PHYSICS

1.Charge only comes in countable numbers. The smallest amount of charge that has ever
been observed is the charge on the electron and/or the charge on the proton (both the same
amount, but opposite type). Hence the term "quantization of charge." Quantum or
"quantized" means that it is numbered or integer-countable (can come in -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, etc.
but not 1.5 or pi, et al), and a quantum is essentially one of those quantized objects. The
total charge on a charged object is therefore the number of individual charges, all of which
are either electrons or protons, multiplied by the charge on one of them. Therefore, if there
are 10^10 electrons roaming around with no protons to counter the free charge on them,
then the total charge in that area is 10^10 * -1.6*10^-19 (q) = 1.6*10^-9 coulombs or -1.6
nanocoulombs (electron charge is negative)
2. Well electrons do have a mass, albeit an extremely small mass.
But usually when you put a charge on something you are stripping away electrons
so it sounds like your mass would decrease.
But If you put a positive charge on something it would have to increase mass, but
you would need a lot of electrons to be able to even measure the weight
3
4
Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is
directly proportional to the potential difference across the two points. Introducing the constant of
proportionality, the resistance,[1] one arrives at the usual mathematical equation that describes this
relationship:

where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference
measured across the conductor in units of volts, and Ris the resistance of the conductor in units
of ohms. More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is constant, independent of
the current.[3]
The law was named after the German physicist Georg Ohm, who, in a treatise published in 1827,
described measurements of applied voltage and current through simple electrical circuits
containing various lengths of wire. He presented a slightly more complex equation than the one
above (seeHistory section below) to explain his experimental results. The above equation is the
modern form of Ohm's law.
In physics, the term Ohm's law is also used to refer to various generalizations of the law originally
formulated by Ohm. The simplest example of this is:

where J is the current density at a given location in a resistive material, E is the electric field at that
location, and (Sigma) is a material-dependent parameter called the conductivity. This
reformulation of Ohm's law is due to Gustav Kirchhoff.[4]

The limitations of Ohms law are explained as follows:

1) This law cannot be applied to unilateral networks. A unilateral network has unilateral
elements like diode, transistors, etc., which do not have same voltage current relation for
both directions of current.
2) Ohms law is also not applicable for non linear elements. Non linear elements are
those which do not give current through it, is not exactly proportional to the voltage
applied, that means the resistance value of those elements changes for different values of
voltage and current. Examples of non linear elements are thyristor, electric arc, etc.
6
7
8
9
10 Resistance is the obstruction offered to the flow of current by a conductor.
Resistivity is the obstruction offered to the flow of current by UNIT AREA OF the
conductor.
So basically, resistance is the property of the object (say a copper wire), whereas
resistivity
And

so

Whereas

is

the

resistance
resistivity

property
depends
depends

of

upon
upon

the

substance

(copper).

the

properties

of

the

object.

the

properties

of

the

metal.

So for example take two objects A and B made of aluminium. Both are of a different
size.
The

resistance

of

But the resistivity will be the same

11
12
13
14
15
16
17

&

will

be

different.

CHEMISTRY

Photosynthesis

Biological importance
1) It transforms sunlight energy into chemical energy stored in molecules.
2) The molecules that trap the energy in their chemical bonds are also used as
building blocks for other molecules.
3) Photosynthesis releases free oxygen gas into the environment, which is essentail
for the survival of all life forms.

Conditions for photosynthesis

Below are things that plants need for photosynthesis:

Carbon dioxide (A colorless, naturally occuring odorless gas found in the air we breathe. It
has a scientific symbol CO2. CO2 is produced by burning carbon and organic compounds. It is
also produced when plants and animals breathe out during respiration)
Water
Light (Even though both natural and artificial light is OK for plants, natural sunlight is
usually great for photosynthesis because they have other natural UV properties that help the
plant)
Chlorophyll (This is the green pigment found in the leaves of plants)
Nutrients and minerals (Chemicals and organic compounds which the plant-roots absorb
from the soil)

Below are things that plants make by photosynthesis:

Glucose

Oxygen

Its usefulness
Photosynthesis doesn't only give us the air we can breathe, but keeps our plants
alive that animals eat and right now it is important as ever. Photosynthesis keeps
carbon dioxide leveled, but sadly with deforestation and peoples addiction to pumping
CO2 into our atmosphere photosynthesis isn't enough we need to put in our own two
cents to STOP the climate crisis. Anyways, back to the subject. Photosynthesis keeps
our food supply healthy, and our Earth healthy.

Effects on the environment

Photosynthesis is directly related to the life and survival of all the other
living creatures on earth. It not just supplies oxygen, without which,
breathing and being alive would be difficult, but it also supplies food and
energy to all.
Among all the living organisms on planet earth, only plants are capable of
producing their own food and deriving energy from it. No other living
creature can produce their food and thus, depend on plants or other
creatures which feed on plants to survive. Therefore, by producing energy,
the plants supply all the necessary nutrients and energy directly and/or
indirectly to the other living creatures. The production of this energy is
possible through photosynthesis.
Going by all the above facts, it is evident how photosynthesis plays a vital
role in regulating the life cycle on Earth. Now you may realize its
importance every time you breathe in and out, and take a look at the
plants at your backyard, neighborhood, or front garden. Sunlight, water,
and plants work together to supply the raw source of energy to us, and
help us breathe in oxygen to live on. Life without photosynthesis would
thus be impossible.

Respiratory

BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE
Respiration is important because it produces energy that is essential for the normal
functioning of the body. Respiration provides cells with oxygen and expels toxic carbon
dioxide. The BBC notes that cells need energy for movement, multiplication, the synthesis of
essential molecules and maintaining body temperature.
Respiratory biology is at the center of modern health study and practice. When
pulmonary ventilation or diffusion becomes insufficient, the respiratory system
fails and life is in jeopardy. (An insufficiency in pulmonary perfusion would be
classified as cardiac failure.) One cause of ventilatory failure involves central
nervous control of breathing or inhibition of transmission of neuronal impulses to
the respiratory musculature. Ventilation can also fail due to blockage of the
airways by choking, or in such diseases as obstructive sleep apnea, COPD
(chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), emphysema, or asthma. Diffusion is
inhibited in pneumonia, pulmonary edema, cystic fibrosis, or hyaline membrane
disease of the lung. Lung cancer, depending on the type and severity can affect
all of the above functions. In addition to all this, the lung can serve as a port of
entry for toxic substances and airborne disease vectors.

CONDITIONS REQUIRED
The presence of oxygen, nutrients and space to discard their metabolic products are
the conditions for cellular respiration in aerobic organisms.Anaerobic organisms
require an absence of oxygen and the presence of different nutrients from their aerobic
counterparts
Respiration is the set of metabolic processes that the cells of a living organism completes to
convert biochemical energy from nutrients into ATP. Nutrients that aerobic cells commonly
use in respiration include sugar, amino acids and fatty acids.
Respiration involves catabolic reactions, where large molecules are broken down into
smaller ones. The chemical bond energy of these large molecules is released in the process
and utilized by the cell to do useful work. Examples of vital functions that utilize energy
produced during respiration include biosynthesis, locomotion and active transport of
chemical components.

USEFULNESS OF RESPIRATION
Working your muscles
Growth and repair of cells
Building larger molecules from smaller ones i.e. proteins from
amino acids
Allowing chemical reactions to take place
Absorbing molecules in active transport
Keeping your body temperature constant
Sending messages along nerves

EFFECTS BY ENVIRONMENT
The respiratory system is particularly sensitive to air pollution. The lungs must
bring in large quantities of air (over 400 million litres in a lifetime) in order to
supply sufficient oxygen to the blood system. Air pollutants, such as groundlevel ozone and particulate matter can injure the lungs directly. These pollutants
may also trigger inflammation in the lungs that can affect the heart and blood
vessels. The air pollutants may also enter the blood and can affect other organs
elsewhere in the body.
Ozone can also damage the alveoli, the individual air sacs in the lung where
oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged.
Particulate air pollutants come in many sizes, and the size of these particles
determines where in your lungs they will lodge. Larger (coarse) particles are

more likely deposited in the upper airways of your lungs. Smaller (fine) particles
penetrate deeply into the alveolar region of the lungs, with varying health effects
that depend on the chemistry or physical nature of the particles.
The most common respiratory diseases affected by air pollution are:

Allergies

Asthma

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

BIOLOGY

About Asthma
It is a common chronic inflammatory disease of the airways characterized by variable and
recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstruction and bronchospasm.[2] Common symptoms
include wheezing,coughing, chest tightness, and shortness of breath.[3]

Asthma is thought to be caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors.

[4]
Its diagnosis is usually based on the pattern of symptoms, response to therapy over time
and spirometry.[5] It is clinically classified according to the frequency of symptoms, forced
expiratory volume in one second (FEV1), and peak expiratory flow rate.[6] Asthma may also
be classified as atopic(extrinsic) or non-atopic (intrinsic)[7] where atopy refers to a
predisposition toward developing type 1 hypersensitivity reactions.[8]
Treatment of acute symptoms is usually with an inhaled short-acting beta-2 agonist (such
as salbutamol) and oral corticosteroids.[9]In very severe cases, intravenous
corticosteroids, magnesium sulfate, and hospitalization may be required.[10] Symptoms can
be prevented by avoiding triggers, such as allergens[11] and irritants, and by the use of
inhaled corticosteroids.[12] Long-acting beta agonists (LABA) or antileukotriene agents may
be used in addition to inhaled corticosteroids if asthma symptoms remain uncontrolled.[13]
[14]
The occurrence of asthma has increased significantly since the 1970s. In 2011, 235300
million people globally were diagnosed with asthma,[15][16] and it caused 250,000 deaths

Types of Asthma

Child-Onset Asthma
Asthma that begins during childhood is called child-onset asthma. This type of asthma
happens because a child becomes sensitized to common allergens in the environment most likely due to genetic reasons. The child is atopic - a genetically determined state of
hypersensitivity to environmental allergens.
Allergens are any substances that the body will treat as a foreign body, triggering an immune
response. These vary widely between individuals and often include animal proteins, fungi,
pollen, house-dust mites and some kind of dust. The airway cells are sensitive to particular
materials making an asthmatic response more likely if the child is exposed to a certain
amount of an allergen.

Adult-Onset Asthma
This term is used when a person develops asthma after reaching 20 years of age. Adultonset asthma affects women more than men, and it is also much less common than childonset asthma.
It can also be triggered by some allergic material or an allergy. It is estimated that up to
perhaps 50% of adult-onset asthmas are linked to allergies. However, a substantial
proportion of adult-onset asthma does not seem to be triggered by exposure to allergen(s);
this is called non-allergic adult-onset asthma. This non-allergic type of adult onset asthma is
also known as intrinsic asthma. Exposure to a particle or chemical in certain plastics, metals,
medications, or wood dust can also be a cause of adult-onset asthma.

Exercise-Induced Asthma
If you cough, wheeze or feel out of breath during or after exercise, you could be suffering
from exercise-induced asthma. Obviously, your level of fitness is also a factor - a person who
is unfit and runs fast for ten minutes is going to be out of breath. However, if your coughing,
wheezing or panting does not make sense, this could be an indication of exercise-induced
asthma.

Cough-Induced Asthma
Cough-induced asthma is one of the most difficult asthmas to diagnose. The doctor has to
eliminate other possibilities, such as chronic bronchitis, post nasal drip due to hay fever, or
sinus disease. In this case the coughing can occur alone, without other asthma-type
symptoms being present. The coughing can happen at any time of day or night. If it happens
at night it can disrupt sleep.

Occupational Asthma

This type of asthma is triggered by something in the patient's place of work. Factors such as
chemicals, vapors, gases, smoke, dust, fumes, or other particles can trigger asthma. It can
also be caused by a virus (flu), molds, animal products, pollen, humidity and temperature.
Another trigger may be stress. Occupational asthma tends to occur soon after the patients
starts a new job and disappears not long after leaving that job.

Nocturnal Asthma
Nocturnal asthma occurs between midnight and 8 AM. It is triggered by allergens in the
home such as dust and pet dander or is caused by sinus conditions. Nocturnal or nighttime
asthma may occur without any daytime symptoms recognized by the patient. The patient
may have wheezing or short breath when lying down and may not notice these symptoms
until awoken by them in the middle of the night - usually between 2 and 4 AM.

Causes
Asthma is caused by a combination of complex and incompletely understood environmental and genetic
interactions.[4][27] These factors influence both its severity and its responsiveness to treatment. [28] It is believed
that the recent increased rates of asthma are due to changing epigenetics (heritable factors other than
those related to the DNA sequence) and a changing living environment.[29]

Environmental
Many environmental factors have been associated with asthma's development and exacerbation including
allergens, air pollution, and other environmental chemicals.[30] Smoking during pregnancy and after delivery
is associated with a greater risk of asthma-like symptoms.[31] Low air quality from factors such as traffic
pollution or high ozone levels,[32] has been associated with both asthma development and increased asthma
Hygiene hypothesis
The hygiene hypothesis attempts to explain the increased rates of asthma worldwide as a direct and
unintended result of reduced exposure, during childhood, to non-pathogenic bacteria and viruses. [47][48] It has
been proposed that the reduced exposure to bacteria and viruses is due, in part, to increased cleanliness
and decreased family size in modern societies.[49] Exposure to bacterial endotoxin in early childhood may
prevent the development of asthma, but exposure at an older age may provoke bronchoconstriction.
[50]

Evidence supporting the hygiene hypothesis includes lower rates of asthma on farms and in households

with pets.[49]

Genetic

Family history is a risk factor for asthma, with many different genes being implicated. [56] If one identical twin
is affected, the probability of the other having the disease is approximately 25%. [56] By the end of 2005, 25
genes had been associated with asthma in six or more separate populations,

Medical conditions
A triad of atopic eczema, allergic rhinitis and asthma is called atopy.[59] The strongest risk factor for
developing asthma is a history of atopic disease;[46] with asthma occurring at a much greater rate in those
who have either eczema or hay fever.[60] Asthma has been associated with ChurgStrauss syndrome, an
autoimmune disease and vasculitis. Individuals with certain types of urticaria may also experience
symptoms of asthma.[59]

SYMPTOM

Coughing, especially at night, during exercise or when laughing.

Shortness of breath.
Chest tightness.
Wheezing (a whistling or squeaky sound in your chest when you
breathe, especially when exhaling)

Any asthma symptom is serious and can become deadly if left

untreated.

Prevalence of asthma
While there's no way to prevent asthma, by working together, you and your doctor can design
a step-by-step plan for living with your condition and preventing asthma attacks.

Follow your asthma action plan. With your doctor and health care team, write a
detailed plan for taking medications and managing an asthma attack. Then be sure to

follow your plan. Asthma is an ongoing condition that needs regular monitoring and
treatment. Taking control of your treatment can make you feel more in control of your life in
general.

Get vaccinated for influenza and pneumonia. Staying current with vaccinations
can prevent flu and pneumonia from triggering asthma flare-ups.

Identify and avoid asthma triggers. A number of outdoor allergens and irritants
ranging from pollen and mold to cold air and air pollution can trigger asthma attacks.
Find out what causes or worsens your asthma, and take steps to avoid those triggers.

Monitor your breathing. You may learn to recognize warning signs of an impending
attack, such as slight coughing, wheezing or shortness of breath. But because your lung
function may decrease before you notice any signs or symptoms, regularly measure and
record your peak airflow with a home peak flow meter.
Identify and treat attacks early. If you act quickly, you're less likely to have a severe
attack. You also won't need as much medication to control your symptoms.

When your peak flow measurements decrease and alert you to an oncoming attack, take
your medication as instructed and immediately stop any activity that may have triggered
the attack. If your symptoms don't improve, get medical help as directed in your action
plan.

Take your medication as prescribed. Just because your asthma seems to be

improving, don't change anything without first talking to your doctor. It's a good idea to
bring your medications with you to each doctor visit, so your doctor can double-check that
you're using your medications correctly and taking the right dose.

Pay attention to increasing quick-relief inhaler use. If you find yourself relying on
your quick-relief inhaler, such as albuterol, your asthma isn't under control. See your doctor
about adjusting your treatment.

Case Study
A 37 y/o black female with a history of asthma, presents to the ER with tachypnea, and acute
shortness of breath with audible wheezing. Patient has taken her prescribed medications of
Cromolyn Sodium and Ventolin at home with no relief of symptoms prior to coming to the
ER. A physical exam revealed the following: HR 110, RR 40 with signs of accessory muscle
use. Ausculation revealed decreased breath sounds with inspiratory and expiratory wheezing
and pt was coughing up small amounts of white sputum. SaO2 was 93% on room air. An
arterial blood gas (ABG) was ordered with the following results: pH 7.5, PaCO2 27, PaO2
75. An aerosol treatment was ordered and given with 0.5 cc albuterol with 3.0 cc normal
saline in a small volume nebulizer for 10 minutes. Peak flows done before and after the
treatment were 125/250 and ausculation revealed loud expiratory wheezing and better
airflow. 20 minutes later a second treatment was given with the above meds. Peak flows
before and after showed improvements of 230/360 and on ausculation there was clearing of
breath sounds and much improved airflow. RR was 24 at this time and HR 108. Symptoms
resolved and patient was given prescription for inhaled steroids to be used with current home
meds. Instruction was given for use of inhaled steroids and the patient was sent home.
This case is an example of what many people with asthma experience. The following
discussion will cover the etiology, pathogenesis, signs and symptoms, diagnosis, and
treatment of asthma. Complete the following sections and take the quiz to check your
understanding.
Learning Objectives
After completing the sections below, you should be able to:
1. list different ways asthma is diagnosed.
2. explain how a proper forced expiratory test is to be performed.
3. list the 3 primary pathologic reactions during as asthmatic episode.
4. differentiate the two types of asthma.
5. recognize chest x-ray changes seen with asthma.
6. recognize the signs and symptoms of asthma.
7. describe some of the equipment necessary for an exercise test.
8. discuss why and how a bronchoprovocation test is done.
9. discuss which values are most often used when testing for asthma.

10. recommend the appropriate drug therapy of an asthmatic patient for chronic
treatment or for an acute attack.
11. recognize the commonly used bronchodilation agents.
12. list the side effects related to the different asthma medications.