Laboratory 3

Weathering of Rocks
and
Formation of Sediment
Pamela J. W. Gore
Georgia Perimeter College
Clarkston, GA 30021
Copyright 1998-2004 Pamela J. W. Gore
This lab introduces the products of rock weathering. Weathering is important
because it is the process through which rocks are broken down and sediment is
formed. Sediment is loose particulate material which becomes cemented and
compacted to form sedimentary rocks.

TYPES OF WEATHERING
There are three major types of weathering:
1. physical
2. chemical
3. biological
Physical weathering breaks rocks down into smaller pieces. Types of
physical weathering include frost wedging, exfoliation, and thermal
expansion.
Chemical weathering breaks rocks down chemically adding or removing
chemical elements, and changes them into other materials. Chemical
weathering consists of chemical reactions, most of which involve water.
Types of chemical weathering include:

dissolution
hydrolysis
oxidation

Biological weathering is the breakdown of rock caused by the action of

living organisms, including plants, burrowing animals, and lichen (a
crusty, rubbery, light green organic material that grows in patches on
rocks as well as on wood). Lichen is a combination of fungus and algae,
living together in a symbiotic relationship. Lichens can live on bare rock,
and they break down rocks by secreting acids and other chemicals. The
fungal part of the association secretes the acids, which react to dissolve
the minerals, which are then used by the algae. Later, water seeps into the

crevices etched by the acid, and assists in the breakdown through freezing
(frost-wedging) and chemical weathering.
TYPES OF PHYSICAL WEATHERING
1. Frost wedging - water expands when it freezes, breaking
rocks into angular fragments

Talus
slope, Lost River, West Virginia
The above photograph illustrates a sediment source
area. The bedrock is being broken down into
sediment of a variety of sizes, primarily by physical
weathering processes.
2. Exfoliation - the bedrock breaks into flat sheets along
joints which parallel the ground surface. This phenomenon is
caused by the expansion of rock when the pressure of
overlying rock is removed by erosion. It is sometiumes
called unloading.
Exfoliation of granite at Stone Mountain has produced a
rounded mountain. At the time the granite body cooled, it is
calculated that the land in this area stood about 10,000 ft
higher than at present. Over the past 325 million years, this
10,000 ft of rock has been eroded away.

Stone Mountain, Georgia. Stone Mountain is a granite body

which is a sediment source area. The second image shows
active exfoliation.
3. Thermal expansion - heat causes expansion; cooling
causes contraction. Different minerals expand and contract
at different rates causing stresses along mineral boundaries.
Repeated daily heating and cooling of rock causes the rock
to break down.
TYPES OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING
1. Dissolution alters rocks by removing soluble minerals.
Minerals such as halite, gypsum, and calcite are soluble
(dissolve) in water (especially water that is slightly acidic).
When the minerals react with water, ions (such as Ca and
Na) are released. The ions are carried as "dissolved load" by
rivers flowing to lakes or to the sea. As lake or sea water
evaporates, the dissolved minerals precipitate or crystallize
out as solid minerals. (Examples: halite, gypsum, or calcite.
These types of minerals that form from the evaporation of
sea water are called evaporites.) Minerals may also
precipitate or crystallize from ground water in and around
springs (particularly hot springs), and in caves (example travertine).

2. Hydrolysis is the process by which feldspar (and some

other aluminum-bearing silicate minerals) are weathered to
form clay. For example, potassium feldspar weathers to form
the mineral kaolinite.
2KAlSi3O8
potassium
feldspar

2 (H+ +

+ HCO - ) + H20 => Al2Si2O5(OH)4 +

3

2K+

2HCO3-

+ 4SiO2

kaolinite
potassium
bicarbonate
silica
(clay formed
ion
ion
water
(dissolved
through
(dissolved
(dissolved
in water)
weathering)
in water)
in water)
In humid climates (such as the southeastern United States), most
of the feldspar in rocks such as granite will weather to form clay.

carbonic
acid

Nearly all of the minerals in the common rocks of the Earth's crust
will weather to form clay (with the exception of quartz). Because of
this, clays make up nearly half of the sedimentary rocks on Earth.
Oxidation is the process by which iron-bearing minerals
weather to produce iron oxides (or "rust"). Iron-bearing silicate
minerals which also contain aluminum (such as pyroxene,
amphibole, and biotite) undergo both oxidation and hydrolysis,
forming both iron oxides and clays. Iron-bearing alumino-silicate
minerals weather to form the red clayey soils, such as are found in
Georgia, as well as lateritic soils formed in more tropical areas.

MINERAL STABILITY IN THE WEATHERING ENVIRONMENT

Some minerals weather more quickly than others. A few minerals are
readily soluble in slightly acidic water, whereas others weather to produce
clay, and still others are very resistant to weathering, and persist for a
long time without alteration. One of the controls on the weathering of
minerals is the temperature at which the minerals originally formed when
they crystallized from magma or lava.
Minerals which formed at high temperatures and pressures are
least stable in the weathering environment, and weather most
quickly. This is because they are farther from their "zone of stability", or
the conditions under which they formed. On the other hand, minerals
which formed at lower temperatures and pressures are most
stable under weathering conditions.
The order in which minerals tend to weather is related to the temperature
at which they crystallized. You may remember Bowen's Reaction Series,
which described the order in which minerals crystallize from magma. There
is a similar ordering of minerals as related to their weathering rates, and it
is called the Goldich Stability Series.
The order of mineral stability in the weathering environment is the same
order as Bowen's Reaction Series.
Least stable (high temperature minerals)

Olivine
Pyroxene
Amphibole
Biotite

Ca plagioclase feldspar
Na plagioclase feldspar
Potassium feldspar
Muscovite
Quartz

Most stable (low temperature minerals)

What happens when granite is weathered?

Unweathered granite contains these minerals:
1. Na plagioclase feldspar (white)
2. K feldspar (pink, but may be white in
other granites)
3. Quartz (gray)
4. Small amounts of biotite and/or amphibole
(black)
5. and sometimes muscovite (not shown)
Here is what will happen to each of the mineral constituents in a
granite under warm, humid weathering conditions:
1. The feldspars will undergo hydrolysis to form kaolinite
(clay) and Na and K ions
2. The sodium and potassium ions will be removed through
leaching and will be carried in solution in running water
3. The biotite and/or amphibole will undergo hydrolysis to
form clay, and oxidation to form iron oxides.
4. The quartz (and muscovite, if present) will remain as
residual minerals because they are very resistant to
weathering.
Under warm, humid conditions, the granite bedrock will weather in
place until the feldspars alter to soft clay. The weathered rock is
called saprolite, a term meaning "rotten rock". In areas of the
southeastern U.S. which are underlain by granite (and other
igneous and metamorphic rocks), a thick soil zone of weathered
rock or saprolite has developed. Where the bedock contained ironbearing minerals (such as biotite, amphibole, or pyroxene) which
weathered to iron oxides, the saprolite has been stained a deep red
color. (This is the same principle by which one red sock in a load of
laundry can stain all of the clothes red.) The red-stained clay in the
saprolite has given rise to the famous Georgia Red Clay.
What happens after the rock has been weathered to saprolite?
1. The clays will be eroded and transported by running water
to the sea. Clay is fine-grained and remains suspended in
the water column. The clay may ultimately be deposited in
deep quiet water far from shore.

2. As the soft clay is removed, the unweathered, residual

quartz grains will be released from the saprolite by erosion.
The quartz in granite is sand-sized, and it becomes quartz
sand. The quartz sand is ultimately transported to the sea,
where it accumulates to form beaches.
3. The dissolved ions (sodium and potassium) will be
transported by rivers to the sea, and will become part of the
salts in the sea.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SEDIMENT

Terrigenous sediment is derived from the weathering of pre-existing
rocks. (Sometimes it is also called clastic or SILICICLASTIC OR detrital
sediment). The grain size of sediment depends on the types of rocks in the
source area from which the sediment was derived. The textures and
mineralogy of the rocks in the source area control the grain size and
composition of the resulting sediment.
DESCRIBING THE TEXTURE OF SANDS
Texture refers to the size and shape of the grains in a sediment.
Sediment can be separated into four main groups based on grain
size. These four size groups are gravel, sand, silt, and clay. Some
of these groups (gravel and sand) can be further subdivided.
The sediment grain size scale is known as the Wentworth Scale.

Particle name

Particle diameter

Gravel

Sand

Boulders

> 256 mm

Cobbles

64 - 256 mm

Pebbles

2 - 64 mm

Granules

2 - 4 mm

Very coarse
sand

1 - 2 mm

Coarse sand

0.5 - 1 mm

Medium sand

0.25 - 0.5 mm

Fine sand

0.125 - 0.25 mm

Very fine
sand

0.0625 - 0.125 mm
1/256 - 1/16 mm
(or 0.004 - 0.0625 mm)

Silt
Clay

< 1/256 mm
(or < 0.004 mm)

Gravel forms through physical weathering of rock. A piece of gravel is usually a "rock
fragment" composed of more than one mineral. Sometimes a piece of gravel is a single
mineral, most commonly quartz. This is because quartz is sometimes present as veins,
which may be several inches wide (or more), thus producing gravel-sized clasts.
Sand forms through the breakdown and disintegration of rocks which have sand-sized
(1/16 - 2mm) grains, such as granite and gneiss.
In humid climates, quartz sand grains are released from granite after the feldspar grains
alter to clay by chemical weathering (hydrolysis). In more arid areas, granite breaks down
by physical weathering (such as frost wedging), releasing both feldspar and quartz grains.
Silt originates from the chipping of coarser grains during sediment transport, or from the
disintegration of fine-grained crystalline rocks (such as slates, phyllites, and schists).
Clay originates primarily through chemical weathering of feldspars and other aluminosilicate minerals (those which contain aluminum and silicon). The term "clay" refers to a
particular size of sediment particle, which could be a quartz grain or a clay mineral flake,
or some other very small mineral fragment. The term "clay" is also used to refer to a
group of minerals. There are a number of clay minerals, including kaolinite (the white
clay mined in central Georgia and used for shiny coatings on paper, and additives to
rubber), illite (which contains potassium), and montmorillonite or smectite (a group
of clays which can take in large amounts of water, and as a result these clays are
commonly referred to as "swelling clays").
SORTING
Sorting refers to the range in grain sizes in a sediment or sedimentary rock.
Sediment (or rock) which is well sorted will have most of the grains roughly the
same size. A poorly sorted sediment or rock has a wide range of grain sizes.
Sorting can be estimated using a visual comparison chart.
ROUNDNESS
Roundness is a measure of the sharpness or roundness of the corners of a
sedimentary particle. Roundness is determined by comparing the sand grains
with a visual comparison chart.
As sediment is transported, it undergoes abrasion by coming into contact with
the stream bottom, sea-floor, or other grains of sediment. The abrasion tends to
"round-off" the sharp edges or corners. Rounding is also related to the size of
the grains. Boulders tend to round much more quickly than sand grains because
they strike each other with much greater force.
SPHERICITY
Grains of sediment are three dimensional. Sphericity refers to "equal
dimensions". Is the sediment particle elongated (one dimension longer than the
other two), flattened or sheet-like (one dimension much smaller than the
other two dimensions), or is it spherical (its three dimensions roughly the same
length)? Sphericity can be described as high or low. According to this definition,
a ball would have highly sphericity, but so would a cube (high sphericity, but low
roundness). In contrast, a submarine sandwich would have low sphericity, but
high roundness. A shoebox would have both low sphericity and low roundness.
Sand grains may have high or low sphericity. Some minerals may produce

elongated or flattened grains, depending primarily on original crystal shape and

cleavage.
Be careful not to confuse rounding with sphericity. A well-rounded grain may or
may not resemble a sphere. And a spherical grain may or may not be well
rounded.
INTERPRETING THE TEXTURE OF SANDS
Texture is an indicator of energy levels in the environment of deposition (the place where
sediment accumulates, perhaps a beach, a riverbed, a lake, or a delta).
Moving water (such as waves or currents) is considerd to be a high energy environment.
Quiet water or still water (water without waves or currents) is considered to be a low
energy environment. Deep water environments commonly have quiet water, because
wave motion is restricted to the upper part of the water column.
How do you determine energy levels in the depositional environment from
looking at sediment?
Grain size
Coarse-grained sediments (sand, gravel) indicate high energy environments. A
large amount of energy is required to transport gravel-sized clasts, and moving
water is required to transport sand.
Fine-grained sediments (clay or silt) indicate low energy environments. There is
insufficient energy to bring larger clasts into the environment. Aso, if the water
were moving, the clay would not be able to settle out and be deposited on the
bottom.
Sorting
Well-sorted grains indicate that the sediment was probably transported for a
long time in a fairly high energy environment (waves or currents). The finer
grains were probably washed or winnowed away.
Poorly sorted grains indicate that the sediment has not been transported very far
from the source area. It also suggests fluctuating energy levels, and a fairly
short time in the depositional environment.

Good sorting implies consistent energy (washing)

Poor sorting implies inconsistent energy (dumping)

Grain shape
A well rounded sand grain indicates that the sediment has been transported far
from the original source area, and that it has been in the depositional
environment for a long time.
The environment of deposition is also a factor in sand grain roundness. Sands
from desert environments tend to be more rounded than sands from beaches.
Angular sand grains have probably only been transported for a short distance
from the source area, or they have been in the depositional environment for a
short time.
TEXTURAL MATURITY
Textural maturity is a concept which proposes that as sediments experience the input of
mechanical energy (the abrasive and sorting action of waves and currents), they pass
through a series of four stages.
1.

Stage 1- Immature - Sediment contains mud (clay and/or silt)

2.
3.
4.

Stage 2 - Submature - Poorly sorted sediment with no mud

Stage 3- Mature - Well sorted sediment with no mud
Stage 4 - Supermature - Well sorted and rounded sediment with no mud

Three steps are involved:

1.
2.
3.

Winnowing or washing out of fines - makes an immature sediment become

submature
Sorting of grain sizes - makes a submature sediment become mature
Rounding - makes a mature sediment become supermature

DESCRIBING THE MINERALOGIC COMPOSITION OF SANDS

The minerals in sands (and in sandstones) can be identified using a microscope (or a
handlens if a microscope is not available). Identifying the minerals present is important
because sandstones are classified based on the composition of their grains.
Three components are considered when naming sandstones:
1.
2.
3.

Quartz grains
Feldspar grains
Fine-grained rock fragment grains. Possibilities include shale, slate, phyllite,
basalt, rhyolite, andesite, chert, and possibly schist. Limestones would not be
included usually because they dissolve so readily.

The three major types of sandstone are:

1.
2.
3.

Quartz sandstone (also called quartz arenite) - which is dominated by

quartz
Arkose - which is dominated by feldspar
Litharenite or lithic sandstone (commonly but imprecisely called graywacke)
- which is dominated by rock fragment grains.

Other minerals may also be present in sands and sandstones. In fact, in some areas,
sands may be composed almost entirely of minerals other than quartz and feldspar. For
example, at White Sands National Monument in New Mexico, the sands are composed of
gypsum grains. There is a beach on the southern end of the Big Island of Hawaii that has
green sand composed of olivine grains. There are beaches in tropical areas in many parts
of the world that are composed almost entirely of the sand-sized shells and shell
fragments of marine organisms (made of calcium carbonate - calcite or aragonite).
It is important to keep in mind that "sand" is a texture term, not a composition term. A
sand can be composed of any types of sand-sized mineral or rock-fragment grains.
In addition to the major constituents in sand, there is often a suite of heavy minerals
(those with high specific gravity - greater than 2.85), which may consist of less than 1%
of the sand grains to perhaps several percent (or more). Examples of heavy minerals
include rutile, tourmaline, zircon, garnet, kyanite, staurolite, apatite, olivine,
pyroxene, amphibole, magnetite, ilmenite, hematite, pyrite, and others. The
particular types of heavy minerals present depend on the composition of the rocks in the
source area. For example, garnet, kyanite, and staurolite are metamorphic minerals,
whereas olivine, pyroxene, and amphibole are constituents of mafic igneous rocks (gabbro
and basalt). Heavy minerals are important indicators which can tell us the type of rocks
that existed in the sediment source area.
Heavy minerals make up the "black sands" present in layers along the coast of Georgia
and adjacent Florida, and inland in the Atlantic Coastal Plain. One notable example is a
deposit of heavy minerals along Trail Ridge, the sand barrier holding back the waters of
the Okefenokee Swamp in southeastern Georgia. DuPont owns or leases 38,000 acres
along Trail Ridge, and has expressed interest in beginning a 50-year project to mine these
heavy mineral sands to obtain titanium ore. (Both ilmenite and rutile contain titanium, a
white pigment used in paper, plastics, and coatings (paint). The mining proposal has been
quite unpopular with the public, because there is concern that the Swamp hydrology
might be irreparably damaged by mining activities.

[Update - In August 2003, DuPont donated a 16,000 acre tract of land adjacent to the
Okefenokee Swamp to the Conservation Fund, a non-profit land preservation group. This
donation permanently protects the acreage from development and mining.]
[Update: In April 2004, another company Iluka Resources/TE Consolidated (see p. 6 of
linked article), opened a new strip mining for titanium just east of Nahunta on highway
82. ]
NOTE: Sands from warm, shallow, tropical seas, far from continental sources of
sediments (such as quartz), may be entirely or almost entirely made up of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) grains such as calcite and aragonite. (They have the same chamical
formula but different crystal structures. You do not need to worry about how to tell them
apart. We can use either term when describing the sediments and sands in the lab.)
Calcium carbonate sediment may be made up entirely or almost entirely of microscopic
shells (the remains of planktonic organisms), along with broken shells and coral. Other
calcium carbonate grains may be spherical or highly rounded. These grains are known as
oolites. (See Lab 4, Sedimentary Rocks for more information). Calcium carbonate sand
grains are typically white to tan to pink, and are opaque (rather than transparent and
glassy like quartz). Because calcite is a soft mineral (only 3 on Mohs Hardness Scale),
calcite (and aragonite) grains round quickly. (Recently-broken shells, however, will be
angular.) You are likely to see some carbonate sands in your lab.

IDENTIFYING MINERALS IN SANDS

The following is a handy dandy guide to identifying sand grains under the
stereomicroscope or handlens.

Grain type

Identifying features

Quartz

Glassy, gray or white (may be covered by brownish iron

oxide stain), lacks cleavage

Feldspar

Has cleavage (look for flat surfaces or square corners),

usually white or pink in color

Rock fragments

fine-grained, commonly dark gray or black, may be coated

with iron oxide stain

Muscovite

Silvery color, flat sheets, shiny, may look sub-metallic

Magnetite or
ilmenite

Black, opaque. magnetite is magnetic.

Rutile

Deep red or yellow, may look opaque, generally elongate

and well-rounded

Tourmaline

Elongated with triangular cross-section, dark color

Zircon

Colorless, elongated crystals

Garnet

Most commonly pale pink or red, no cleavage

Staurolite

Brown to yellow, elongate, may be filled with tiny

inclusions to resemble swiss cheese

Apatite

Colorless, rounded or elongated

Olivine

Olive green, glassy, no cleavage, may be rounded

Pyroxene

Stubby, angular cleavage fragments, gray or greenish to

colorless
Amphibole

Elongated to fibrous, greenish

Biotite

Brown, flat sheets, shiny

Hematite

Red

Pyrite

Brassy gold, metallic,

INTERPRETING THE MINERALOGIC COMPOSITION OF SANDS

Each type of sandstone implies something about depositional history:
1.
2.
3.

Quartz sandstone implies a long time in the depositional basin.

Arkose implies a short time in the depositional basin (because feldspar typically
weathers quickly to clay). Arkose also implies rapid erosion, arid climate,
tectonic activity, steep slopes.
Litharenite implies rapid erosion, temperate or arid (not humid) climate

As noted above, the particular suite of heavy minerals present in sand also can tell a lot
about the source area from which the sediment is derived.

READING THE RECORD IN THE ROCKS:

A SANDSTONE INTERPRETATION GUIDE
One of the goals in Historical Geology is to try to interpret the depositional conditions of the
sedimentary rocks that make up the geologic record.
Sandstone textures and compositions may be used to interpret many things about the history of
the sand, including source area lithology, paleoclimate, tectonic activity, processes acting in the
depositional basin, and time duration in the basin. Remember that the source area is the land which
is weathering and eroding to supply terrigenous debris to the depositional basin.
SOURCE AREA LITHOLOGY
Composition gives the key information (minerals or rock fragments present). Remember
that quartz sandstone or quartz arenite is dominated by quartz grains; arkose is
dominated by feldspar grains (usually potassium feldspar); and graywacke is dominated
by rock fragment grains.

Sand-sized quartz grains could come from the weathering of source area rocks
such as granite, gneiss, or other sandstones which contain quartz (recycled
sandstones).
Sand-sized feldspar grains could come from the weathering of source area
rocks such as granite or gneiss.
Sand-sized rock fragment grains come from the weathering of fine-grained
source rocks. Possibilities include shale, slate, phyllite, basalt, rhyolite, andesite,
chert, and possibly schist.

PALEOCLIMATE
Paleoclimate refers to the climate which existed in the source area. We are particularly
concerned with weathering rates here. Remember that in humid climates, feldspar
weathers to clay by hydrolysis. Other minerals also weather to clay (with associated iron
oxides), such as olivine, pyroxene, and amphibole.
Also remember the difference between weathering (BREAKDOWN of rock by hydrolysis,
dissolution, oxidation, exfoliation, frost wedging, or freeze thaw), and erosion
(TRANSPORTATION of particles).

If feldspar is present in your sand, it indicates that the climate was probably
arid. (Or that erosion rates were very rapid, and that tectonic activity was
extremely high - lots of uplift,and steep slopes.)

If quartz is the dominant mineral in the sand, the climate was probably humid
(all of the feldspars weathered away to clay).

If rock fragments are present in your sand, it helps to know what lithology
they are. If they are rock types which would weather rapidly (such as basalt or
limestone fragments), the climate was probably arid. If they are rock types
which would be relatively stable (shale, slate, or chert), the climate may have
been temperate to humid. (remember Bowen's Reaction Series and the Goldich
Stability Series to determine what is stable or unstable). If rock fragments are
present and no rock types are given, a good compromise answer would be
temperate climate.

TECTONIC ACTIVITY IN THE SOURCE AREA

We are basically classifying tectonic activity as "active" or "passive". For a good model,
consider the west coast of the US as tectonically active - steep slopes, mountains
close to the sea, lots of earthquakes, tectonic uplift, and volcanic activity. On the other
hand, consider the east coast of the US as tectonically passive - broad, flat coastal
plain, few or no earthquakes, no uplift, and no volcanic activity.

If a sand has a lot of feldspar or rock fragments, it probably indicates high

tectonic activity.
If a sand has a lot of quartz, it probably indicates low tectonic activity - a
passive setting.

Tectonic activity also influences sorting, time duration in the depositional environment
(and to some extent, compositional maturity). High tectonic activity might produce rapid
dumping of sediments into the basin with little or no time for sorting. Low tectonic activity
means little uplift, low erosion rates, and therefore little sediment supplied to the basin;
what sediment that is there is likely to wash around for a long time and become well
sorted and rounded, and grains other than quartz are likely to be destroyed (by abrasion
or chemical weathering).
PROCESSES ACTING IN THE DEPOSITIONAL BASIN
This refers to energy levels ("high" vs. "low") and consistency of energy. Texture gives
the key information.
Grain size:

Coarse sediments generally indicate high energy, and fine sediments indicate low
energy.

Sorting:

Well sorted sediments indicate consistent, fairly high energy levels.

(Winnowing and washing.)

Poorly sorted sediments indicate inconsistent energy levels - rapid

dumping (which might involve short episodes of high energy), followed by low
energy conditions.

TIME DURATION IN THE DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT

Both mineralogy and texture can be used to determine time in the depositional
environment.
A sand with abundant quartz grains suggests a long time in the depositional environment.
Quartz is more resistant to abrasion than feldspar or rock fragments.
A sand with abundant feldspar or rock fragment grains suggests a short time in the
depositional environment.
Textural maturity is also useful in interpreting time in the depositional environment.
Immature or submature sediments probably spent only a short time in the basin before
burial. Mature or supermature sediments were probably rolling around in the basin for a
long time before burial. Roundness is a good clue to a long time in the depositional

environment. Rounding of grains takes a long time; it is more likely in a tectonically

passive situation. Desert sands are often well rounded because of the "sandblasting"
process of wind transport. Hence, in an arid desert, it is possible to get a well-rounded
(supermature) arkose.

Go to Weathering Lab - Exercises

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This page created by Pamela J. W. Gore

Georgia Perimeter College
July 6, 1998
Modified June 11, 1999
Updated December 1, 2003
Updated October 15, 2004.

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