EXAM 2 SHORT ANSWER REVIEW

1. Describe the factors that control blood pressure.

Vessel diameter

Total Cross Sectional Areas: Blood pressure and the speed of blood flow are
proportional to the cross-sectional area of the vessels involved.

Pressures: As arteries branch, their total cross-sectional area increases and blood
pressure falls rapidly.

Velocity of Blood Flow: As the total cross sectional area of the vessels increases from
the aorta toward the capillaries, the velocity of blood flow decreases.

2. Discuss the mechanisms that regulate filtration in capillaries.

Filtration is the removal of solutes as a solution flows across a porous membrane. Solutes
too large to pass through the pores are filtered out of the solution. The driving force for
filtration is hydrostatic pressure (pushes water from an area of higher pressure to an area of
lower pressure). In capillary filtration, water and small solutes are forced across a capillary
wall, leaving larger solutes and suspended proteins in the bloodstream. The solute
molecules that leave the bloodstream are small enough to pass between adjacent endothelial
cells or through the pores in a fenestrated capillary. Filtration takes place primarily at the
arterial end of the capillary, where hydrostatic pressure (CHP) is highest.

3. Describe the structure and function of lymph nodes.

Lymph nodes are small lymphoid organs ranging in diameter from 1mmt to 25mm.

A typical lymph node is shaped like a kidney.

Structure:
o Trabeculae: bundles of collagen fibers that extend from the capsule into the
interior of the node of the dense connective tissue that covers each lymph
node
o Hilum: blood vessels and nerves reach the lymph node at this shallow
indentation
o Afferent lymphatics: is attached to the lymph node tp bring lymph to the
lymph node from peripheral tissues
o Effererent lymphatics: is attached to the lymph nodes; leave the lymph node
at the hilum; these vessels carry lymph away from the lymph node and toward
the venous circulation.

Lymph Flow
o Lymph from the afferent lymphatics flows through the lymph node within a
network of sinuses, open passageways with incomplete walls.
o Lymph first enters a subcapsular space. It contains a meshwork of branching
reticular fibers, macrophages, and dendritic cells. Dendritic cells are involved
in starting the immune response. Lymph passes through the subcapsular
space and then flows through the outer cortex of the node. The outer cortex
contains B cells within germinal centers similar to those of lymphoid
modules.
o Lymph then continues through lymph sinuses in the deep cortex, which is
dominated by T cells. Here lymphocytes leave the bloodstream and enter the
lymph node by crossing the walls of blood vessels.
o After flowing through the sinuses of the deep cortex, lymph continues into the
core, or medulla, of the lymph node. The medulla contains B cells and plasma
cells organized into elongate masses known as medullary cords. Lymph
passes through a network of sinuses in the medulla and then enters the
efferent lymphatics at the hilum.

Function
o Filtering: The lymph node purifies lymph before it reaches the veins. Fixed
macrophages in the walls of the lymphatic sinuses engulf debris or pathogens

in the lymph as it flows by. Antigens removed in this way are then processed
and by the macrophages and presented to nearby lymphocytes. Other
antigens bind to receptors on the surfaces of dendritic cells, where they can
stimulate lymphocyte activity. Antigen presentation is generally the first step
in the activation of the immune response.
o Early Warning system: Any infection or other abnormality in a peripheral
tissue puts antigens into the interstitial fluid , and thus into the lymph leaving
the area. These antigens then stimulate macrophages and lymphocytes in
nearby lymph nodes.
o Guards Entrances: Lymph is monitored in the lymph glands to detect
potential problems before they effect vital organs of the trunk.
o Lymphodenopathy: chronic or excessive enlargement of the lymph nodes

4. Explain the significance of inflammatory body response. List steps in inflammatory

process.
Inflammation has several effects:

The injury is temporarily repaired, and additional pathogens are prevented from
entering the wound.

The spread of pathogens away from the injury is slowed.

Local, regional, and systemic defenses are mobilized to overcome the pathogens and
facilitate permanent repairs. This repair process is called regeneration.

5. What are the most important chemical regulators of respiration? Explain how the switch
from fetal to adult blood circulation type does occur.

6. Describe the respiratory muscles and their innervation. What brain centers do control
their activity?