CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

OVERVIEW OF TRAFFIC LIGHT SYSTEM

Ever since Roman times, society has tried to control traffic. Even the fabled Roman road
system created a conflict between pedestrian and equine travellers. However, a practical
solution was not developed until the mid-nineteenth century, when J. P. Knight, a railway
signalling engineer, created the first traffic signal, which was installed near Westminster
Abbey in London, England in 1868. Unfortunately, the device exploded, killing a police
officer, and its use was discontinued after being in operation for only a short time.
The modern traffic light was invented in America. New York had a three colour system in
1918 that was operated manually from a tower in the middle of the street. Other cities soon
adopted the idea of having someone on the scene to control the lights. Garrett Morgan,
inventor of the gas mask, also developed traffic signalling devices. Having witnessed an
accident between a car and a carriage, Morgan felt compelled to devise a system to prevent
such collisions at street intersections. In 1923 he patented an electric traffic light system using
a pole with a cross section on which the words STOP and GO were illuminated.
These basic designs were soon improved. In 1926 the first automatic signals were installed in
London; they depended on a timer to activate them. In the 1930s vehicle-activated lights were
created in which cars rolled over half-buried rubber tubes. Air in the tubes was displaced by
the weight of the car rolling over them, and the increased pressure operated an electric
contact, activating the lights. But these tubes wore out quickly. A better idea was the
inductive-loop device: a loop of wire was imbedded in the road itself and connected to a box
controlling the lights; a current of electricity passed through the loop, and when the steel
body of a car passed overhead, it produced a signal that activated the light.

Today, traffic is automatically routed onto limited access highways courtesy of a computer
activated guidance system that determines traffic volume on the highway. Global positioning
satellite systems (GPS) are installed in many cars.
These systems connect with a satellite and inform drivers where they are and
possible routes to their destination. Such systems will eventually enable a drive to
determine the best route to a destination given prevailing traffic conditions.

FIGURE 1.1 Traffic Light

1.1 HISTORY
On December 10, 1868, the first traffic lights were installed outside the British Houses of
Parliament in London, by the railway engineer J. P. Knight. They resembled railway signals
of the time, with semaphore arms and red and green gas lamps for night use. The gas lantern
was turned with a lever at its base so that the appropriate light faced traffic. It exploded on 2
January 1869, injuring or killing the policeman who was operating it.
The modern electric traffic light is an American invention. As early as 1912 in Salt Lake City,
Utah, policeman Lester Wire invented the first red-green electric traffic lights. On August 5,
1914, the American Traffic Signal Company installed a traffic signal system on the corner of
East 105th Street and Euclid Avenue in Cleveland, Ohio. It had two colours, red and green,
and a buzzer, based on the design of James Hoge, to provide a warning for colour changes.
The designed by James Hoge allowed police and fire stations to control the signals in case of
emergency.
The first four-way, three-colour traffic light was created by police officer William Potts in
Detroit, Michigan in 1920. In 1922, T.E. Hayes patented his "Combination traffic guide and
traffic regulating signal" (Patent # 1447659). Ashville, Ohio claims to be the location of the
oldest working traffic light in the United States, used at an intersection of public roads until
1982 when it was moved to a local museum.The first interconnected traffic signal system was
installed in Salt Lake City in 1917 with six connected intersections controlled simultaneously
from a manual switch. Automatic control of interconnected traffic lights was introduced
2

March 1922 in Houston, Texas. The first automatic experimental traffic lights in England
were deployed in Wolverhampton in 1927. In 1923, Garrett Morgan patented his own
version. The Morgan traffic signal was a T-shaped pole unit that featured three hand-cranked
positions: Stop, go, and an all -directional stop position. This third position halted traffic in
all directions to give drivers more time to stop before opposing traffic started. Its one
"advantage" over others of its type was the ability to operate it from a distance using a
mechanical linkage. Toronto was the first city to computerize its entire traffic signal system,
which it accomplished in 1963.
The colour of the traffic lights representing stop and go might be derived from those used to
identify port (red) and starboard (green) in maritime rules governing right of way, where the
vessel on the left must stop for the one crossing on the right.
Countdown timers on traffic lights were introduced in the 1990s. Though uncommon in most
American urban areas, timers are used in some other Western Hemisphere countries. Timers
are useful for drivers/pedestrians to plan if there is enough time to attempt to cross the
intersection before the light turns red and conversely, the amount of time before the light
turns green.

2.1 TRAFFIC CONTROL BASED ON DENSITY

In this system IR sensors are used to measure the density of the vehicles which are fixed
with in a fixed distance. All the sensors are interfaced with the microcontroller which in
turn controls the traffic signal system according to density by the sensor.
If the traffic density is high in particular side more priority is given for that side. The
sensor continuously keeps sensing density on all sides and the green signal is given to the
side in priority basis, where the sensor detects high density. The side with next priority
level follows the first priority level.
By using this system traffic can cleared without irregularities and time delays even
though there is no traffic on the other side can be avoided.

2.1.1 DESCRIPTION

We have three pairs of sensors across the roads marking as low, medium and high

density zones respectively.

There will be a infrared transmitter and infrared receiver opposite to each other . We

will place sensors at some distance apart from another pair.

When vehicles are filled and cross the first pair of sensors , then there will be an
obstacle between transmitter and receiver and this lead to a digital signal (low or high)

and the microcontroller assumes that there is low density traffic

When the vehicle crosses second sensor ten it assumes medium density and for third

sensor pair high density traffic respectively.

Depending on the above process a digital data is sent to microcontroller whether its

low or high and the microcontroller will allot the time for the traffic to pass on.
For high density traffic there will be more allotment of the time and for low density
low time respectively. Program written to the microcontroller will make it to do the

operation.
So the microcontroller will send its timing signal output by comparing with the
adjacent roads traffic.

2.2 INTELLIGENT AMBULANCE

Most of the time the traffic will be at least for 100meters .In this distance the traffics police
cant hear the siren form the ambulance. Then the ambulance has to wait till the traffic is
cleared. Some times to free the traffic it takes at least 30 minutes .So by this time anything
can happen to the patient .So this project avoid these disadvantages. The second feature is the
information system in the Ambulance. The system will inform the status of the patient to the
hospital as the command giving to the system in the ambulance. According to this project if
any ambulance at emergency comes to any traffic post the traffic signals automatically stop
the signals and give green signal for this ambulance. Normally, we will have the traffic signal
lights programmed for a particular time intervals. But, here we will generate the traffic light
signals based on the traffic, on the particular time.

2.2.1 DESCRIPTION

When the ambulance at emergency comes to any traffic post the traffic signals
automatically stop the signals and give green signal for this ambulance.

The ambulance carries an IR transmitter and IR receiver will be there at few meters at
the signal. The receiver will receive the signal and the module will send the command
to turn on green through the RF and every traffic post will have an RF receiver. So
whenever the ambulance comes near the traffic, the ambulance will transmit a code
say emergency the receiver will receive this signal .Then it immediately switch off
the other signals i.e. it make all the signals red and later make way for ambulance by
signalling green. So by doing this the ambulance can go without any problem.

3 SOFTWARE AND HARDWARE REQUIREMENT

3.1 HARDWARE
3.1.1 MICROCONTROLLER ATMEGA8
A microcontroller is an integrated chip that is often part of an embedded system. The
microcontroller includes a CPU, RAM, ROM,I/O ports, and timers like a standard
computer, but because they are designed to execute only a single specific task to control a
single system ,they are much smaller and simplified.

3.1.1.1 ARCHITECTURE

Architecture of Microcontroller is classified into two types: Data Flow and Instruction.

Data Flow
6

There are two types of architecture in data flow. They are :

Von Neumann Architecture

Harvard Architecture
One shared memory is only available for instructions (program) and data

instructions and data have to be fetched in sequential order in case of Von Neumann
architecture. The Harvard architecture on the other hand uses physically separate
memories for their instructions and data, requiring dedicated buses for each of them.
Instructions and Operands can therefore be fetched simultaneously.

3.1.1.2 INSTRUCTION TYPE

There are two types of architecture in instruction type. They are

CISC
RISC

CISC
CISC architecture supports as many as 200 instructions. A CISC microprocessor contains
a more complex set of instructions that it responds to and some of these instructions
cannot be completed in one machine cycle
RISC
This is a type of architecture that recognizes a relatively limited number of instructions.
Until the mid-1980s, the tendency among computer manufacturers was to build
increasingly complex CPUs that had ever-larger sets of instructions . At that time,
however, a number of computer manufacturers decided to reverse this trend by building
CPUs capable of executing only a very limited set of instructions. One advantage of
reduced instruction set computers is that they can execute their instructions very fast
because the instructions are so simple.

3.1.1.3 8 BIT- CONTROLLER

Application volumes for the 8-bit microcontrollers may be as high as the 4-bit models, or
they may be very low. Application sophistication can also range from simple application
control to high-speed machine control and data collection. For these reasons, the
microcontroller vendors have established extensive families of similar models.
All features a common language, but differ in the amount of internal ROM, RAM, and
other cost-sensitive features. Often the memory can be expanded to include off-chip ROM
and RAM; in some cases, the microcontroller has no on-board ROM at all, or the ROM is
an electrically reprogrammable read only memory (EPROM).
Manufacture: Intel 8051
Pins/I/O

40/32

Counter

RAM

256bytes

ROM

8K

3.1.1.4 FEATURES OF ATMEGA8

8 bit Microcontroller
8K bytes of Flash Programmable and Erasable ROM
Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 16 MHz
256* 8-bit Internal RAM
18 Programmable I/O Lines
Six Interrupt Sources
Two 16 bit Timer/Counters
Programmable Serial Channel
Low Power Idle and Power-down modes

Three level Program Memory Lock

3.1.1.5 PIN DIAGRAM AND DESCRIPTION

PIN DIAGRAM
8

PIN DESCRIPTION
VCC:
Digital supply voltage.
GND:
Ground.
Port B (PB7..PB0) XTAL1/XTAL2/TOSC1/ TOSC2 :
Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit).
The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and
source capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will source current if
the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated when a reset condition
becomes active, even if the clock is not running. Depending on the clock selection fuse
settings, PB6 can be used as input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier and input to the
internal clock operating circuit. Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB7 can be
used as output from the inverting Oscillator amplifier. If the Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator
is used as chip clock source, PB7..6 is used as TOSC2..1 input for the Asynchronous
Timer/Counter2 if the AS2 bit in ASSR is set. .
Port C (PC5..PC0):

Port C is an 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit).
The Port C output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and
source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low will source current if
the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated when a reset condition
becomes active, even if the clock is not running. PC6/RESET If the RSTDISBL Fuse is
programmed, PC6 is used as an I/O pin. Note that the electrical characteristics of PC6 differ
from those of the other pins of Port C. If the RSTDISBL Fuse is unprogrammed, PC6 is used
as a Reset input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will
generate a Reset, even if the clock is not running. The minimum pulse length is given in.
Shorter pulses are not guaranteed to generate a Reset.
Port D (PD7..PD0):
Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit).
The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and
source capability. As inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low will source current if
the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset condition
becomes active, even if the clock is not running.
RESET :
Reset input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will generate a
reset, even if the clock is not running. Shorter pulses are not guaranteed to generate a reset.
AVCC:
AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter, Port C (3..0), and

ADC (7..6). It

should be externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it
should be connected to VCC through a low-pass filter. Note that Port C (5..4) use digital
supply voltage, VCC.
AREF :
AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.
10

ADC7..6 (TQFP and QFN/MLF Package Only):

In the TQFP and QFN/MLF package, ADC7..6 serve as analog inputs to the A/D converter.
These pins are powered from the analog supply and serve as 10-bit ADC channels

3.1.1.6 ADVANTAGES OF ATMEGA8

Cost effective
Low Power
Highly flexible
High performance

11

CHAPTER 4: LCD

4.1.2 LCD (LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY)

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat display device made up of any number of color or
monochrome pixels arrayed in front of a light source or reflector. It is utilized in battery-powered
electronic devices as it uses very small amounts of electric power. LCDs with a small number of
segments, such as those used in digital watches and pocket calculators have individual electrical
contacts for each segment. An external dedicated circuit supplies an electric charge to control
each segment.

FIGURE 4.2 LCD

4.1.2.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Figure 4.3 A 16 Character x 2 Line LCD Module

12

4.1.2.2 CIRCUIT DISCRIPTION

The LCD panel's Enable and Register Select is connected to the Control Port. The Control Port is
an open collector / open drain output. By incorporating two 10K external pull up resistors, the
circuit is made portable for a wider range of computers. The R/W line of the LCD panel is hardwired into the write mode which will not cause any bus conflicts on the data lines. Hence the
LCD's internal Busy Flag cannot tell if the LCD has accepted and finished processing the last
instruction or not. The 10k Potentiometer controls the contrast of the LCD panel

GND

Ground

VCC

Supply Voltage +5V

VEE

Contrast adjustment

RS

R/W

Read/ Write

Enable

D0 to D7

I/O Data pins

15

VB1

Backlight +5V

16

VB0

Backlight ground

7 to 14

Register select :0->Control input,

1-> Data input

13

Table 2 Pin Details of LCD

Figure 4.3 Timing diagram of LCD

This waveform will write an ASCII Byte out to the LCD's screen. The ASCII code to be
displayed is eight bits long and is sent to the LCD either four or eight bits at a time. If four bit
mode is used, two "nibbles" of data (Sent high four bits and then low four bits with an "E" Clock
pulse with each nibble) are sent to make up a full eight bit transfer. The "E" Clock is used to
initiate the data transfer within the LCD.
The "R/S" bit is used to select whether data or an instruction is being transferred between the
microcontroller and the LCD. If the Bit is set, then the byte at the current LCD "Cursor" Position
can be read or written. When the Bit is reset, either an instruction is being sent to the LCD or the
execution status of the last instruction is read back Reading Data back is used in applications
which requires data to be moved back and forth on the LCD .
The "Busy Flag" can be polled to determine when the last instruction that has been sent has
completed processing. The "R/W" line is tied to ground if read back is not required. This
simplifies the application because when data is read back, the microcontroller I/O pins have
to be alternated between input and output modes. The "Clear Display" and "Return Cursor
and LCD to Home Position" instructions are used to reset the Cursor's position to the top
right character on the display.

14

Eight programmable characters are available and use codes 0x000 to 0x007. They are
programmed by pointing the LCD's "Cursor" to the Character Generator RAM ("CGRAM") Area
at eight times the character address. The next eight characters written to the RAM are each line of
the programmable character, starting at the top. Each LCD character is actually eight pixels high,
with the bottom row normally used for the underscore cursor. The bottom row can be used for
graphic characters. The user defined character line information is saved in the LCD's "CGRAM"
area. This sixty four bytes of memory is accessed using the "Move Cursor into CGRAM"
instruction.
A potentiometer wired as a voltage divider is used as a contrast voltage to the Display. This will
provide an easily variable voltage between Ground and Vcc, which will be used to specify the
contrast (or "darkness") of the characters on the LCD screen. Different LCDs work differently
with lower voltages providing darker characters in some and higher voltages do the same thing in
others.
There are a variety of different ways of wiring up an LCD. To simplify the demands in
microcontrollers, a shift register is often used to reduce the number of I/O pins to three.

15

4.1.3 IR TRANSMITTER
A IR TRANSMITTER device consists of a timer circuit connected to an infrared LED
array. The timer causes the infrared LEDs to strobe at specific frequencies, such as
10Hz for low priority (buses) or 14 Hz for high priority (emergency vehicles). Low
Priority transmitters will control the intersection to perform a normal light change,
while High Priority transmitters will change an entire intersection immediately

Figure 4.5 Package Dimension

16

4.1.3.2 FEATURES

Wavelength= 880 nm
Chip material = AlGaAs
Package type: T-1 3/4 (5mm lens diameter)
Matched Photo sensor: QSD122/123/124
Medium Wide Emission Angle, 40
High Output Power
Package material and color: Clear, purple tinted, plastic

4.1.4 IR RECEIVER
4.1.4.1 DIAGRAM

4.1.4.2 FEATURES

Photo detector and preamplifier in one package

Internal filter for PCM frequency
Improved shielding against electrical field disturbance
TTL and CMOS compatibility
Output active low
Low power consumption.

4.1.5 LED (LIGHT EMITTING DIODE)

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as

indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced
as a practical electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red
17

light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared
wavelengths, with very high brightness.

When a light-emitting diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are

able to recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in the
form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the colour
of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by
the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is usually small in area (less
than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components are used to shape its
radiation pattern and assist in reflection. LEDs present many advantages
over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption,
longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and
greater durability and reliability. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting
are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat
management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable
output.

FIGURE 4.6 LED

18

FEATURES

Efficiency: LEDs emit more light per watt than incandescent light bulbs. Their

efficiency is not affected by shape and size, unlike fluorescent light bulbs or tubes.

Colour: LEDs can emit light of an intended colour without using any colour filters as

traditional lighting methods need. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.

Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm) and are easily populated onto

printed circuit boards.

On/Off time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve

full brightness in under a microsecond LEDs used in communications devices can have
even faster response times.

Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike fluorescent

lamps that fail faster when cycled often, or HID lamps that require a long time before
restarting.

Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width modulation or

lowering the forward current.

Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form

of IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as
heat through the base of the LED.

Slow failure: LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt failure

of incandescent bulbs.

Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to

50,000 hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be longer. Fluorescent
tubes typically are rated at about 10,000 to 15,000 hours, depending partly on the
conditions of use, and incandescent light bulbs at 1,0002,000 hours.

Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid state components, are difficult to damage with

external shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs, which are fragile.
Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent and
fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable
manner

4.2

SOFTWARE

19

4.1.1 KEIL CROSS COMPILER

A KEIL cross compiler is a software, which compiles a source code of one
environment as an object file to be executed in different environment.
It is broadly classified into development and simulation.Development of programs are
handled by Micro vision software and the simulation is handled by D Scope.
The Keil C51 C Compiler for the 8051 microcontroller is the most popular 8051 C
compiler in the world. It provides more features than any other 8051 C compiler
available today.
The C51 Compiler allows you to write 8051 microcontroller applications in C that,
once compiled, have the efficiency and speed of assembly language. Language
extensions in the C51 Compiler give you full access to all resources of the 8051.
The C51 Compiler translates C source files into relocatable object modules which
contain full symbolic information for debugging with the Vision Debugger or an incircuit emulator. In addition to the object file, the compiler generates a listing file
which may optionally include symbol table and cross reference information.

4.2.1.1-FEATURE
To help expedite the software development process, Vision offers numerous features
like:

A pull down menu system,

Multiple file editing capability,
Full function editor with colour syntax highlighting, user definable key

sequences, and editor functions,

Application manager for accessing external programs,

20

CHAPTER 5: MODULES DESCRIPTION

5.1 TRAFFIC CONTROL UNIT
This section consists of microcontroller, LCD display

FIGURE 5.1 Traffic Control Unit

5.1.1 IR TRANSMITTER
Infrared (IR) transmitters are found in many everyday electronic devices, such as
television remote controls. These devices operate in the electromagnetic spectrum's
infrared region. An IR transmitter is designed to transmit signals and commands to
electronic equipment through infrared waves.

21

Infrared transmitters are short-range communication devices and are not designed for
long-range communication.
An IR transmitter can be employed for many applications. Essentially, it is used to give
commands to electronic devices from a distance without using cords, cables or wires.
Most modern electronic devices are controlled mainly through an IR transmitter, making
them remote-control devices. Very few designated buttons make it onto actual modern
electronics such as televisions and video game systems

5.1.2 IR RECIEVER
IR receiver controls are using a 32-56 kHz modulated square wave for communication.
These circuits are used to transmit a 1-4 kHz digital signal (OOK modulation) through
infra light (this is the maximum attainable speed, 1000-4000 bits per sec). The transmitter
oscillator runs with adjustable frequency in the 32-56kHz range, and is being turned
ON/OFF with the modulating signal, a TTL voltage on the MOD input. On the receiver
side a photodiode takes up the signal. The integrated circuit inside the chip is sensitive
only around a specified frequency in the 32-56 kHz range. The output is the demodulated
digital input (but usually inverted), just what we used to drive the transmitter. When the
carrier is present, this output is usually low. When no carrier is detected, the output is
usually high.

5.1.3 MICROCONTROLLER
A microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated C, uC or MCU) is a small computer on a single
integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output
peripherals. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included
on chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM.

22

Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the microprocessors

used in personal computers or other general purpose applications.
Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as
automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office
machines, appliances, power tools, toys and other embedded systems. By reducing the size
and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output
devices, microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and
processes. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed
to control non-digital electronic systems.

FIGURE 6.2 MICROCONTROLLER

Some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at clock rate frequencies as low as
4 kHz, for low power consumption (milli watts or microwatts). They will generally have the
ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a button press or other
interrupt; power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals off) may be
just nano watts, making many of them well suited for long lasting battery applications.
Other microcontrollers may serve performance-critical roles, where they may need to act
more like a digital signal processor (DSP), with higher clock speeds and power consumption.

23

5.1.4 DRIVER CIRCUIT

In electronics, a driver is an electrical circuit or other electronic component used to control
another circuit or other component, such as a high-power transistor. They are usually used to
regulate current flowing through a circuit or is used to control the other factors such as other
components, some devices in the circuit. The term is used, for example, for a specialized
computer chip that controls the high-power transistors in AC-to-DC voltage converters. An
amplifier can also be considered the driver for loudspeakers, or a constant voltage circuit that
keeps an attached component operating within a broad range of input voltages.

FIGURE 6.2 DRIVER CIRCUIT

Typically the driver stage(s) of a circuit requires different characteristics to other circuit
stages. For example in a transistor power amplifier, typically the driver circuit requires
current gain, often the ability to discharge the following transistor bases rapidly, and low
output impedance to avoid or minimise distortion.

24

5.1.5 SIGNAL CONDIONING CIRCUIT

In electronics, signal conditioning means manipulating an analog signal in such a way that it
meets the requirements of the next stage for further processing. Most common use is in
analog-to-digital converters.
In control engineering applications, it is common to have a sensing stage (which consists of a
sensor), a signal conditioning stage (where usually amplification of the signal is done) and a
processing stage (normally carried out by an ADC and a micro-controller). Operational
amplifiers (op-amps) are commonly employed to carry out the amplification of the signal in
the signal conditioning stage.
Signal inputs accepted by signal conditioners include DC voltage and current, AC voltage
and current, frequency and electric charge. Sensor inputs can be accelerometer,
thermocouple, thermistor, resistance thermometer, strain gauge or bridge, and LVDT or
RVDT. Specialized inputs include encoder, counter or tachometer, timer or clock, relay or
switch, and other specialized inputs. Outputs for signal conditioning equipment can be
voltage, current, frequency, timer or counter, relay, resistance or potentiometer, and other
specialized outputs.
Signal conditioning can include amplification, filtering, converting, range matching, isolation
and any other processes required to make sensor output suitable for processing after
conditioning.

5.1.6 LCD
A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a flat panel display, electronic visual display, or video
display that uses the light modulating properties of liquid crystals (LCs). LCs do not emit
light directly.

25

LCDs are used in a wide range of applications, including computer monitors, television,
instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, signage, etc. They are common in consumer
devices such as video players, gaming devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and telephones.
LCDs have replaced cathode ray tube (CRT) displays in most applications. They are available
in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, and since they do not use
phosphors, they cannot suffer image burn-in. LCDs are, however, susceptible to image
persistence.

FIGURE 6.4 LCD

LCDs are more energy efficient and offer safer disposal than CRTs. Its low electrical power
consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment. It is an
electronically modulated optical device made up of any number of segments filled with liquid
crystals and arrayed in front of a light source (backlight) or reflector to produce images in
colour or monochrome. The most flexible ones use an array of small pixels. The earliest
discovery leading to the development of LCD technology, the discovery of liquid crystals,
dates from 1888. By 2008, worldwide sales of televisions with LCD screens had surpassed
the sale of CRT units.
5.1.7 LED
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator
lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Introduced as a practical
electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern
versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high
brightness.

26

FIGURE 6.5 LED

When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine
with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is
called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the
photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. LEDs are often small in area
(less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation
pattern. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower
energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, and faster switching.
LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise
current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive
lighting, advertising, general lighting, and traffic signals. LEDs have allowed new text, video
displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in
advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control
units of many commercial products including televisions, DVD players, and other domestic
appliances

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CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION

Traffic light control system involves a very complex study. Even implementing one traffic
light in a single junction involved a lot of studies to be done and there is no obvious optimal
solution. In the study there are four junctions of an intersection involved, therefore, a more
complex work needs to be done as the state of one light influences the traffic flow and
conditions of other junctions as well. While the work is to see if the implementation of sensor
in the traffic light control system can improve the waiting time of vehicles in the junction of
an intersection, it does not provide an optimal solution for the improvement of the waiting
time of vehicles in junctions as each parameter of the traffic light system such as arrival rate
of vehicles at the intersection, the average number of vehicles waiting in the junction and
optimal traffic light duration is different from one intersection to another.
These parameters need to be studied first to obtain the optimal solutions for the intended
traffic light system. However, the simulation done within the study provided general solution
for implementing sensors in the traffic light control system. Therefore, by implementing
sensor in traffic light system, the waiting time for vehicles in the junctions at the intersection
can be reduced significantly as has been proven by statistical method. Further improvements
can be made in the system by modifying the parameters in the simulation suitable for
intended studies.

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CHAPTER 7: FUTURE ENHANCEMENT

7.1 GSM
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications, originally Groupe Spcial Mobile), is a
standard set developed by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) to
describe technologies for second generation (2G) digital cellular networks. Developed as a
replacement for first generation (1G) analog cellular networks, the GSM standard originally
described a digital, circuit switched network optimized for full duplex voice telephony. The
standard was expanded over time to include first circuit switched data transport, then packet
data transport via GPRS (General Packet Radio Services). Packet data transmission speeds
were later increased via EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution) referred as
EGPRS. The GSM standard is more improved after the development of third generation
(3G) UMTS standard developed by the 3GPP. GSM networks will evolve further as they
begin to incorporate fourth generation (4G) LTE Advanced standards. "GSM" is
a trademark owned by the GSM Association.

7.2 HEART RATE SENSOR

Modern heart rate monitors usually comprise two elements: a chest strap transmitter and a
wrist receiver or mobile phone (which usually doubles as a watch or phone). In early plastic
straps water or liquid was required to get good performance. Later units have used conductive
smart fabric with built-in microprocessors which analyse the EKG signal to determine heart
rate.
Strapless heart rate monitors now allow the user to just touch two sensors on a wristwatch
display for a few seconds to view their heart rate. These are popular for their comfort and
ease of use though they don't give as much detail as monitors which use a chest strap.
More advanced models will offer measurements of heart rate variability, activity, and
breathing rate to assess parameters relating to a subject's fitness. Sensor fusion algorithms
allow these monitors to detect core temperature and dehydration

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Another style of heart rate monitor replaces the plastic around-the-chest strap with fabric
sensors - the most common of these is a sports bra for women which includes sensors in the
fabric.
In old versions, when a heart beat is detected a radio signal is transmitted, which the receiver
uses to determine the current heart rate. This signal can be a simple radio pulse or a unique
coded signal from the chest strap (such as Bluetooth, ANT, or other low-power radio link);
the latter prevents one user's receiver from using signals from other nearby transmitters
(known as cross-talk interference).
In recent years smart phone applications have been developed that measure the heart beat rate
by tracking the acceleration at your chest (Sports Heart Rate Monitor) or by tracking color
changes in the light that passes through your finger (Instant Heart Rate).
Newer versions include a microprocessor which is continuously monitoring the EKG and
calculating the heart rate, and other parameters. These may include accelerometers which can
detect speed and distance eliminating the need for foot worn devices.
There are a wide number of receiver designs, with various features. These include average
heart rate over exercise period, time in a specific heart rate zone, calories burned, breathing
rate, built-in speed and distance, and detailed logging that can be downloaded to a computer.

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7.3 TEMPERATURE SENSOR

The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit temperature sensors, whose output voltage is
linearly proportional to the Celsius (Centigrade) temperature. The LM35 thus has an
advantage over linear temperature sensors calibrated in Kelvin, as the user is not required to
subtract a large constant voltage from its output to obtain convenient Centigrade scaling. The
LM35 does not require any external calibration or trimming to provide typical accuracies of
1 4C at room temperature and 3 4C over a full 55 to +150C temperature range. Low
cost is assured by trimming and calibration at the wafer level.
The LM35s low output impedance, linear output, and precise inherent calibration make
interfacing to readout or control circuitry especially easy. It can be used with single power
supplies, or with plus and minus supplies. As it draws only 60 A from its supply, it has very
low self-heating, less than 0.1C in still air. The LM35 is rated to operate over a 55 to
+150C temperature range, while the LM35C is rated for a 40 to +110C range (10 with
improved accuracy). The LM35 series is available packaged in hermetic TO-46 transistor
packages, while the LM35C, LM35CA, and LM35D are also available in the plastic TO-92
transistor package. The LM35D is also available in an 8-lead surface mount small outline
package and a plastic TO-220 package.

7.3.1 FEATURE

Calibrated directly in Celsius (Centigrade)

Linear + 10.0 mV/C scale factor
0.5C accuracy guaranteable (at +25C)

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CHAPTER 8: REFRENCES
1. Albagul, A., Hrairi, M., Wabyudi, and Hidayatullah, M.F .. "Design and Development
of Sensor Based Traffic Light". Science Publications 2006. American Journal of Applied
Science, 3 (3), pp 1745-1749.
2. Altiok, T. and Melamed, B. "Simulation Modeling and Analysis with Arena". Elsevier,
UK. 2007.
3. Bham, G.H. and Benekohal, R.F. "A high fidelity traffic simulation model bas sed on
cellular automata and car-following concepts." Transportation Research Part C, 1-32 Elsevier.
2004.
4. Caristi, J. 1988. "The Simulation Language SIMAN on Microcomputer and Mainframe".
Journal of Applied Mathematics and Simulation Vol I Number 3 1988.
5. Coleri, S., Cheung, and S.Y., Varaiya, P. "Sensor Networks For Monitoring Control".
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of California,
Berkeley. 2004.
6. Furstenberg, K., Hipp, 1. and Liebram, A. 2003. "A Laser Scanner For Detailed Traffic
Data Collection and Data Control". 7th World Congress on Intelligent Transport System

7. Gonzalez-Calleros, lM., Martinez-Carballido, l Muoz-Arteaga, J. and Guerrero-Garcia, l,

"An Iterative Method To Desigu Traffic Flow Models". Digital Society. 2009
8. Kelton, W.D., Sadowski, R.P. and Sturrock, D.T. 2007. "Simulation With Arena".
McGraw Hill, New York. NY. 2004.

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