Linear Law

Important Phrase:
against means that: : Vertical axis
: Horizontal axis.
In other words, we always have: ( ) against ( )
Idea:
This chapter is mainly on converting a curve (on the axis) being converted to a straight
line (by changing the variables on the axis) by a rearrangement (the so-call change
of variables on the 2 axes) of the variables and in an non-linear equation relating
and into the form of = + [where (gradient) and (-intercept) are constants].
New Renamed axes

Default axes

(, ) []

Becomes

(, ) []

where (, ) and (, ) are expressions involving variables and/or . This

rearrangement of variables in the equation to form and (the new axes) is known as
linearization of the equation.

The new Vertical axis is named

The new horizontal axis is named
Do not mix up as and as

Simple Example:
Given the equation: = 2 2 + 1, how should the linearization be done?
The Linearization: = 2 2 + 1

Linearized Equation: = 2 + 1
[]

Linearization

= 2 + 1

= 2 2 + 1

2 []

At times, algebraic manipulation will be needed in order to linearize the equation.

Here is an important rule:
The renamed axis and cannot consists of unknown constants.
Get the hang of the idea! Dont just memorize the standard linearizations!
The following examples will illustrate the idea further.
Example:
Linearize the following non-linear equations:

= +

(ii)
(iii)

= +
= 2 + +

(iv) =

At times, there may

be more than 1 way
to linearize the
equations

(i)

Strategy to Linearize the Equations:

=
=
= +
= +
= 10+
= 7+

Try to ensure that there are only 2

terms (or 2 group of terms) with the
variables.

Write terms like

where and are unknown constants.

(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)

Solution:

(i)

= +

= +

(ii)

the product of constant and variables

with separate brackets]
Ensure coefficient of is 1 so that it is
of the form = +
When needing to apply logarithm on
both sides of the equation, when the
base is "", apply "" . When the base
is "10", apply . If not, it does not
matter whether we apply ln or lg

=
=

= +
There are a couple of methods here.

Method 1:

Method 2:

= +
1 = +

= , =

= +

= + 1 [Choose = ]

= +

as () [Write

=,=

= ( ) +

= ,=

Method 3:

= , =

= +
1

OR

= +( )

1 = +
=

= , =

=,=

+ 1 [Choose = ]

= ( ) ( ) +

=, =

= ,=

Method 2 and 3 leads to shorter algebraic manipulation since the coefficient of one of the
variables is 1 after the division.
(iii)

= 2 + +
Take note that is not an unknown constant. Therefore it is legit to group it under or .

= 2 + + = 2 +
=

= ( + )

= +

=,=

(iv)

constants and variables, so got

to get rid of fractions first!

OR

( ) = = = +
Cannot separate the unknown
= , =

=,=
1

= ( ) + ( )

= , =

= ,=

Since (which is an unknown constant) is part of

the power of the variable , we can only separate
from by applying log on both sides.

(v) =

ln = ln( ) = ln + ln( )

Take Note:

ln = ln + ln

ln( ) ln()

since the power only applies to and not to

= ln ,

= ln

Since the base is , it does

not matter whether I apply
ln or lg

= , = ln

Likewise, and can only be separate by means

of applying logarithms on both sides of the equation

(vi) =

ln = ln( )
ln = ln + ln(

= ln , =

= ln , = ln

ln = ln + (ln )

(vii) = +
While the logic to separate the unknown constants from the variable is the same (i.e. to
apply logarithms on both sides of the equation), one cannot apply log directly first, since
there is no way one can simplify ln( + ) any further.
ln( + ) ln( ) + ln
The key to proceed is that while we cannot simplify ln( + ), we can simplify ln( ):

= +

=
ln( ) = ln(

Note that is NOT an unknown

constant (it is a known
constant), thus, can be group
with or

ln( ) = ln + ln( )
ln( ) = ln + ln

= ln( ) , = ln

= , = ln

(viii) = +

ln( ) = ln( + )

= ln , =

ln + ln( ) = ln( + )

= ln , = ln( + )

ln + ln = ln( + ) ln = ( ln ) + ln( + )

(ix) = 10 +
lg( ) = lg(10+ ) lg = ( + )
2 possible ways of naming and :

Way 1:

Way 2:

lg = ( + )

lg = ( + )

lg = ( + )

= lg

lg = ( ) + ( )

= , = lg

= , =

= lg , =

= ,=
(x) = 7 +

ln( ) = ln(7+ )
[Since the base is 7 (not e or 10, it does not matter whether we apply log or ln]

ln() = ( + ) ln 7
ln = ln 7 + ln 7
ln = (

ln 7

) +

ln 7

= ln , =
=

ln 7

,=

ln 7

Question on linear law often requires us to find the value of unknown constants based on
some given information.

Example: [Expressing in terms of ]

The diagram shows part of a straight line obtained by plotting

against . Express in

terms of given that > 2.

(5,5)

Solution:
(1,3)

From the axis seen:

and =

Equation of the line: = + --- (1)

53

51

1
2

Substitute (1,3) into Equation (1) [We can also substitute (5,5), it does not matter]
1

3 = (1) + =
1

= 2 + 2 --- (2)
Since we wanted a relation between and (Not and ), we substitute =

= into (2):
+

= () + 2( + ) = 2 +
2

[Complete the square on the

RHS to make the subject]

2 + 2 = 2 + 2 = 2
1 2

1 2

2 = ( 2) (2)
1 2

( 2) = 2 + 4

1
2

= 2 +

= 2 2 + 4
1

Since > 2, we must have: = 2 + 2 + 4

1
4

and

Example: [Expressing in terms of ]

The diagram shows part of a straight line graph obtained by plotting ln against 3 and the
coordinates of two of the points on the line. Express in terms of .
Solution:

ln

(5,13)

From the axis seen:

= ln and = 3

(2,4)
3

Equation of the line: = + --- (1)

134
52

=3

Substitute (2,4) into Equation (1):

4 = 3(2) + = 2
= 3 2 --- (2)
Now, substitute = ln and = 3 into (2):
ln = 3 3 2

= 3

Since log = =

3 2

Example: [Finding value of unknown constant in the non-linear relation]

The variables and are connected by the equation = where and are constants.
The figure shows the straight line obtained by plotting lg against lg . Calculate the value of
and and hence, find the value of when = 4.

lg

Solution:
From the given axes:

(2,0)

= lg and = lg
(0, 1)

Equation of the line: = +

0(1)
20

1
2

Substitute (2,0) into Equation (1):

1

0 = 2 (2) + = 1

lg

= 2 1 --- (2)
Now, substitute = lg and = lg into (2):
1

lg = (lg ) 1
2

lg = lg ( 2 ) 1
1

lg = lg ( 2 ) lg 10 lg = lg (10 2 )
1

= 10 2
Compare this with the
given non-linear relation

= 10 and =

1
2

Example:
The diagram shows part of the straight line drawn to represent the curve
and are constants. Find the value of and .

From the given axes:

1

= and =

71
25

= 2

1 1

7 = 2(2) + = 11

= 2 + 11
1

and =

, where

(2,7)

Substitute (2,7) into = + :

Since =

(5,1)

Equation of the line: = +

Solution:

= + 11 [Make the subject from here]

= 2 + 11
(2 + 11) =

11+2
1

11

2
11

11(+ )

and =

11+2

[Algebraically re-write into the form of

11
2
+
11

2
11

Practice:
Q1)
The table shows some of the experimental values of two variables and .

1.2

1.6

2.0

2.4

3.0

3.23

3.58

3.90

4.19

4.57

It is known that and are related by the equation: = ln( 2 ) + 2.

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Obtain a straight line to represent the given data.

Use your graph to estimate the value of and of .
By drawing a suitable straight line, find the value of and which satisfy the
simultaneous equations
= ln( 2 ) + 2
= 2 ( 2 + 2)

[Ans: (ii) = 1.28, = 1.58 (iii) = 1.14, = 3.19]

Q2) [Linearization]
In order for each of the following equations:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

= +
+ =
2 + 1 =
= 10

where , , , , and are unknown constants, to be expressed as a straight line, they need
to be expressed in the form of = + , where and are functions of and/or , and
and are constants. Copy and complete the table for each of the following , , and .

= +

+ =
2 + 1 =

= 10

Q3)
The table shows some of the experimental values of two variables and . It is known that
and are related by the equation = ( 2 + ), where and are constants, and that one
of the values of given in the table is subjected to an abnormally large error.

1.5

2.5

3.5

6.65

8.94

10

9.41

5.95

1.62

against 2 , using a scale of 1 cm to represent 2 units on the 2

axis and 2 cm to represent 1 unit on the -axis. Draw a best fit line graph to represent

(a) On graph paper, plot

the equation of = ( + ).
(b) Use your graph to:
(i)
Identify the abnormal reading and estimate its correct value.
(ii)
Find the value of and .
(iii)
Estimate the value of when = 4.

1
(iv)
State the gradient of the straight line if 3 is plotted against 2 .

[Ans: (b) (i) Abnormal reading: 2 = 9, correct value of = 2.25, correct value of = 6.75;
(b)(ii) = 0.53, = 13.5 (b)(iii) 2.41 (b)(iv) 7.155]

Q4)
The variables and are related by the equation = 10 + 10 , where and are
constants. The table below shows experimental values of and .

10

15

20

25

30

35

10.09

10.24

10.60

11.46

13.72

19.34

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Express this equation in a form suitable for drawing a straight line graph.
Draw this graph for the given data and use it to estimate and .
Estimate the value of for which = 15.
By drawing a suitable straight line on your graph, solve the equation
1

(lg + 20) + = 0
[Ans: (i) = lg( 10) = x(lg ) + (ii) = 1.82, = 1.20 (iii) 31.5 (iv) = 14.1]
Q5)
The diagram shows part of a straight line graph passing through the points (4,6), (, 10)
and (12,18). Find:
2

(12,18)

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

in terms of ,
the value of ,
the values of and at point .
3

[Ans: (i) = 2 2 + 2 (ii)

20
3

(, 10)
(4,6)

(iii) (2,10) or (2,2)]

Q6)
The figure shows part of a straight line graph obtained by plotting ( + 2) against . Given
that the variables and are related by the equation =
(i)
(ii)

The gradient of the straight line,

The value of .
[Answer: (i)

1
2

4(3)
21

, find:

( + 2)

(ii) 6]

Q7)
The line joining (4,9) and (0,2) meets the -axis at . The point lies on such that
AP: PC=2:3. A line through meets the -axis at such that = . Find:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

The coordinates of ,
The equation of ,
The value of and of at the point .
7 24

[Answer: (i) (3 , 5 ) (ii) = 5 2 +

(iii) =

19
3

, = 0]

38
5

(4,9)

(0,2)