International Journal of Environmental Health Research

ISSN: 0960-3123 (Print) 1369-1619 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cije20

A national survey of food hygiene training and

qualification levels in the UK food industry
Matthew P. Mortlock , Adrian C. Peters & Christopher J. Griffith
To cite this article: Matthew P. Mortlock , Adrian C. Peters & Christopher J. Griffith
(2000) A national survey of food hygiene training and qualification levels in the UK food
industry, International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 10:2, 111-123, DOI:
10.1080/09603120050021119
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09603120050021119

Published online: 21 Jul 2010.

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International Journal of Environmental Health Research 10, 111 123 (2000)

A national survey of food hygiene training and

qualification levels in the UK food industry
MATTHEW P. MORTLOCK*, ADRIAN C. PETERS AND CHRISTOPHER J. GRIFFITH

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Food Research and Consultancy Unit, School of Applied Sciences, University of Wales Institute, Cardiff (UWIC),
Colchester Avenue, Cardiff CF23 9XR, UK

The food hygiene training received and qualifications held by four different grades of food handlers were
compared by means of a postal survey of 1650 businesses in the manufacturing, retail and catering sectors
of the UK food industry. Significant differences (p < 0.05) were identified between the methods of training
delivery to, and qualifications held by different grades of food handlers across the three industry sectors.
Business status, personnel characteristics and risk perceptions of managers all had significant effects on the
methods of training used and qualification levels achieved within each industry sector. Positive attitudes
towards training were expressed by most managers although follow-up face-to-face interviews revealed
their concerns about the cost, time and relevancy of the training their staff received. Whilst both the uptake
of training and level of food hygiene qualifications may have improved in recent years, this study
highlighted the need to develop training methods that are proven to change workplace behaviour as well
as imparting knowledge. This may be best achieved by consolidating food hygiene training as a
fundamental part of a wider approach to food safety control based on HACCP.
Keywords: training; food hygiene; food handlers; risk; HACCP.

Introduction
The provision of food hygiene training for all food handlers, as part of a combined approach to
food hygiene management, could help reduce the incidence of food-borne disease in the UK
( Ehiri and Morris 1996). Traditional approaches to food hygiene control such as legislation,
inspections and end-product testing have been found wanting ( Ehiri and Morris 1994) and
training represents a possible solution, offering long-term and transferable benefits across the
food industry (Smith 1994). Current UK regulations require that food-handling personnel are
trained to a level commensurate with their work activities ( UK Department of Health 1995). The
responsibility therefore lies with managers to assess the levels of training required by their food
handlers. It is important to recognise that managers may themselves need training to enable
them to make such decisions ( Smith 1994), although guidance is increasingly available to
several industry sectors ( UK Department of Health 1997).
Basic food hygiene training for all food handlers is a possible point of reference ( Tebbutt
1992), although this would not guarantee an instant solution to the problem of food-borne
Correspondence: Adrian Peters.
*Matthew Mortlock is currently a project officer at the University of Wales College Newport (UWCN), PO
Box 180, Newport, NP20 5XR
ISSN 0960-3123 printed/ISSN 1369-1619 online/00/020111-13 2000 Taylor & Francis Ltd

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Mortlock et al.

disease transmission within the industry ( Taylor 1992). Evidence suggests that it is management
who holds the key to the delivery of food hygiene training as well as the implementation of the
hygienic practices recommended by such training ( West 1992). Advanced hygiene training is
arguably the minimum requirement for managers ( Taylor 1992), although a recent study of 133
food businesses in Glasgow found that only 30% of business operators were trained to this level
( Ehiri et al. 1997a).
Also included in the legislative framework ( UK Department of Health 1995) is a requirement
for UK food businesses to adopt a risk-based approach to food safety, founded upon the
philosophy of the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point ( HACCP ) system ( Codex Alimentarius
Commission 1993). Whilst the adoption of all seven principles of HACCP is not currently a
legal requirement for all UK food businesses, the system is internationally recognised as an
effective method of food safety management and the best way to control an ever-increasing
public health risk from food-borne diseases (Maurice 1994).
In a paper focusing upon the uptake of HACCP within the industry and factors affecting its
use, Mortlock et al. ( 1999) showed that UK retail and catering businesses lag well behind
manufacturers in their use of HACCP and concluded that training would be an important factor
in any future strategies to encourage use of the system. Training is important in raising industry
awareness about HACCP and ensuring that the potential benefits of HACCP to the food
industry, regulatory authorities and ultimately the consumer, are realised ( Mayes 1994).
Managers need training to help them understand the principles of HACCP and implement the
system effectively. In order to achieve this they, along with all food handlers, will inevitably
require a background knowledge and awareness of food hygiene issues in general. Indeed, welldesigned HACCP systems should incorporate provisions for general staff training ( Mayes 1994,
Ehiri and Morris 1996).
However, despite the importance of training to HACCP development, there have been no data
published in the last ten years that have directly addressed the training strategies used or
qualification levels held nationally within the UK food industry. Therefore, with the wider
adoption of HACCP by all food businesses in mind, this paper uses results from a national postal
survey and findings from face-to-face interviews with managers to discuss the issue of food
hygiene training in more depth. Evidence of the types and levels of food hygiene training
received by different grades of staff within three sectors of the UK food industry will be
presented. Factors affecting training delivery will also be discussed, including business status,
size, personnel and managerial attitudes towards training.
Methods
Postal survey
A national postal survey of food hygiene management practices and attitudes within the UK
food industry was distributed. Managers in 350 manufacturing, 650 retail and 650 catering
businesses were asked about their hygiene management systems, the range of food-handling
personnel employed and their food hygiene training. A food handler was defined as any person
in a business who handles or prepares food, drink or ice whether open ( unwrapped) or packaged
( UK Department of Health 1997). Likert scales were used to assess managerial attitudes towards
a range of statements about food hygiene training ( Oppenheim 1992).
The response rate for the survey was 15.3% ( manufacturers 21.4%; retailers 13.5%;
caterers 14%) when adjusted for spoiled responses or businesses that had ceased trading.
Although low, these rates reflected those of other recent postal surveys of the UK food

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Table 1. Trends in the employment of part-time and temporary food handlers in each industry sector
Manufacturing
(n = 75)

Retail
(n = 88)

Catering
(n = 91)

p value a

40%
4%

29%
17%

22%
18%

p = 0.04
p = 0.023

25%
51%

44%
16%

48%
34%

p < 0.001
p < 0.001

Employ no part-time food handlers

Employ only part-time food handlers
Mean proportion of food handlers who
were part-time staff
Employ temporary food handlers

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Statistical significance of the differences between industry sector responses.

industry ( Panisello et al. 1999; Henson et al. 1999). The large sample size also ensured
sufficient responses from each sector to allow a reliable statistical analysis of the results using
Statistical Package for Social Sciences ( SPSS) version 7.5. Tests of significance were carried
out using the chi square (x 2 ), t and Mann Whitney U tests.
Further research design issues including piloting, selection of the stratified multi-stage cluster
sample and strata sizes used, administration of the survey, and the monitoring of non-response
bias have been previously reported ( Mortlock et al. 1999).
Interviews with managers
As part of the initial survey, all respondents were invited to express their willingness to take part
in a face-to-face interview. Twenty-three interviews were subsequently conducted with
managers in multinational food manufacturing companies, national chain supermarkets and
smaller, independent, manufacturing, retail and catering establishments across the UK. These
followed a qualitative approach ( Oppenheim 1992), to develop a deeper understanding of the
food hygiene issues covered in the initial survey. The interviews were tape recorded and lasted
30 45 minutes, depending upon the willingness of the interviewee to speak and the amount of
time available for the interview.
Results
Employment of part-time/temporary food-handling staff
Respondents were asked how many food handlers they employed, whether they ever employed
food handlers on a temporary basis and how many of their food handlers were part-time staff
( Table 1). Manufacturers were significantly less dependent on part-time food handlers than
retailers and caterers, where they made up almost half of the workforce on average.
Furthermore, 40% of manufacturers employed no part-time food handlers, whilst almost one in
five retailers and caterers only employed part-time food handlers. Manufacturers were three
times and caterers twice as likely as retail businesses to employ temporary food-handling staff,
variations that again proved statistically significant.
Methods of food hygiene training delivery
Table 2 shows the trends in food hygiene training delivery to four grades of staff, with
respondents asked to identify the food hygiene training typically provided to any staff at that

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Mortlock et al.

Table 2. Training given to food handlers (FHs) and statistically significant differences between
industry sector responses (n = 254)a
Full-time
FHs

Part-time
FHs

Temporary
FHs

Managers

Not trained

7%
(p = 0.013)

5%
(NS)b

9%
(NS)

4%
(NS)

Induction training

33%
(p < 0.001)

34%
(p < 0.001)

50%
(p = 0.001)

32%
(p < 0.001)

On-the-job training

59%
(NS)

78%
(NS)

79%
(NS)

52%
(p = 0.035)

Food hygiene course

70%
(p < 0.001)

46%
(p = 0.001)

26%
(NS)

81%
(NS)

Refresher training

19%
(p = 0.049)

14%
(p = 0.022)

5%
(NS)

29%
(p = 0.005)

HACCP training

8%
(p = 0.004)

4%
(NS)

0%
(NS)

31%
(p < 0.001)

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Type of training

a
b

Figures represent businesses where any staff have received training.

NS: differences between industry sector responses were not significant at the 5% level (p > 0.05).

grade. Most businesses indicated that staff at each grade received some food hygiene training,
although the nature of this training varied greatly. For example, in 70% of businesses at least
some full-time food handlers had attended a formal food hygiene course, whilst part-time and
temporary handlers had received such training in only 46% and 26% of businesses, respectively.
Full-time food handlers in 59% of businesses, compared to 78% and 79% for part-time and
temporary food handlers, respectively, received on-the-job training. Temporary food handlers
were the most likely to receive induction training and whilst most managers had been on food
hygiene courses less than a third indicated that they had received any specific training in
HACCP.
Significant variations are shown between responses from the three industry sectors ( Table 2).
Manufacturers were significantly more likely than non-manufacturers to deliver induction
training to each grade of staff and to provide food hygiene courses for part-time handlers. Retail
businesses were significantly less likely to send full-time food handlers on food hygiene
courses. Despite low levels of refresher training in all three sectors, retailers were significantly
less likely to provide such training for any staff. Finally, full-time food handlers and managers
in manufacturing businesses were most likely to have received any HACCP training.
Further chi-square tests revealed significant relationships between training provision and two
other variables, managerial risk perceptions and business status. If retail managers believed that
their business presented a low risk to food safety then full-time food handlers (p < 0.05) and
managers ( p < 0.005) were less likely to go on a food hygiene course. Similarly, if catering
managers believed their business to be low risk, full-time and part-time food handlers were less
likely to go on food hygiene courses (p < 0.05). Manufacturers perceived to be high risk were
more likely to give induction training to temporary staff (p < 0.05).

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A survey of food hygiene training

Table 3. Food hygiene qualification levels and statistically significant differences between industry
sector responses (n = 254)a

Qualification

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None qualified
Basic level
Intermediate
Advanced
p valuesb
a
b

Full-time
FHs

Part-time
FHs

Temporary
FHs

Managers

23%
58%
14%
5%
p < 0.001

39%
51%
7%
3%
p < 0.001

59%
37%
4%
0%
NS

20%
39%
18%
24%
p = 0.014

Figures represent the highest qualification held by different grades of staff within each business.
Statistically significant differences in qualification levels between industry sectors; NS is not significant at the 5%
level (p > 0.05)

To analyse the influence of status, businesses were divided into two groups, independent
or non-independent, the latter including local, national, multinational chains and local
authority catering in hospitals or schools and colleges. Business status in the manufacturing
sector was identified as a significant factor in the delivery of induction training to full-time,
part-time and temporary staff, as well as HACCP training for managers and full-time staff
( p < 0.01). Within catering, significant differences (p < 0.01) were identified as regards
refresher training for full-time food handlers, food hygiene courses and refresher training for
part-timers and HACCP training for managers. Business status had less of an impact
amongst retailers, although significant differences ( p < 0.01) existed as regards induction
training and food hygiene courses for full-time food handlers. Where these significant
differences occurred it was always independent businesses who were the less likely to
provide training.
Mann Whitney tests showed that business size was also a statistically significant factor in
training delivery. In both the manufacturing and retail sectors, the larger the numbers of food
handlers employed the more likely it was that full-time food handlers (p < 0.005) and managers
( p < 0.05) had been on a food hygiene course. Meanwhile caterers employing greater numbers
of part-time staff as a proportion of their overall workforce were significantly more likely to
provide food hygiene courses for those staff (p < 0.05).
Levels of food hygiene qualification
Table 3 complements Table 2 and shows the levels of food hygiene qualification held by the
different grades of staff. Managers were the most highly qualified staff, although 20% held no
food hygiene qualifications. Moving from full to part-time and then temporary staff, the
proportions of businesses with no such qualified staff increased and the qualification levels of
those who had obtained them decreased. Statistically significant differences ( p < 0.05) existed
between responses from the three industry sectors. Retail businesses were most likely to employ
no qualified full-time food handlers ( 44% ). Full-time food handlers were most likely to be
qualified in manufacturing businesses, although caterers were most likely to employ those
qualified to intermediate or advanced levels with similar trends seen for part-time staff and
managers.

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Table 4. Managerial attitudes towards food hygiene training (n = 254)

Attitude statementsa

Neither
agree/
Agree disagree Disagree

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

90%
6%
9%
66%
79%

Food hygiene training is essential for all food handlers

Food hygiene training is not worthwhile for part-time staff
Food hygiene training is not worthwhile for temporary staff
Food hygiene training enhances job satisfaction
Hands-on training is the best way to acquire basic skills

8%
15%
17%
26%
15%

2%
79%
75%
7%
7%

p value b
p = 0.017
p = 0.017
NS
NS
NS

A Five-point Likert scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree was used. All agree and disagree responses
were re-coded and merged for this analysis.
b
Statistically significant differences between industry sector responses; NS is not significant at the 5% level (p >
0.05)

Business status was a significant factor in qualification levels ( p < 0.005) with 29% of
independent compared to 4% of non-independent businesses employing no qualified full-time
food handlers, with similar trends ( p < 0.05) existing for temporary staff and managers. Finally,
31% of businesses perceived to be low risk by their managers employed no qualified full-time
food handlers compared to only 2% of high risk businesses ( p < 0.05).
Attitudes and beliefs towards food hygiene training
Respondents attitudes towards food hygiene training were measured ( Table 4). Most managers
expressed positive attitudes although 21% and 26% did not disagree that food hygiene training
was not worthwhile for part-time and temporary staff, respectively. Similarly, a third of
respondents did not agree that food hygiene training enhances job satisfaction. Respondents
from the retail sector were significantly least likely to agree with statement 1 or to disagree with
statement 2. Significant relationships were also found between these attitudes and the types of
training being delivered. In businesses where part-time food handlers did not receive food
hygiene courses, respondents were significantly more likely to agree that food hygiene training
was not worthwhile for such staff ( p < 0.001).
Managerial remarks about food hygiene training
Table 5 uses direct quotations from the face-to-face interviews to represent some of the common
themes raised by managers. Several suggested that personnel resources act as a potential barrier
to training, resulting from either a reliance on part-time and temporary staff as evidenced
previously in Table 1, or a difficulty in recruiting well-educated staff to work within their sector.
The perceived costs of staff training, notably in terms of food hygiene courses, were of
particular concern to the retail and catering managers interviewed. This concern was often
enhanced by doubts about the actual contribution of this training towards knowledge and
practices. Consequently, many managers remarked positively on the use of in-house or on-thejob training. Managers in businesses using HACCP highlighted training as an area of concern,
with one affirming that high levels of food hygiene training were essential in order to be able
to successfully implement and run HACCP.

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A survey of food hygiene training

Table 5. Qualitative interview data on training related issues

Staffing
It [training temporary staff] is not as cost effective obviously becuase the people are not here as long
as other people. (National chain supermarket, 18FHs)
This industry is still struggling to get decent people into it, people with a good brain in their head.
(Independent restaurant, 5FHs)

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In-house/on-the-job training
It [in-house training] is cheaper, and to me it is just the best way of doing it . . . we can afford to have
our own on site trainers, the expertise is there . . . you can imagine for a smaller place they dont have
that luxury. (Multinational food manufacturer, 450 FHs)
The best improver of knowledge is experience . . . if youve never ridden a horse youve never fallen
off. (Independent butcher, 2FHs)
It [in-house training] leads to a greater understanding and a greater linkage between management and
staff. (Independent food manufacturer, 16FHs)
Cost of training
It [training] puts a considerable expense onto small businesses. (Independent general stores, 6FHs)
I think it would be fairer on the retailer if they [government] gave free training rather than give
additional costs to them which would be difficult to pass on. (Independent butcher, 6FHs)
Adequacy of training
I didnt think it [basic food hygiene training] contributed anything at all, Id have had to have been an
imbecile not to pass it, it was common sense. (Independent delicatessan, 8FHs)
I think the old training methods were just as good frankly, in college they do more about the theory
whereas before it was all done practically. (Independent butcher, 6FHs)
Training and HACCP
I would say that you cant do this (HACCP) without the background hygiene training. This (HACCP)
is all very well but its only the final end point of a much more thorough and integrated process of
hygiene. (Multinational brewery, 55FHs)
a

The quotes included in this table are merely a representation of some of the wider themes raised by business
managers in the interviews.

Discussion
Food hygiene training
Tebbutt (1992) showed that in only 22% of businesses sampled had all or the majority of foodhandling staff passed a basic food hygiene course that was either delivered or approved by their
local authority. The same study found that 22% of managerial staff and basic food handlers had
received no food hygiene training and that only 25% of businesses encouraged any staff to
attend a basic food hygiene course. However, recent legislative changes mean that all UK food
businesses must now provide food hygiene training commensurate with the work activities of
their staff ( UK Department of Health 1995), suggesting that the level of training within the
industry may have improved since the early 1990s. Certainly, the findings of this survey support

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Mortlock et al.

that hypothesis with fewer than 10% of businesses indicating that no food handlers at each grade
had received any hygiene training. Moreover, at least some full and part-time food handlers and
managers now hold food hygiene qualifications in over 60% of businesses.
Nevertheless, the variations identified in food hygiene training delivery and qualification
levels across the industry raise ongoing concerns about the adequacy of the training being
delivered, particularly to part-time and temporary staff who comprise a substantial proportion of
the total workforce. The effectiveness of any training programme is ultimately increased if it can
address the whole of a food business ( Howes et al. 1996), resulting in a change in culture across
the board rather than in just a few individuals who are trained to a higher level ( Basen-Engquist
et al. 1998). However, the inconsistencies identified in the training of different grades of staff
suggest that such wholesale culture changes are unlikely to have been commonplace within the
industry despite the overall improvement in the spread of training that seems to have
occurred.
It is also important to recognise that whilst formal training might ensure greater consistency
and quality (Manning 1994), improper training could present a greater risk to food safety than
no training at all ( Ackerley 1989). Experience has shown that food-poisoning outbreaks can still
occur even where comprehensive training programmes have been implemented ( Luby et al.
1993). Furthermore, despite undisputed improvements in attendance at food hygiene training
courses, the 1990s have still seen significant increases in the reported incidence of food
poisoning in the UK (Ehiri and Morris 1996).
The dichotomy of improved rates of training and increasing food-poisoning incidence may to
some extent be explained by the methodologies adopted by most training programmes.
Traditional approaches to food hygiene training tend to follow the Knowledge, Attitudes,
Practices model ( KAP), assuming that the provision of education and knowledge will stimulate
changes in working practices ( Rennie 1995). UK research has highlighted significant
relationships between training and levels of knowledge and the degree of risk to food safety
assessed against various inspection standards ( Tebbutt 1992, Kitchner 1994, West and Hancock
1994). However, Ehiri et al. (1997b) could identify no significant improvements in post-training
knowledge about crucial food safety issues such as cross-contamination and other studies have
found little evidence that food hygiene training has any impact on hygiene standards in general
( Mathias et al. 1994, Riben et al. 1994, Powell 1997). Furthermore, research has also shown that
positive responses towards, and knowledge of, good hygiene practices do not necessarily
translate into positive behaviours ( Oteri and Ekanem 1989, Howes et al. 1996).
Factors affecting food hygiene training provision
Business size and a reliance on part-time workers have clear implications for food hygiene
training. The vast majority of retailers and caterers in particular are micro businesses,
employing fewer than 10 food handlers ( Mortlock et al. 1999). These businesses also rely
heavily on part-time staff, estimated to be half of the total catering workforce ( West 1992), a
figure which is supported by the response from the caterers sampled within this study.
Hendry et al. ( 1992) highlighted the importance to small and medium sized enterprises of
being able to combine on-the-job training with off-site education in the form of training courses.
The results presented here suggest that in most businesses full-time food handlers and managers
will have been on food hygiene courses as well as also receiving on-the-job training in many
cases. By contrast, part-time and temporary food handlers are more reliant on induction training
and on-the-job training. A possible explanation for this trend is the cost involved with food
hygiene courses ( Tebbutt 1992). Anecdotal evidence from managers highlighted their concern

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A survey of food hygiene training

119

about training costs, particularly for part-time and temporary staff for whom the cost of training
may be no different and yet the benefits may not be perceived to be as great. Indeed, managers
may even be concerned that training only makers their staff more attractive to other employers,
increasing the potential for staff turnover (Stanworth et al. 1992).
Training costs are likely to be of even greater concern to small businesses with lower
turnovers, possibly explaining why retailers and caterers are less likely to send each grade of
staff on food hygiene courses. Practical in-house training is the traditionally favoured approach
for smaller businesses, with hands-on training regarded as the best way to acquire basic skills
( Hendry et al. 1992). Most managers in this sample expressed their agreement with this point
of view, backed-up by a widespread use of on-the-job food hygiene training for part-time and
temporary staff. The labour-intensive nature of many catering and retail businesses may also be
a factor ( West 1992) because of a lack of time to train among employers and employees alike,
described as the very hallmark of small and medium-sized enterprises ( Marshall et al. 1995).
A 1990 UK study identified business status as another important factor in training strategies
with food hygiene training more likely to be provided in institutional catering establishments,
such as schools and hospitals, than in other catering businesses ( Audit Commission 1990).
Likewise, institutional catering staff in the United States are more likely to have received formal
food hygiene training and to have a better understanding of safe food-handling (Manning 1994).
Business status has been identified in this paper as a factor in training delivery with independent
businesses in each industry sector significantly less likely to provide certain types of
training.
The role of managers in training provision
Ultimately, managers are responsible for the manufacture and sale of safe food products, as well
as the provision of sufficient food-handler training to achieve this aim ( Sumner and Albrecht
1995). However, training has not traditionally been a central element of small business strategy
( Ross 1993) and where it does occur, it is often the result of short-term performance problems
in production or service efficiency (Hendry et al. 1992). This lack of commitment to training is
linked in part to the costs of training discussed in the previous section, as well as the lack of any
tangible benefits to be seen from investing in training. The question of whether food hygiene
training actually changes behaviour has already been raised and is of vital importance in
encouraging businesses to provide both the training itself and a working environment which
allows staff to carry out the hygienic practices that they have been taught.
Any lack of commitment to training by managers is particularly important given that previous
studies have cited both a lack of management awareness of and negative attitudes towards
hygiene among the top five factors contributing to a business representing either a significant or
high risk (Audit Commission 1990). Most respondents in this study expressed positive attitudes
towards food hygiene training, although Stanworth et al. ( 1992) have suggested that the
importance attributed to training by small businesses is not always reflected in the actual
provision of training seen. Differences may well exist between an awareness of the need to train
and an actual commitment to doing so ( CBI 1989). Relatively few businesses in this survey did
not follow up their positive attitudes towards training with actual training delivery. However, the
trends identified do suggest that the commitment to providing formal training on food hygiene
courses is not as strong for part-time and temporary staff.
Few businesses in this study provided refresher training for any of their food-handling
staff, or indeed their managers, suggesting that whatever the level of commitment to it,
training is rarely seen as anything more than a one-off activity. If future deviations in work

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Mortlock et al.

practice occur, new systems such as HACCP develop or changes in legislation come into
force, then the training initially provided may not be sufficient either to provide the necessary
food safety assurances or to comply with the law ( Hendry et al. 1992). For example, West
( 1992) suggested that food hygiene awareness in the catering industry has failed to keep up
with recent technological advances. Similarly, the emergence of new food-borne pathogens
presents previously unknown risks which have to be understood and controlled (Tauxe 1997).
A study by Ray et al. ( 1997) suggested that only by implementing ongoing strategies of
training and assessment will long-term changes in safety behaviour take place. These focused
upon the use of staff monitoring procedures, achievement targets and performance ratings to
motivate workers to implement recommended safety practices. Ironically, if applied in the
food industry, this approach would bear direct similarity to the principles of HACCP,
highlighting the direct link between training and HACCP and the contribution they can make
to each other.
One way of overcoming the costs of training, and by doing so improve managerial
commitment, is to follow a managerial certification approach. If business managers were
qualified to advanced levels then they would be able to provide the more basic levels of training
required by all of their staff in-house and on the job if necessary, an approach clearly favoured
by many of the businesses surveyed in this study. This would avoid the costs associated with offsite hygiene courses and make training more specific to individual business practices. However,
this approach relies upon the quality of training that managers have themselves received in order
to prevent bad practices from being passed down within the business from management to staff.
The results of this survey suggest that advanced qualifications are not widespread enough at
present to allow most businesses to adopt the managerial certification approach. This is
especially true in the retail sector, where the low levels of managerial training identified reflect
those from another recent study of food businesses in the UK (Ehiri et al. 1997a ).
As well as the cost issue, another major obstacle to securing managerial commitment to
training both in terms of attitudes and actual practices is their perception of risk. Risk
perceptions have been identified by this study as significant factors in training delivery and yet
most managers perceive their businesses to be low risk regardless of the foods they are handling
( Mortlock et al. 1999). Unless managers can fully appreciate the inherent risks involved in their
food-handling practices, they are unlikely to recognise either the need to train or the contribution
that training can make to the food industry and society as a whole. This problem reflects back
upon the relatively low levels of training received by many managers. Advanced training would
enable businesses to carry out their own risk assessments and be more fully aware of the
characteristics of high-risk foods and practices ( Coleman and Griffith 1998).
By making managers more aware of these risk-based issues and improving their overall
background knowledge, advanced training would also help them to implement a HACCP system
as required (Barrett et al. 1998), a view supported by those interviewed as part of this research
who had themselves implemented HACCP. The relatively low levels of HACCP training among
managers in the retail and catering sectors especially have considerable implications for the
future uptake of HACCP. Previously published results from this survey observed that many
businesses had implemented an HACCP system despite their managers having received no
specific HACCP training. This is turn influenced the likelihood that they had a full sevenprincipled system in place ( Mortlock et al. 1999). Furthermore, the low levels of HACCP
training given to staff other than managers suggest that even where HACCP is being
implemented, the system is seen as the domain of management rather than involving all of the
staff within the business.

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Conclusion
If basic training for all food handlers is the goal ( Tebbutt 1992) then the UK food industry still
has much to achieve. To further improve the quantity and quality of food hygiene training,
policy-makers must recognise that training is rarely a central element of small-business strategy,
largely because of the costs involved. Whilst Mortimore and Smith ( 1998) raise the possibility
of direct financial assistance from the state, such an approach is unlikely across the whole of the
industry because of the tax burden this would place upon the consumer. Faced with meeting the
costs of training themselves, managerial certification offers industry a more cost-effective
alternative, offering the additional benefit of helping make training more relevant to the
individual needs of staff. However, current levels of managerial training need to be significantly
improved in order to make this approach a practical reality.
The benefits of hygiene training need to be more widely promoted in order to encourage
managerial commitment to staff training. Managers must be made aware of the inherent risks
involved in their business practices and the contribution training makes to minimising these
risks. Further research is essential to develop training methods that are proven to change
workplace behaviour, without which the full benefits of training are unlikely to be realised.
To achieve this behavioural change, it is important that businesses see training as one part of
a broader food hygiene control strategy, based upon the principles of the HACCP system. This
would help shift the emphasis of training from certification and knowledge to more risk-based
concepts, specific to the working practices of trainees. By incorporating hygiene training within
HACCP, businesses would be encouraged to treat training as an ongoing rather than a one-off
activity, often carried out purely in response to the requests of local enforcement officers. In the
same way that hygiene training is likely to be more effective if guided by the principles that
underpin the HACCP system, so too HACCP is likely to be more effective if all staff within a
business have the appropriate training. In order to provide the food safety assurances required
by consumers in the twenty-first century it seems clear that the futures of food hygiene training
and HACCP remain inextricably linked.
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the UK Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food ( MAFF,
Project Reference FS1050). The views expressed do not necessarily reflect those of MAFF.
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