnaire :

1. How old were you when you learned how to read?

2. Were you a big reader growing up?
3. Are there any books that left a big impression on you as a kid?
4. Favorite genres? (Do you read mainly fiction or non-fiction? Do you have
a soft spot for horror, sci-fi, or romance?)
5. Top 5 favourite authors?
6. Top 5 favourite books?
7. What do you typically wear when you read?
8. On average, how many books do you read a month?
9. How do you get hold of the books? Do you buy them at a bookstore, visit an
online store, borrow from a friend or family member, or do you use the library?
10. Paperback or hardcover?
11. At what point do you give up on a book?
12. How do you find about new books and authors?
13. Best reading-related memory?
14. Worst reading-related memory?
15. What was the last book(s) you bought?
16. What was the last book you checked out from the library?
17. On average, how many hours a week do you spend reading?
18. Do you sometimes read more than one book at the time?
19. What's the longest you've gone without reading?
20. Why do you read?
 Master of Business Administration- MBA Semester 3

Research Methodology

Assignment Set- 2

1. Write a short notes on the following:

a. Null Hypothesis
b. What is exploratory research?

(b) What is Random Sampling?

(c) Rank Order Correlation

Answer : (a) A null hypothesis is a hypothesis (within the frequentist context of statistical
hypothesis testing) that might be falsified using a test of observed data. Such a test works
by formulating a null hypothesis, collecting data, and calculating a measure of how
probable those data were assuming the null hypothesis were true. If the data appear very
improbable (usually defined as a type of data that should be observed less than 5% of the
time) then the experimenter concludes that the null hypothesis is false. If the data look
reasonable under the null hypothesis, then no conclusion is made. In this case, the null
hypothesis could be true, or it could still be false; the data give insufficient evidence to
make any conclusion. The null hypothesis typically proposes a general or default
position, such as that there is no relationship between two quantities, or that there is no
difference between a treatment and the control. The term was originally coined by
English geneticist and statistician Ronald Fisher.

In some versions of statistical hypothesis testing (such as developed by Jerzy Neyman

and Egon Pearson), the null hypothesis is tested against an alternative hypothesis. This
alternative may or may not be the logical negation of the null hypothesis. The use of
alternative hypotheses was not part of Ronald Fisher's formulation of statistical
hypothesis testing, though alternative hypotheses are standardly used today.

(b) Exploratory research provides insights into and comprehension of an issue or

situation. It should draw definitive conclusions only with extreme caution. Exploratory
research is a type of research conducted because a problem has not been clearly defined.
Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data collection method
and selection of subjects. Given its fundamental nature, exploratory research often
concludes that a perceived problem does not actually exist.
Exploratory research often relies on secondary research such as reviewing available
literature and/or data, or qualitative approaches such as informal discussions with
consumers, employees, management or competitors, and more formal approaches through
in-depth interviews, focus groups, projective methods, case studies or pilot studies. The
Internet allows for research methods that are more interactive in nature: E.g., RSS feeds
efficiently supply researchers with up-to-date information; major search engine search
results may be sent by email to researchers by services such as Google Alerts;
comprehensive search results are tracked over lengthy periods of time by services such as
Google Trends; and Web sites may be created to attract worldwide feedback on any
subject.

The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making by
themselves, but they can provide significant insight into a given situation. Although the
results of qualitative research can give some indication as to the "why", "how" and
"when" something occurs, it cannot tell us "how often" or "how many."

Exploratory research is not typically generalizable to the population at large.

(c) A sample is a subject chosen from a population for investigation. A random sample
is one chosen by a method involving an unpredictable component. Random sampling can
also refer to taking a number of independent observations from the same probability
distribution, without involving any real population. A probability sample is one in which
each item has a known probability of being in the sample.

The sample usually will not be completely representative of the population from which it
was drawn— this random variation in the results is known as sampling error. In the case
of random samples, mathematical theory is available to assess the sampling error. Thus,
estimates obtained from random samples can be accompanied by measures of the
uncertainty associated with the estimate. This can take the form of a standard error, or if
the sample is large enough for the central limit theorem to take effect, confidence
intervals may be calculated.

(d) When we are dealing with data at the ordinal level, such as ranks, we must use a
measure of correlation that is designed to handle ordinal data. The Spearman Rank Order
Correlation Coefficient was developed by Spearman to use with this type of data. The
Symbol for the Spearman Rank Order Correlation Coefficient is , r sub s, or the Greek
letter rho ( ).

The formula for the Spearman Correlation Coefficient is:

Where 6 is a constant (it is always used in the formula),

D refers to the difference between a subjects ranks on the two variables,

and N is the number of subjects.

2. Elaborate the format of a research report touching briefly on the mechanics of writing.

Answer : The format of research report is given below :

I. Prefatory Items

• Title page
• Declaration
• Certificates
• Preface/ acknowledgements
• Table of contents
• List of tables
• List of graphs/ figures/ charts
• Abstract or synopsis

II. Body of the Report

• Introduction
• Theoretical background of the topic
• Statement of the problem
• Review of literature
• The scope of the study
• The objectives of the study
• Hypothesis to be tested
• Definition of the concepts
• Models if any
• Design of the study
• Methodology
• Method of data collection
• Sources of data
• Sampling plan
• Data collection instruments
• Field work
• Data processing and analysis plan
• Overview of the report
• Limitation of the study
• Results: findings and discussions
• Summary, conclusions and recommendations
III. Reference Material

• Bibliography
• Appendix
• Copies of data collection instruments
• Technical details on sampling plan
• Complex tables
• Glossary of new terms used.

Research report is a means for communicating research experience to others. The purpose
of the research report is to communicate to interested persons the methodology and the
results of the study in such a manner as to enable them to understand the research process
and to determine its validity. Research report is a narrative and authoritative document on
the outcome of a research effort. It represents highly specific information for a clearly
designated audience. It serves as a means for presenting the problem studied, methods
and techniques used for collecting and analyzing data, findings and conclusions and
recommendations. It serves as a basic reference material for future use. It is a means for
judging the quality of research project. It is a means for evaluating researcher’s
competency. It provides a systematic knowledge on problems and issues analyzed. In a
technical report a comprehensive full report of the research process and its outcome. It
covers all the aspects of the research process. In popular report the reader is less
interested in the methodological details, but more interested in the findings of the study.
An interim report in such case can narrate what has been done so far and what was its
outcome. It presents a summary of the findings of that part of analysis which has been
completed. Summary report is meant for lay audience i.e., the general pubic. It is written
in non-technical, simple language with pictorial charts it just contains objectives, findings
and its implications. It is a short report of two to three pages. Research abstract is a short
summary of technical report. It is prepared by a doctoral student on the eve of submitting
his thesis. Research article is designed for publication in a professional journal. A
research article must be clearly written in concise and unambiguous language

3. Discuss the importance of case study method.

Answer: Case study research excels at bringing us to an understanding of a complex issue
or object and can extend experience or add strength to what is already known through
previous research. Case studies emphasize detailed contextual analysis of a limited
number of events or conditions and their relationships. Researchers have used the case
study research method for many years across a variety of disciplines. Social scientists, in
particular, have made wide use of this qualitative research method to examine
contemporary real-life situations and provide the basis for the application of ideas and
extension of methods. Researcher Robert K. Yin defines the case study research method
as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life
context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident;
and in which multiple sources of evidence are used (Yin, 1984, p. 23).
Critics of the case study method believe that the study of a small number of cases can
offer no grounds for establishing reliability or generality of findings. Others feel that the
intense exposure to study of the case biases the findings. Some dismiss case study
research as useful only as an exploratory tool. Yet researchers continue to use the case
study research method with success in carefully planned and crafted studies of real-life
situations, issues, and problems. Reports on case studies from many disciplines are
widely available in the literature.

This paper explains how to use the case study method and then applies the method to an
example case study project designed to examine how one set of users, non-profit
organizations, make use of an electronic community network. The study examines the
issue of whether or not the electronic community network is beneficial in some way to
non-profit organizations and what those benefits might be.

Many well-known case study researchers such as Robert E. Stake, Helen Simons, and
Robert K. Yin have written about case study research and suggested techniques for
organizing and conducting the research successfully. This introduction to case study
research draws upon their work and proposes six steps that should be used:

• Determine and define the research questions

• Select the cases and determine data gathering and analysis techniques
• Prepare to collect the data
• Collect data in the field
• Evaluate and analyze the data
• Prepare the report

Step 1. Determine and Define the Research Questions

The first step in case study research is to establish a firm research focus to which the
researcher can refer over the course of study of a complex phenomenon or object. The
researcher establishes the focus of the study by forming questions about the situation or
problem to be studied and determining a purpose for the study. The research object in a
case study is often a program, an entity, a person, or a group of people. Each object is
likely to be intricately connected to political, social, historical, and personal issues,
providing wide ranging possibilities for questions and adding complexity to the case
study. The researcher investigates the object of the case study in depth using a variety of
data gathering methods to produce evidence that leads to understanding of the case and
answers the research questions.

Case study research generally answers one or more questions which begin with "how" or
"why." The questions are targeted to a limited number of events or conditions and their
inter-relationships. To assist in targeting and formulating the questions, researchers
conduct a literature review. This review establishes what research has been previously
conducted and leads to refined, insightful questions about the problem. Careful definition
of the questions at the start pinpoints where to look for evidence and helps determine the
methods of analysis to be used in the study. The literature review, definition of the
purpose of the case study, and early determination of the potential audience for the final
report guide how the study will be designed, conducted, and publicly reported.

Step 2. Select the Cases and Determine Data Gathering and Analysis Techniques

During the design phase of case study research, the researcher determines what
approaches to use in selecting single or multiple real-life cases to examine in depth and
which instruments and data gathering approaches to use. When using multiple cases, each
case is treated as a single case. Each cases conclusions can then be used as information
contributing to the whole study, but each case remains a single case. Exemplary case
studies carefully select cases and carefully examine the choices available from among
many research tools available in order to increase the validity of the study. Careful
discrimination at the point of selection also helps erect boundaries around the case.

The researcher must determine whether to study cases which are unique in some way or
cases which are considered typical and may also select cases to represent a variety of
geographic regions, a variety of size parameters, or other parameters. A useful step in the
selection process is to repeatedly refer back to the purpose of the study in order to focus
attention on where to look for cases and evidence that will satisfy the purpose of the
study and answer the research questions posed. Selecting multiple or single cases is a key
element, but a case study can include more than one unit of embedded analysis. For
example, a case study may involve study of a single industry and a firm participating in
that industry. This type of case study involves two levels of analysis and increases the
complexity and amount of data to be gathered and analyzed.

A key strength of the case study method involves using multiple sources and techniques
in the data gathering process. The researcher determines in advance what evidence to
gather and what analysis techniques to use with the data to answer the research questions.
Data gathered is normally largely qualitative, but it may also be quantitative. Tools to
collect data can include surveys, interviews, documentation review, observation, and
even the collection of physical artifacts.

The researcher must use the designated data gathering tools systematically and properly
in collecting the evidence. Throughout the design phase, researchers must ensure that the
study is well constructed to ensure construct validity, internal validity, external validity,
and reliability. Construct validity requires the researcher to use the correct measures for
the concepts being studied. Internal validity (especially important with explanatory or
causal studies) demonstrates that certain conditions lead to other conditions and requires
the use of multiple pieces of evidence from multiple sources to uncover convergent lines
of inquiry. The researcher strives to establish a chain of evidence forward and backward.
External validity reflects whether or not findings are generalizable beyond the immediate
case or cases; the more variations in places, people, and procedures a case study can
withstand and still yield the same findings, the more external validity. Techniques such as
cross-case examination and within-case examination along with literature review helps
ensure external validity. Reliability refers to the stability, accuracy, and precision of
measurement. Exemplary case study design ensures that the procedures used are well
documented and can be repeated with the same results over and over again.

Step 3. Prepare to Collect the Data

Because case study research generates a large amount of data from multiple sources,
systematic organization of the data is important to prevent the researcher from becoming
overwhelmed by the amount of data and to prevent the researcher from losing sight of the
original research purpose and questions. Advance preparation assists in handling large
amounts of data in a documented and systematic fashion. Researchers prepare databases
to assist with categorizing, sorting, storing, and retrieving data for analysis.

Exemplary case studies prepare good training programs for investigators, establish clear
protocols and procedures in advance of investigator field work, and conduct a pilot study
in advance of moving into the field in order to remove obvious barriers and problems.
The investigator training program covers the basic concepts of the study, terminology,
processes, and methods, and teaches investigators how to properly apply the techniques
being used in the study. The program also trains investigators to understand how the
gathering of data using multiple techniques strengthens the study by providing
opportunities for triangulation during the analysis phase of the study. The program covers
protocols for case study research, including time deadlines, formats for narrative
reporting and field notes, guidelines for collection of documents, and guidelines for field
procedures to be used. Investigators need to be good listeners who can hear exactly the
words being used by those interviewed. Qualifications for investigators also include
being able to ask good questions and interpret answers. Good investigators review
documents looking for facts, but also read between the lines and pursue collaborative
evidence elsewhere when that seems appropriate. Investigators need to be flexible in real-
life situations and not feel threatened by unexpected change, missed appointments, or
lack of office space. Investigators need to understand the purpose of the study and grasp
the issues and must be open to contrary findings. Investigators must also be aware that
they are going into the world of real human beings who may be threatened or unsure of
what the case study will bring.

After investigators are trained, the final advance preparation step is to select a pilot site
and conduct a pilot test using each data gathering method so that problematic areas can
be uncovered and corrected. Researchers need to anticipate key problems and events,
identify key people, prepare letters of introduction, establish rules for confidentiality, and
actively seek opportunities to revisit and revise the research design in order to address
and add to the original set of research questions.
4. Collect Data in the Field

The researcher must collect and store multiple sources of evidence comprehensively and
systematically, in formats that can be referenced and sorted so that converging lines of
inquiry and patterns can be uncovered. Researchers carefully observe the object of the
case study and identify causal factors associated with the observed phenomenon.
Renegotiation of arrangements with the objects of the study or addition of questions to
interviews may be necessary as the study progresses. Case study research is flexible, but
when changes are made, they are documented systematically.

Exemplary case studies use field notes and databases to categorize and reference data so
that it is readily available for subsequent reinterpretation. Field notes record feelings and
intuitive hunches, pose questions, and document the work in progress. They record
testimonies, stories, and illustrations which can be used in later reports. They may warn
of impending bias because of the detailed exposure of the client to special attention, or
give an early signal that a pattern is emerging. They assist in determining whether or not
the inquiry needs to be reformulated or redefined based on what is being observed. Field
notes should be kept separate from the data being collected and stored for analysis.

Maintaining the relationship between the issue and the evidence is mandatory. The
researcher may enter some data into a database and physically store other data, but the
researcher documents, classifies, and cross-references all evidence so that it can be
efficiently recalled for sorting and examination over the course of the study.

Step 5. Evaluate and Analyze the Data

The researcher examines raw data using many interpretations in order to find linkages
between the research object and the outcomes with reference to the original research
questions. Throughout the evaluation and analysis process, the researcher remains open
to new opportunities and insights. The case study method, with its use of multiple data
collection methods and analysis techniques, provides researchers with opportunities to
triangulate data in order to strengthen the research findings and conclusions.

The tactics used in analysis force researchers to move beyond initial impressions to
improve the likelihood of accurate and reliable findings. Exemplary case studies will
deliberately sort the data in many different ways to expose or create new insights and will
deliberately look for conflicting data to disconfirm the analysis. Researchers categorize,
tabulate, and recombine data to address the initial propositions or purpose of the study,
and conduct cross-checks of facts and discrepancies in accounts. Focused, short, repeat
interviews may be necessary to gather additional data to verify key observations or check
a fact.

Specific techniques include placing information into arrays, creating matrices of

categories, creating flow charts or other displays, and tabulating frequency of events.
Researchers use the quantitative data that has been collected to corroborate and support
the qualitative data which is most useful for understanding the rationale or theory
underlying relationships. Another technique is to use multiple investigators to gain the
advantage provided when a variety of perspectives and insights examine the data and the
patterns. When the multiple observations converge, confidence in the findings increases.
Conflicting perceptions, on the other hand, cause the researchers to pry more deeply.

Another technique, the cross-case search for patterns, keeps investigators from reaching
premature conclusions by requiring that investigators look at the data in many different
ways. Cross-case analysis divides the data by type across all cases investigated. One
researcher then examines the data of that type thoroughly. When a pattern from one data
type is corroborated by the evidence from another, the finding is stronger. When evidence
conflicts, deeper probing of the differences is necessary to identify the cause or source of
conflict. In all cases, the researcher treats the evidence fairly to produce analytic
conclusions answering the original "how" and "why" research questions.

Step 6. Prepare the report

Exemplary case studies report the data in a way that transforms a complex issue into one
that can be understood, allowing the reader to question and examine the study and reach
an understanding independent of the researcher. The goal of the written report is to
portray a complex problem in a way that conveys a vicarious experience to the reader.
Case studies present data in very publicly accessible ways and may lead the reader to
apply the experience in his or her own real-life situation. Researchers pay particular
attention to displaying sufficient evidence to gain the readers confidence that all avenues
have been explored, clearly communicating the boundaries of the case, and giving special
attention to conflicting propositions.

Techniques for composing the report can include handling each case as a separate chapter
or treating the case as a chronological recounting. Some researchers report the case study
as a story. During the report preparation process, researchers critically examine the
document looking for ways the report is incomplete. The researcher uses representative
audience groups to review and comment on the draft document. Based on the comments,
the researcher rewrites and makes revisions. Some case study researchers suggest that the
document review audience include a journalist and some suggest that the documents
should be reviewed by the participants in the study.

4. Give the importance of frequency tables and discuss the principles of table construction,
frequency distribution and class intervals determination

Answer : Frequency tables provide a “shorthand” summary of data. The importance of

presenting statistical data in tabular form needs no emphasis. Tables facilitate
comprehending masses of data at a glance; they conserve space and reduce explanations
and descriptions to a minimum. They give a visual picture of relationships between
variables and categories. They facilitate summation of item and the detection of errors
and omissions and provide a basis for computations.
It is important to make a distinction between the general purpose tables and specific
tables. The general purpose tables are primary or reference tables designed to include
large amount of source data in convenient and accessible form. The special purpose
tables are analytical or derivate ones that demonstrate significant relationships in the data
or the results of statistical analysis. Tables in reports of government on population, vital
statistics, agriculture, industries etc., are of general purpose type. They represent
extensive repositories and statistical information. Special purpose tables are found in
monographs, research reports and articles and reused as instruments of analysis. In
research, we are primarily concerned with special purpose.

Components of a Table

The major components of a table are:

A Heading:

(a) Table Number

(b) Title of the Table

(c) Designation of units

B Body

1. Sub-head, Heading of all rows or blocks of stub items

1. Body-head: Headings of all columns or main captions and their sub-
captions.
2. Field/body: The cells in rows and columns.

C Notations:

• Footnotes, wherever applicable.

• Source, wherever applicable.

Principles of Table Construction

There are certain generally accepted principles of rules relating to construction of tables.
They are:

1. Every table should have a title. The tile should represent a succinct description of
the contents of the table. It should be clear and concise. It should be placed above
the body of the table.
2. A number facilitating easy reference should identify every table. The number can
be centred above the title. The table numbers should run in consecutive serial
order. Alternatively tables in chapter 1 be numbered as 1.1, 1.2, 1….., in chapter 2
as 2.1, 2.2, 2.3…. and so on.
 3. The captions (or column headings) should be clear and brief.
4. The units of measurement under each heading must always be indicated.
5. Any explanatory footnotes concerning the table itself are placed directly beneath
the table and in order to obviate any possible confusion with the textual footnotes
such reference symbols as the asterisk (*) DAGGER (+) and the like may be used.
6. If the data in a series of tables have been obtained from different sources, it is
ordinarily advisable to indicate the specific sources in a place just below the table.
7. Usually lines separate columns from one another. Lines are always drawn at the
top and bottom of the table and below the captions.
8. The columns may be numbered to facilitate reference.
9. All column figures should be properly aligned. Decimal points and “plus” or
“minus” signs should be in perfect alignment.
10. Columns and rows that are to be compared with one another should be brought
closed together.
11. Totals of rows should be placed at the extreme right column and totals of columns
at the bottom.
12. In order to emphasize the relative significance of certain categories, different
kinds of type, spacing and identifications can be used.
13. The arrangement of the categories in a table may be chronological, geographical,
alphabetical or according to magnitude. Numerical categories are usually arranged
in descending order of magnitude.
14. Miscellaneous and exceptions items are generally placed in the last row of the
table.
15. Usually the larger number of items is listed vertically. This means that a table’s
length is more than its width.
16. Abbreviations should be avoided whenever possible and ditto marks should not be
used in a table.
17. The table should be made as logical, clear, accurate and simple as possible.

Text references should identify tables by number, rather than by such expressions as “the
table above” or “the following table”. Tables should not exceed the page size by photo
stating. Tables those are too wide for the page may be turned sidewise, with the top
facing the left margin or binding of the script. Where tables should be placed in research
report or thesis? Some writers place both special purpose and general purpose tables in an
appendix and refer to them in the text by numbers. This practice has the disadvantages of
inconveniencing the reader who wants to study the tabulated data as the text is read. A
more appropriate procedure is to place special purpose tables in the text and primary
tables, if needed at all, in an appendix.

Frequency Distribution and Class Intervals

Variables that are classified according to magnitude or size are often arranged in the form
of a frequency table. In constructing this table, it is necessary to determine the number of
class intervals to be used and the size of the class intervals.
A distinction is usually made between continuous and discrete variables. A continuous
variable has an unlimited number of possible values between the lowest and highest with
no gaps or breaks. Examples of continuous variable are age, weight, temperature etc. A
discrete variable can have a series of specified values with no possibility of values
between these points. Each value of a discrete variable is distinct and separate. Examples
of discrete variables are gender of persons (male/female) occupation (salaried, business,
profession) car size (800cc, 1000cc, 1200cc)

In practice, all variables are treated as discrete units, the continuous variables being stated
in some discrete unit size according to the needs of a particular situation. For example,
length is described in discrete units of millimetres or a tenth of an inch.

Class Intervals: Ordinarily, the number of class intervals may not be less than 5 not
more than 15, depending on the nature of the data and the number of cases being studied.
After noting the highest and lower values and the feature of the data, the number of
intervals can be easily determined.

For many types of data, it is desirable to have class intervals of uniform size. The
intervals should neither be too small nor too large. Whenever possible, the intervals
should represent common and convenient numerical divisions such as 5 or 10, rather than
odd division such as 3 to 7. Class intervals must be clearly designated in a frequency
table in such a way as to obviate any possibility of misinterpretation of confusion. For
example, to present the age group of a population, the use of intervals of 1-20, 20-50, and
50 and above would be confusing. This may be presented as 1-20, 21-50, and above 50.

Every class interval has a mid point. For example, the midpoint of an interval 1-20 is 10.5
and the midpoint of class interval 1-25 would be 13. Once class intervals are determined,
it is routine work to count the number of cases that fall in each interval.

5.Write a short notes on the following:

a. Type I error and type II error.

b. One tailed and two tailed test
c. Selecting the significance level

Answer : (a) In statistics, the terms type I error (also, α error, false alarm rate (FAR)
or false positive) and type II error (β error, miss rate or a false negative) are used to
describe possible errors made in a statistical decision process. In 1928, Jerzy Neyman
(1894-1981) and Egon Pearson (1895-1980), both eminent statisticians, discussed the
problems associated with "deciding whether or not a particular sample may be judged as
likely to have been randomly drawn from a certain population" (1928/1967, p. 1), and
identified "two sources of error", namely:

Type I (α): reject the null hypothesis when the null hypothesis is true, and
 Type II (β): fail to reject the null hypothesis when the null hypothesis is false

In systems theory an additional type III error is often defined:

Type III (δ): asking the wrong question and using the wrong null hypothesis

In 1930, they elaborated on these two sources of error, remarking that "in testing
hypotheses two considerations must be kept in view, (1) we must be able to reduce the
chance of rejecting a true hypothesis to as low a value as desired; (2) the test must be so
devised that it will reject the hypothesis tested when it is likely to be false."

When you conduct a test of statistical significance, whether it is from a correlation, an

ANOVA, a regression or some other kind of test, you are given a p-value somewhere in
the output. If your test statistic is symmetrically distributed, you can select one of three
alternative hypotheses. Two of these correspond to one-tailed tests and one corresponds
to a two-tailed test. However, the p-value presented is (almost always) for a two-tailed
test. But how do you choose which test? Is the p-value appropriate for your test? And, if
it is not, how can you calculate the correct p-value for your test given the p-value in your
output?

(b) Two Tailed Test : First let's start with the meaning of a two-tailed test. If you are
using a significance level of 0.05, a two-tailed test allots half of your alpha to testing the
statistical significance in one direction and half of your alpha to testing statistical
significance in the other direction. This means that .025 is in each tail of the distribution
of your test statistic. When using a two-tailed test, regardless of the direction of the
relationship you hypothesize, you are testing for the possibility of the relationship in both
directions. For example, we may wish to compare the mean of a sample to a given value
x using a t-test. Our null hypothesis is that the mean is equal to x. A two-tailed test will
test both if the mean is significantly greater than x and if the mean significantly less than
x. The mean is considered significantly different from x if the test statistic is in the top
2.5% or bottom 2.5% of its probability distribution, resulting in a p-value less than 0.05.

One Tailed Test: let's discuss the meaning of a one-tailed test. If you are using a
significance level of .05, a one-tailed test allots all of your alpha to testing the statistical
significance in the one direction of interest. This means that .05 is in one tail of the
distribution of your test statistic. When using a one-tailed test, you are testing for the
possibility of the relationship in one direction and completely disregarding the possibility
of a relationship in the other direction. Let's return to our example comparing the mean
of a sample to a given value x using a t-test. Our null hypothesis is that the mean is equal
to x. A one-tailed test will test either if the mean is significantly greater than x or if the
mean is significantly less than x, but not both. Then, depending on the chosen tail, the
mean is significantly greater than or less than x if the test statistic is in the top 5% of its
probability distribution or bottom 5% of its probability distribution, resulting in a p-value
less than 0.05. The one-tailed test provides more power to detect an effect in one
direction by not testing the effect in the other direction
(c) The hypothesis is tested on a pre-determined level of significance and such the same
should have specified. Generally, in practice, either 5% level or 1% level is adopted for
the purpose. The factors that affect the level of significance are:

• The magnitude of the difference between sample ;

• The size of the sample;

• The variability of measurements within samples;
• Whether the hypothesis is directional or non – directional (A directional
hypothesis is one which predicts the direction of the difference between, say,
means). In brief, the level of significance must be adequate in the context of the
purpose and nature of enquiry.

6. Explain Karl Pearson Co-efficient of correlation. Calculate Karl Pearson coefficient

for the following data:

X(height-cm) 174 175 176 177 178 182 183 186 189 193

Y(weight-kg) 61 65 67 68 72 74 80 87 92 95

Answer : Karl Pearson’s Co-Efficient of Correlation is a mathematical

method for measuring correlation. Karl Pearson developed the correlation
from the covariance between two sets of variables. Karl Pearson’s Co-
Efficient of Correlation is denoted by symbol r. The formula for obtaining
Karl Pearson’s Co-Efficient of Correlation is:

Direct method

xy / N –Σ Covariance between x and y = y/N)Σ x/N X Σ (

SDx = standard deviation of x series = √ xΣ (2 / N) – x/N)Σ ( 2

SDy = standard deviation of y series = √ yΣ (2 y/N)Σ / N) – ( 2

Shortcut Method using Assumed Mean

If short cut method is used using assumed mean, the formula for
obtaining Karl Pearson’s Co-Efficient of Correlation is:
• Interpreting Co-Efficient of Correlation

The Co-Efficient of Correlation measures the correlation between two

variables. The value of Co-Efficient of Correlation always lies between
+1 and –1. It can be interpreted in the following ways.

If the value of Co-Efficient of Correlation r is 1 it is interpreted as

perfect positive correlation.

If the value of Co-Efficient of Correlation r is -1, it is interpreted as

perfect negative correlation.

If the value of Co-Efficient of Correlation r is 0 < r < 0.5, it is

interpreted as poor positive correlation.

If the value of Co-Efficient of Correlation r is 0.5 < r < 1, it is

interpreted as good positive correlation.

If the value of Co-Efficient of Correlation r is 0 > r > -0.5, it is

interpreted as poor negative correlation.

If the value of Co-Efficient of Correlation r is –0.5 > r > -1, it is

interpreted as good negative correlation.

If the value of Co-Efficient of Correlation r is 0, it is interpreted as zero

correlation.

• Probable Error

Probable Error of Correlation coefficient is estimated to find out the extent to

which the value of r is dependable. If Probable Error is added to or subtracted
from the correlation coefficient, it would give such limits within which we can
reasonably expect the value of correlation to vary.

If the coefficient of correlation is less than Probable Error it will not be

significant. If the coefficient of correlation r is more than six times the
Probable Error, correlation is definitely significant. If Probable Error is
0.5 or more, it is generally considered as significant. Probable Error is
estimated by the following formula
 PE = 0.6745 (1- r2/ √ N)

X Y dx dy dx2 dy2 dxdy

174 61 -01 -19 01 361 19
A(175) 65 00 -15 00 225 00
176 67 01 -13 01 169 -13
177 68 02 -12 04 144 -24
178 72 03 -08 09 64 -24
182 74 07 -06 49 36 -42
183 A(80) 08 00 64 00 00
186 87 11 07 121 49 77
189 92 14 12 196 144 168
193 95 18 15 324 225 270
63 -39 769 1417 431

Covariance between x and y = Σ dxdy/N – (Σ dx/N X Σ dy/N)

r = Σ dxdy/N – (Σ dx/N X Σ dy/N) / √ ( Σ dx2/N) − ( Σ dx/Ν) 2 X √ ( Σ dy2/N)-
(Σ dy/N)2

= 0 .8454511 ( putting the values we get approximately)