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FAMOUS PKOBLEMS
ELEMENTARY GEOMETRY
THE DUPLICATION OF THE CUBE
THE TRISECTION OF AN ANGLE
THE QUADRATURE OF THE CIRCLE
AN AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION OF F. KLEIN'S

VORTRGE BER AUSGEWHLTE FRAGEN DER ELEMENTARGEOMETRIE
AUSGEARBEITET VON F. TAGERT
WOOSTER WOODRUFF BEMAN

Professor of Mathematics
im
the University of Michigan
and
DAVID EUGENE SMITH

Professor of Mathematics
in
the Michigan State Normal College
/
Boston, U.S.A., and London
GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS

W$t &t&ewettm
1897
JJre
Copyright,
1897,
by
Wooster Woodruff Bema.v and David Eugene Smith

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
K6*
PREFACE.
The more
precise definitions
and more rigorous methods
of
demonstration developed by modern mathematics are looked
upon by the mass
of
gymnasium
professors as abstruse and
excessively abstract, and accordingly as of importance only

for the small circle of specialists.
ing this tendency it gave
me
With a view to
counteract-
summer
pleasure to set forth last
in a brief course of lectures before a larger audience
than
usual what modern science has to say regarding the possibility

of elementary geometric constructions.
had had occasion
Some time
before, I
to present a sketch of these lectures in
Easter vacation course at Gttingen.

to take great interest in them,
and
confirmed by the experience of the
an
The audience seemed
this impression has
summer
semester.
ture therefore to present a short exposition of
my
been
I ven-
lectures to
the Association for the Advancement of the Teaching of Math-
ematics and the Natural Sciences, for the meeting to be held at

Gttingen.
This exposition has been prepared by Oberlehrer
Tgert, of Ems,
tioned.
who attended
the vacation course just men-
He also had at his disposal the lecture notes written

my supervision by several of my summer semester
out under
students.
tribute to
I hope that this unpretending little book
may
con-
promote the useful work of the association.

F.
Gttingen, Easter, 1895.
KLEIN.
TRANSLATORS' PREFACE.
At
the Gttingen meeting of the
German Association
for
the Advancement of the Teaching of Mathematics and the
Natural Sciences, Professor Felix Klein presented a discussion of the three
famous geometric problems of antiquity,
the duplication
of the cube, the trisection of an angle,
and the quadrature of the
modern
circle, as
viewed in the light of
research.
This was done with the avowed purpose of bringing the

study of mathematics in the university into closer touch with
the
work
of the
gymnasium.
That Professor Klein
is
likely
shown by the favorable reception

accorded his lectures by the association, the uniform commendation of the educational journals, and the fact that transla-
to succeed in this effort is
tions into
French and Italian have already appeared.
The treatment
of the subject
knowledge of the
required.
Among
differential
elementary, not even a
the questions answered are such as these
Under what circumstances

sible ?
is
and integral calculus being
is
By what means can
scendental numbers?
How
it
a geometric consjb*tation pos-
be effectedTvVhatâre tran-
can we prove that e and
ir
are
transcendental ?
With the belief that an English presentation of so important a work would appeal to many unable to read the original,
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.
vi
Professor Klein's consent to a translation was sought and

readily secured.
In
its
preparation the authors have also
made
free use of
the French translation by Professor J. Griess, of Algiers,
following
They
its
modifications where
desire further to
it
seemed advisable.
thank Professor Ziwet for
assist-
ance in improving the translation and in reading the proofsheets.
W. W. BEMAN.
August, 1897.
D. E. SMITH.
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION.
PAGE
Practical and Theoretical Constructions

Statement of the Problem in Algebraic Form
PART
The Possibility
Chapter
7, 8.
9.
10.
11, 12.
13, 14.
I.
of the Construction of Algebraic Expressions.
Normal form
of x
be constructed
f (x)
F(x)
....
The irreducible equation 0(x) = o

The degree of the irreducible equation a power
II.
Conjugate values
Other rational equations
...
The corresponding equation
Chapter
...
.
Algebraic Equations Solvable by Square Roots.
I.
1-4. Structure of the expression x to

5, 6.
10
of 2
.11
The Delian Problem and the Trisection of the

Angle.
1.
2.
3.
The
impossibility of solving the Delian problem with straight
edge and compasses

The general equation x 3 = X
The impossibility of trisecting an angle with
and compasses
.
Chapter
1.
III.
2-4. Gauss's
prime numbers
13
straight edge
14
The Division of the Circle
History of the problem
13
into
Equal Parts.
.......
16
17
5.
The cyclotomic equation
19
6.
Gauss's
Lemma
19
7, 8.
The
irreducibility of the cyclotomic equation
.21
CONTEXTS.
viii
Chapter IV.
The Construction of the Regular Polygon of

17 Sides.
PAGE
1.
2-4.
5, 6.
7.
Algebraic statement of the problem
24
The periods formed from the roots

The quadratic equations satisfied by the periods
25
compasses
8, 9.
Von
27
Historical account of constructions with straight edge
and
32
Staudt's construction of the regular polygon of 17-sides
Chapter V.
34
General Considerations on Algebraic Constructions.
1.
Paper folding
42
2.
42
4.
The conic sections

The Cissoid of Diodes
The Conchoid of Nicomedes
5.
Mechanical devices
3.
44
45
.
PART
.47
II.
Transcendental Numbers and the Quadrature of the Circle.
Chapter
I.
Demonstration of the
Transcendental Numbers.
Cantor's
and of transcendental numbers

numbers according to height
the existence of transcendental numbers
1.
Definition of algebraic
2.
Arrangement
3.
Demonstration of
Chapter
1.
2.
3.
4, 5.
II.
49
50
53
Historical Survey of the Attempts at the Computation and Construction of it.

56
56
58
to 1770
Revival of critical rigor since 1770
III.
of
of algebraic
The empirical stage

The Greek mathematicians
Modern analysis from 1670
Chapter
59
The Transcendence of the Number
1.
Outline of the demonstration
2.
The symbol hr and the function

Hermite's Theorem
3.
Existence
<p(x)
e.
.... .61
.
62
65
CONTENTS.
Chapter IV.
ix
The Transcendence of the Number
it.
PAGE
1.
Outline of the demonstration
68
2.
The function
70
3.
Lindemann's Theorem
Lindemann's Corollary
4.
5.
6.
7.
^(x)
The transcendence
The transcendence
The transcendence
Chapter V.
of
73
74
:
ir
=
of y =
of y
76
ex
77
sin 2 x
77
The Integraph and the Geometric Construction

OF
1.
The
2.
Principle of the integraph
3.
Geometric construction of
7T.
impossibility of the quadrature of the circle with straight
edge and compasses
78
.
-n-
78
79
INTRODUCTION.
This course of lectures
is
due to the desire on
my
part to
bring the study of mathematics in the university into closer
touch with the needs of the secondary schools.
-Still it is
not
intended for beginners, since the matters under discussion are

treated from a higher standpoint than that of the schools.
On the
other hand,
it
presupposes but
little
preliminary work,
only the elements of analysis being required,
as, for
example,
in the development of the exponential function into a series.
We
propose to treat of geometrical constructions, and our
object will not be so
case
as
to
much .to
find the solution suited to each
determine the possibility or impossibility of a
solution.
Three problems, the object of much research in ancient

times, will prove to be of special interest.
1.
The problem of
They
are
the duplication of the cube (also called
the Delian problem).

2.
3.
In
The trisection of an arbitrary angle.

The quadrature of the circle, i.e., the construction of
all
ir.
these problems the ancients sought in vain for a
and compasses, and the celebrity

due chiefly to the fact that their solution
solution with straight edge

of these problems
is
seemed to demand the use of appliances of a higher order.

In fact, we propose to show that a solution by the use of
straight edge and compasses is impossible.
INTRODUCTION.
The impossibility
is
was
and second
of the solution of the third problem
That of the
demonstrated only very recently.
first
implicitly involved in the Galois theory as presented to-day
On
in treatises on higher algebra.
the other hand,
we
find
no explicit demonstration in elementary form unless it be in

Petersen's text-books, works which are also noteworthy in
other respects.
At the outset we must

and theoretical
practical
insist
upon the
constructions.
difference between
For example, if we
need a divided circle as a measuring instrument, we construct

Theoretically, in earlier times, it was
it simply on trial.
by the use of straight edge. and compasses) only

number of parts represented by
2 n 3, and 5, and their products. Gauss added other cases
by showing the possibility of the division into parts where
2^ -\- 1, and the imposp is a prime number of the form p
possible
(i.e.,
to divide the circle into a

,
sibility for all
other numbers.
derived from these results;

velopments
is
purely
No
practical advantage
is
the significance of Gauss's de-
theoretical.
The same
is
true of all the
discussions of the present course.
Our fundamental problem may be stated What geometrical

and ivhat are not, theoretically possible ? To
define sharply the meaning of the word " construction," we
must designate the instruments which we propose to use in
:
constructions are,
each case.
1.
2.
3.
4.
We
shall consider
Straight edge and compasses,

Compasses alone,
Straight edge alone,

Other instruments used in connection with straight edge
and compasses.
The singular thing is that elementary geometry furnishes

no answer to the question. We must fall back upon algebra
The question then arises How
and the higher analysis.
:
INTRODUCTION.
shall we use the language of these sciences to express the

employment of straight edge and compasses ? This newmethod of attack is rendered necessary because elementary
geometry possesses no general method, no algorithm, as do

the last two sciences.
In analysis we have
first
rational
and
operations
addition,
These operations
can be directly effected geometrically upon two given segments by the aid of proportions, if, in the case of multiplication and division, we introduce an auxiliary unit-segment.
subtraction, multiplication,
division.
Further, there are irrational operations, subdivided into

algebraic
and transcendental.
The simplest
algebraic opera-
and higher roots, and the

solution of algebraic equations not solvable by radicals, such
as those of the fifth and higher degrees. As we know how to
construct Vab, rational operations in general, and irrational
tions are the extraction of square
operations involving only square roots, can be constructed.
On
the other hand, every individual geometrical construction
which can be reduced to the intersection of two straight

lines, a straight line and a circle, or two circles, is equivalent
to a rational operation or the extraction of a square root.
the higher irrational operations the construction
is
In
therefore
we can find a tvay of effecting it by the aid

of square roots. In all these constructions it is obvious that
the number of operations must be limited.
impossible, unless
We may therefore state the following fundamental theorem

The necessary and
sion can be
an analytic
constructed with straight edge and compasses
sufficient condition that
expresis
that
can be derived from the known quantities by a finite number

of rational operations and square roots.
it
we wish
show that a quantity cannot be

we must prove
that the corresponding equation is not solvable by a finite
number of square roots.
Accordingly,
if
to
constructed with straight edge and compasses,
INTRODUCTION.
fortiori the
solution
is
impossible
when
has no corresponding algebraic equation.
the problem
An
expression
which satisfies no algebraic equation is called a transcendenThis case occurs, as we shall show, with the
tal number.
number it.
PART
I.
THE POSSIBILITY OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF ALGEBRAIC

EXPRESSIONS.
CHAPTER
I.
Algebraic Equations Solvable by Square Roots.
The following propositions taken from the theory
of alge-
known to the reader, yet to

view we shall give brief demon-
braic equations are probably
secure greater clearness of

strations.
If
x,
the quantity to be constructed, depends only
expressions
tion f (x)
1.
To
suppose
2.
0,
is
get a clear idea of the structure of the quantity
x,
of the form
= Va + VcTeT-f-Vd + Vb
Va + Vb
p_+Vq
?
Vr
are rational expressions.
a, b, c, d, e,
f,
The number
of radicals one over another occurring in
any term of
p, q,
the order of the term

expression contains terms of orders 0, 1, 2.
3.
upon rational
a root of an irreducible equaalways a power of 2.
roots, it is
whose degree
it, e.g.,
where
and square
Let
fx
x is called
designate the
can have more than
//,
maximum
the preceding
order, so that
radicals one over another.
no term
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
In the example
4.
expressions of the
x
it
really depends
= V2 +
first order,
V3 + V, we have
it may be written
= V2+ V3+ V2- V3,
on only two distinct expressions.
TFe shall suppose that this reduction has been
terms of
so that
x,
three
but as
among
made
the n terms of order
fx
in all the
none can be
expressed rationally as a function of any other terms of order
/x
or of lower order.
We
make
shall
the order
fx
the same supposition regarding terms of
or of lower order, whether these occur ex-
This hypothesis
plicitly or implicitly.
is
obviously a very
natural one and of great importance in later discussions.
Normal Form of
5.
x.
sum
we may reduce them
denomsame denominator and
of terms with different
If the expression x is a
inators
to the
thus obtain x as the quotient of two integral functions.
Suppose
VQ
one of the terms of
in x only explicitly, since

further, the powers of
VQ
and Q, which
is
fx
is
VQ may
the
x of
order
fx
maximum
it
can occur
Since,
order.
be expressed as functions of
a term of lower order,
we may put
= a + b VQ
X_
c+-d VQ'
where
a, b, c,
d contain no
more than
terms of order
/a,
besides terms of lower order.
Multiplying both terms of the fraction by c

disappears from the denominator, and
we may
VQ,
VQ
write
- bdQ) + (be - ad) VQ

TP ^v
c - d Q
where a and contain no more than n 1 terms of order
(ac
For a second term of order

x
=a +
:
/?!
VQi,
etc.
'
/x
we
tt.
have, in a similar manner,
ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS.
The
may,
therefore, be transformed so as to contain
of given order p only in
We
may
numerator and there only
its
a term
linearly.
observe, however, that products of terms of order
occur, for a
We
ft.
aud
still
depend upon
1 terms
ft
of order
may, thee, put
= au + a
VQi,
12
= u + u VQi,
and hence
x
6.
We
= (au + a
12
VQi)
+ (ft! + VQO VQ.

12
proceed in a similar
1,
which occur
way with
the different terms
and in Q, Q 1} etc., so
that each of these quantities becomes an integral linear function of the term of order p
1 under consideration.
We
then pass on to terms of lower order and finally obtain x, or
rather its terms of different orders, under the form of rational
of order
fx
explicitly
integral linear functions of the individual radical expressions
We
which occur explicitly.

the normal form.
7.
Let
then say that
is
reduced to
be the total number of independent (4) square

normal form. Giving the double sign
roots occurring in this

to these square roots
we
and combining them in
all possible
ways,
obtain a system of 2 m values
which we shall call conjugate values.

We must now investigate the equation admitting these
conjugate values as roots.
8.
These values are not necessarily
we have
thus, if
= â + Vb + â Vb,
this expression is not
Vb.
all distinct
changed when we change the sign of
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
an arbitrary quantity and we form the poly-
If x is
9.
nomial
F
F
(x)
is
= (x x
(x)
clearly
jugate values.
It
x)
(x
2)
(x
x 2m
),
an equation having as roots these conm but may have equal

is of degree 2
,
roots (8).
The
to x
coefficients
of the polynomial F
(x)
arranged with respect
are rational.
For let us change the sign of one of the square roots this
permute two roots, say x A and x A since the roots of
;
will
(x)
-,
As
are precisely all the conjugate values.
roots enter F (x) only under the

(x
we merely change
the polynomial
is
A ) (x
these
form of the product
Xy),
the order of the factors of F
Hence
(x).
not changed.
F (x) remains, then, invariable when we change the sign of

any one of the square roots it therefore contains only their
and hence F (x) has only rational coefficients.
squares
;
10.
When any
one of the conjugate values satisfies a given
equation with rational
coefficients, f (x)
0, the
same
is
true of
all the others.
not necessarily equal to F
f (x) is
(x),
and may admit other
roots besides the x/s.
= +
Let x x
a
VQ be one of the conjugate values VQ, a
term of order fx a and now depend only upon other terms
of order ll and terms of lower order.
There must, then, be a
;
conjugate value
Xl
Let us
into the
'
= a -y3VQ.
=
now form the equation f (x x )

0.
normal form with respect to VQ,
f(xO
= A+BVQ;
f (x x )
may
be put
when A and B
this expression can equal zero only
are simul-
Otherwise we should have
taneously zero.
VQ = -|r
i.e.,
VQ
could be expressed rationally as a function of terms
of order
which
all
is
//,
and of terms of lower order contained in A and
B,
contrary to the hypothesis of the independence of
the square roots (4).
But we evidently have
= A-BVQ;
so also (x/) = Whence the following
f( Xl ')
hence
if f (x x )
proposition
If
0,
0.
x x satisfies the
the roots of order
The proof
f (x)
from
xx
equation
the conjugate values derived
same is true of all

by changing the signs of
0, the
/x.
for the other conjugate values
obtained in an
is
may be done
without affecting the generality of the reasoning, that the
analogous manner.
Suppose, for example, as
expression x x depends on only two terms of order
VQ'.
f (x x )
(a)
If x x
may
( Xl )
fx,
VQ
and
be reduced to the following normal form
= p -f q VQ +
VQ'
+ VQ VQ7 = 0.
s
depended on more than two terms of order
p,
we should
only have to add to the preceding expression a greater number of terms of analogous structure.
Equation
(a) is possible
(b)
Otherwise
VQ
0,
only
0,
when we have
r
0,
separately
0.
and VQ' would be connected by a rational
relation, contrary to our hypothesis.
Let now VR, VR', ... be the terms of order p

1 on
which x x depends they occur in p, q, r, s then can the
quantities p, q, r, s, in which they occur, be reduced to the
;
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
10
normal form with respect to

sake of simplicity,
VR
and VR'
we take only two
and
quantities,
if,
VR
for the
and VR',
we have
(c)
= + A VR +
,
fx,
+ v V R V R' = 0,
VR'
and three analogous equations for q, r, s.

The hypothesis, already used several times, of the independence of the roots, furnishes the equations
(d)
0,
0,
ft
0,
0.
Hence equations (c) and consequently f (x) = are satisfied

when for x x we substitute the conjugate values deduced by
changing the signs of
VR
Therefore the equation

conjugate values deduced
roots of order
ft
ft
and VR'.
f
(x)=0
from
is
also satisfied by all the
by changing the signs of the
1.
The same reasoning is applicable to the terms of order

2, ft 3,
and our theorem is completely proved.
.
1 1
We
have so far considered two equations

F
(x)
and
f (x)
0.
Both have rational
coefficients and contain the x/s as roots.

F (x) is of degree 2 m and may have multiple roots f (x) may
have other roots besides the x/s. We now introduce a third
;
equation,
<
(x)
0,
defined as the equation of lowest degree,
with rational coefficients, admitting the root

quently all the Xi's (10).
Properties of the Equation
12.
I.
<f>(x)=0
is
<
an irreducible equation,
(x)
i.e.,
resolved into two rational polynomial factors.

bility is
due to the hypothesis that
<j>
(x)
equation of lowest degree satisfied by the
For
if
we had
*(x)=*(x)x(*),
=
x^s.
Xj
=
<j>
and conse-
0.
(x) cannot be
This irreduci-
is
the rational
then
(x x )
<f>
would require either ^ (x x )
But
or both..
11
= 0, or %
= 0,
x
( i)
by
since these equations are satisfied
all
the
would not then be the equaconjugate values (10), <f> (x)

tion of lowest degree satisfied by the x/s.
II.
<f>
(x)
has no multiple
Otherwise
roots.
<f>
(x)
could
be decomposed into rational factors by the well-known methods of Algebra, and

III.
(x)
<f>
and
(x)
would not be
We
could be determined rationally.

<f>
(x) into rational factors,
Let
IV.
and
and
<f>
(x)
Otherwise
x^s.
divisor,
which
could then decompose
would not be
irreducible.
be the number of x/s which have distinct values,
let
We
be these quantities.
<t>
For $
(x)
= C (x xj (x
(x)
shall then
is
satisfied
have
x 2)
(x
xM
by the quantities
xA
).
and
it
has no
The polynomial (x) is then determined save

a constant factor whose value has no effect upon
0.
(x)
multiple roots.
for
irreducible.
would admit a highest common
(x)
<f>
(x)
<f>
has no other roots than the
Y.
<f>
<f>
<f>
(x)
is
coefficients satisfied
the only irreducible equation with rational
by the
x/s.
For
if f (x)
by
by
rational irreducible equation satisfied
by the x/s, f (x) would be

would not be irreducible.
By
divisible
reason of the five properties of
lished,
we may
<j>
x
<f>
were another
and consequently
(x) and therefore
(x)
thus estab-
designate this equation, in short, as the irre-
ducible equation satisfied by the x/s.

13.
Let us now compare F
(x)
and
<f>
nomials have the
Xj's
multiple roots.
(x) is, then, divisible
(x).
as their only roots,
(x)
= F, (x)
cf>
(x).
by
These two polyand

(x) has no
<j>
cf>
(x)
that
is,
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
12
Fi (x) necessarily has rational coefficients, since it is the quo-
by dividing F
tient obtained
constant
one
by
it
<f>
admits
all
<f>
Fx
(x)
If F x (x)
(x).
(x)
Hence F x
the x/s (10).
and
(x),
by
(x)
admits roots belonging to F
it
=F
(x)
not a
is
and admitting
(x) is also divisible
(x).
same reasoning still holds, the

by each operation.
Hence at the end of a limited number of divisions we reach
an equation of the form
If F2 (x) is not a constant the
degree of the quotient being lowered
and
_!
F(")
The polynomial F (x)
minimum
14.
is
degree
We
(x),
is
also a
(x),
then a power of the polynomial of
is
it is
2m
Therefore
<f>
except for a constant factor.
further,
theorem
The degree of the
= C- [()]'.
now determine
can
of degree 2 m
<ft
= Ci
(x)
for F (x),
the degree
of <(x).
the vth power of
<f>
(x).
(x)
Hence
= v M.
power of 2 and we obtain the following
irreducible equation satisfied by
sion composed of square roots only
15.
Since,
is
on the other hand, there
equation satisfied by
all
an expres-
always a poiver of
is
the x/s (12, V.),
2.
only one irreducible
we have
the converse
theorem
If an irreducible equation
solved by square roots.
is
not of degree 2 h ,
it
cannot be
CHAPTER
II.
The Delian Problem and the Trisection
of the Angle.
Let us now apply the general theorem of the preceding

i.e., to the problem of the
1.
chapter to the Delian problem,

duplication
The equation
of the cube.
of the
problem
is
manifestly
x
2.
3,
v2 would
have a
For an equation of the third degree which is
reducible must have a rational linear factor.
Further, the
degree of the equation is not of the form 2 h hence it cannot
be solved by means of square roots, and the geometric construction with straight edge and compasses is impossible.
This
irreducible,
is
since
otherwise
rational value.
2.
Xext
us consider the more general equation
let
x
A.
A,
designating a parameter which
of the form a
may
be a complex quantity
This equation furnishes us the analyt-
ib.
geometrical problems of the multiand the trisection of an arbitrary angle.

whether this equation is reducible, i.e.,
ical expressions for the
plication of the cube
The question
arises
whether one of
tion of
It
X.
its
roots can be expressed as a rational func-
should be remarked that the irreducibility of
an expression always depends upon the values of the quansupposed to be known. In the case x 3
2, we were
dealing with numerical quantities, and the question was
tities
3,
whether
V2
equation
could have a rational numerical value.
= A we ask whether a root can be
a rational function of
A..
In the
first
In the
represented by
case,
the so-called
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
14
domain of rationality comprehends the totality of rational

numbers in the second, it is made up of the rational funcIf no limitation is placed upon this
tions of a parameter.
;
parameter we see at once that no expression of the form -yjA
which
in
<j>
equation.
(A.) and \p (A.) are polynomials, can

Under our hypothesis the equation
and since its degree

not be solved by square roots.
irreducible,
whence
~"
(cos
<f>
lm
We
as arbitrary.
The
cfi
sin
<,
<f>
can-
gin
<f>)
sin
into
itself
<f>.
two,
to
number and
shall treat these separately.
Vr,
it
complex number of the form

both numbers being regarded
roots of the equation x 3
representing by
>
Assume
A.
extract the cube root of a real
cos
ty\=tyr Vcos
also that of a
FlG
I.
Our problem resolves
\<P
therefore
not of the form 2 h
is
Let us now restrict the variability of
3.
satisfy our
is
and
- 1 +2
*=-
Vr,
are
Vr,
the complex cube roots of unity

i
V3
e
1
= - 1 -2
V3
*
Taking for the domain of rationality the totality of rational

r, we know by the previous reasoning that the
equation x 3
r
is irreducible.
Hence the problem of the
functions of
multiplication of the cube does not admit, in general, of a
construction by means of straight edge and compasses.

II.
The
roots of the equation

x
are,
= cos +
by De Moivre's formula,
<
sin
<
THE TRISECTION OF THE ANGLE.

Xl
= cos -+
x2
= cos^
f-ism^
= cos -
x3
<
sin-,
|-
15
sin
a_cJL4
jj
J!*
These roots are represented geometrically by the vertices of

an equilateral triangle inscribed in the circle with radius
The
unity and center at the origin.

figure
shows that
to the root x x cor-
responds the argument
Hence
-^.
the equation
x
is
= cos +
<j>
si
<
the analytic expression of the
problem of the trisection of the

angle.
Fig.
2.
If this equation were reducible,

one, at least, of its roots could be represented as a rational
function of cos
on substituting
<f>
and sin
< -f- 2ir
<j>,
for
by a continuous variation
value remaining unchanged
its
<.
But
if
we
of the angle
<f>,
effect this
we
change
see that the
undergo a cyclic permutation. Hence no root

can be represented as a rational function of cos < and sin
The equation under consideration is irreducible and therefore
routs x 1? x 2
x3
<f>.
cannot be solved by the aid of a finite number of square roots.

Hence the 'trisection of the angle cannot be effected with straight
edge and compasses.
This demonstration and the general theorem evidently hold

good only when
is an arbitrary angle
but for certain spe<j>
cial values of
e.g.,
when
<
<
= .
the construction
may
prove to be possible,
CHAPTER
The Division
III.
Equal Parts.
of the Circle into
The problem of dividing a given circle into n equal

come down from antiquity for a long time we
have known the possibility of solving it when n = 2 h 3, 5, or
1.
parts has
the product of any two or three of these numbers.
Gauss extended
Arithmeticae,
Disquisitiones
numbers by showing that the division

prime number of the form p
we make
known to
/*
and
1,
the ancients.
-J-
In his
of
series
possible for every
1 but impossible for all
If in p = 2 +
=
we get p
3 and 5, cases already
For = 2we get p = 2 + 1 = 17,
other prime numbers and
=2
is
this
their powers.
22
/i
a case completely discussed by Gauss.
For
= 3 we get p = 2 + 1 = 257, likewise a prime nums3
fx
The
ber.
regular polygon of 257 sides can be constructed.
Similarly for p
fi
5,
fi
6,
= 4, since 2 + 1 = 65537 a prime number.

= 7 give no prime numbers. For = 8 no
2*
/a
one has found out whether
The proof
is
fi
that the large
we have
a prime number or not.
numbers corresponding
to
//.
5, 6,
are not prime has required a large expenditure of labor and

ingenuity.
It
number
is,
therefore, quite possible that
fx
=4
is
the
which a solution can be effected.

Upon the regular polygon of 257 sides Eichelot published
last
for
an extended investigation in Crelle's Journal, IX, 1832,

The title of the
pp. 1-26, 146-161, 209-230, 337-356.
memoir
is
De
257
resolutione algebraica aequationis x
1, sive
de divisione circuit per bisectionem anguli septies repetitam in
partes 257 inter se aequales. commentatio coronata.
THE DIVISION OF THE CIRCLE.
17
of 65537 sides Professor Hermes

Lingen devoted ten years of his life, examining with care
His MSS. are
all the roots furnished by Gauss's method.
preserved in the collection of the mathematical seminary in
Gttingen.
(Compare a communication of Professor Hermes
in No. 3 of the Gttinger Nachrichten for 1894.)
To the regular polygon
of
We may
problem of the division of the

where n is a prime numa
For if n is a comnumber.
or
power
of
such
a
a
ber p
p
posite number and if fx and v are factors of n, prime to each
other, we can always find integers a and b, positive or negative, such that
l
*
2.
restrict the
circle into n equal parts to the cases
= a/ + bv;
a
b
1 =--f--.
whence
[IV
To divide the
know how
Thus, for
circle into
to divide
n
\iv
into
it
= 15, we have
[X
= n equal
p and
parts
it is
sufficient to
equal parts respectively.
JL_2_3
15~~ 3
3.
As
5'
will appear, the division into p equal parts (p being

is possible only when p is of the form
a prime number)
p
= 2h +
We
1.
shall next
when
Fermat's Theorem
be of this form only

use of
show that a prime number can

x
2'
For this we shall make
If p is a prime number and a an integer not

numbers satisfy the congruence
divisible by p,
these
ap
*p 1
is
=+l
(mod.
p).
not necessarily the lowest exponent which, for a
given value of
exponent
-1
it
particular, if
a, satisfies
may
s
the congruence.
=p1
we
If
s is
the lowest
In
1.
a divisor of p
say that a is a primitive root of p,
be shown that
s is
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
18
and notice that for every prime number p there
We
root.
shall
make use
is
a primitive
of this notion further on.
Suppose, then, p a prime number such that

p
(1)
and
the least integer satisfying
2s
(2)
From
= 2- + l,
(1)
2h
<p
=+1
from
(2) 2
shows that
h is
the least integer satisfying the congruence
(2)
and
(3),
by
p).
=1
~h
(mod.
p).
s-h^h, s^2h.
.-.(4)
(3),
(mod.
division,
2s
From
=-1
2h
(3)
From
p).
p.
s>h.
'.-.
(1)
(mod.
>
by squaring,
2 211
=1
(mod.
p).
(2) and observing that

nent satisfying congruences of the form
Comparing with
2X
=1
(mod.
s is
the least expo-
p),
we have
s^2h.
(5)
.-.
We
is
= 2h.
= 2h
have observed that s is a divisor of p

1
h, which is, therefore, a power of 2.
true of
numbers of the form 2 h

2 2 * -f
4.
are
the same
Hence prime
necessarily of the form
1.
This conclusion
pose that
h is
divisible
may
be established otherwise.
by an odd number, so that

h
then,
-f-
= h'(2n + l);
by reason of the formula

x
2n
+l=
+l)
(x
211
2n
-!+ ., x + 1),
.
Sup-
THE CTCLOTOMIC EQUATION.

p
= 2 h(2n+1) + l
is
divisible
by 2 h
+ 1,
'
19
and hence
is
hot a
prime number.
5.
We
now
reach, our
fundamental proposition
p being a prime number, the division of the circle into p equal

parts by the straight edge and compasses is impossible unless p
is
of the form
= 2* + l = 2 +
t
2'
Let us trace in the z-plane
To
(z
.=
l.
a circle of radius
iy)
divide this circle into n equal parts, beginning at z
1.
1, is
the same as to solve the equation

z*
-1=
=1
This equation admits the root z
by dividing by
1, which
0.
us suppress this root
let
the same geometrically as to
is
disregard the initial point of the division.
the equation
z
n-l
_|_
n- 2
-f z
We
thus obtain
+ = o,
_i
which may be called the cyclotomic
equation.
As noticed
we may confine our attention to the cases where n is
a prime number or a power of a prime number.
We shall
first investigate the case when n = p.
The essential point of
the proof is to show that the above equation is irreducible.
For since, as we have seen, irreducible equations can only be
solved by means of square roots in finite number when their
above,
degree
is
possible
a power of
when
Thus we
see
why
a division into p parts

not equal to a power of
2,
is
=jfc
2h
+ 1 = 2^ +
is
always im-
2, i.e.,
when
1.
Gauss's prime numbers occupy such an
exceptional position.
6.
At
Lemma.
this point
we
introduce a
lemma known
as Gauss's
If
F(z)
= z m + Az m - +
:
Bz m
-2
+.
+ Lz+
M,
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
20
where A, B,
are integers, and F(z) can be resolved into
two rational factors f (z) and (z), so that
.
cf>
(z)
= (z- + a
1
f (z)
m
(z "
(z)
/3 1
"- 1
zm
lZ
m -1
+ a z m '- +
2
.)
82 z-"- +...),
then mnst
the a's and 's also be integers.

In other
words
If an integral expression can be resolved into rational factors
these factors must be integral expressions.
Let us suppose the a's and 's to be fractional. In each
factor reduce all the coefficients to the least common denominator.
Let a and b be these common denominators.
Finally multiply both members of our equation by a b
It
takes the form
:
a b F(z)
fx (z)
(b
The
= (a z + a^'" +
ra
fa (z)
'
.)
zm" +b 1z"- 1 +...)
and prime to one another, as also the b's,

and b are the least common denominators.
Suppose a and b different from unity and let q be a prime
a's are integral
since a
divisor of a b
and b k the
Further, let a be the
first coefficient
of f x (z)
by q. Let
and consider the coefficient
first coefficient of fa (z) not divisible
us develop the product i 1 (z)

of z ' + m"-i-k
it
ill be
(z)
<f> 1
a i"k
a i _ 1 b k+1
-f-
a i _ 2 b k+2
According to our hypotheses,
all
"T a i+ibk_i ~r a i+2 b k _ 2
the terms after the
-|-
first
are
by q, but the first is not. Hence this coefficient is not

divisible by q.
Now the coefficient of z m '+ m "-i- k in the first
member is divisible by a b i.e., by q. Hence if the identity
is true it is impossible for a coefficient not divisible by q to
occur in each polynomial.
The coefficients of one at least of
the polynomials are then all divisible by q.
Here is another
divisible
absurdity, since
we have
seen that
all
the coefficients are
THE CYCLOTOMIC EQUATION.

prime
to
Hence we cannot suppose
one another.
from
21
and consequently the
and
and b
/3's
are in-
In order to show that the cyclotomic equation
is irre-
different
1,
a's
tegral.
7.
ducible,
first
is
it
show by Gauss's
sufficient to
Lemma
that the
member cannot be resolved into factors with integral

To this end we shall employ the simple method
coefficients.
due to Eisenstein, in Crelle's Journal,

depends upon the substitution
=x+
We
XXXIX,
p.
167, which
l.
obtain
All the coefficients of the

ire divisible
by
expanded member except the
the last coefficient
An
lypothesis a prime number.
is
always p
first
itself,
expression of this class
by
is
ilways irreducible.
For
if this
f (x
were not the case we should have
+ 1) = (x m + a^-(x m '+b
m '-
+....+
+...+b
a m _! x
m '_ 1 x
+ bm
+ aJ
.),
vhere the a's and b's are integers.

Since the term of zero degree in the above expression of
(z) is p,
we have a m b m
ors of a m b m
'
p.
must be unity.
a ra
= p,
p being prime, one
of the fac-
Suppose, then,
bm
= l.
iquating the coefficients of the terms in
PiP!Zi)_ a m-l
O
we have
x,
b
D m'-lD m ,_i_ a m b
,
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
22
The
first
divisible
member and
by
p,
the second term of the second being
a m _ 1 bm
must be so
Equating the
Since b m
also.
'
= l,
by p.
coefficients of the terms
2
in x we may show that a m _ 2 is divisible by p.
Similarly
we show that all of the remaining coefficients of the factor
111-1
m
x
But
a m _! x -f- a m are divisible by p.
axX
this cannot be true of the coefficient of x m which is 1.
The assumed equality is impossible and hence the cycloa m _! is divisible
tomic equation
8.
We now
is
is
consider the case where
prime number, say
> 2 the division of
sible.
when
irreducible
=p
We
a
.
a prime.
n
is
a power of a
propose to show that when
the circle into p 2 equal parts is imposwill then be solved, since the
The general problem
division into p a equal parts evidently includes the division

into p 2 equal parts.
The cyclotomic equation
It
is
now
admits as roots extraneous to the problem those which
come from the division into p equal

the equation
7^T =
zP
the roots of
z p(p-2)
we
obtain
-l
may
This
as the cyclotomic equation.

_j_
i.e.,
Suppressing these roots by division
z p(p-d
parts,
-.
be written
+ zp 4-
i.
=o-.
Transforming by the substitution

z
=x+
l,
we have
(x
+ 1)p(p-D + (x + 1)p(p-2) +
+ (x + 1)p + 1 = 0.
THE CYCLOTOMIC EQUATION.
23
The number of terms being p, the term independent of x after

development will be equal to p, and the sum will take the
form
xPCP- 1)
p- x (x),
where ^
(x) is
constant term
sion
is
a polynomial with integral coefficients whose
We
is 1.
have just shown that such an expresConsequently the new cyclotomic
always irreducible.
equation
is also irreducible.
The degree of this equation is p (p 1). On the other

hand an irreducible equation is solvable by square roots only
when its degree is a power of 2. Hence a circle is divisible
into p 2 equal parts only when p = 2, p being assumed to be a
prime.
The same
equal parts
is true,
when
as already noted, for the division into p a
>
2.
CHAPTER
The Construction
We
1.
IV.
of the Regular
Polygon of 17 Sides.
have just seen that the division of the
equal parts by the straight edge and compasses
only for the prime numbers studied by Gauss.

be of interest to learn
how
circle into
is
possible
It will
now
the construction can actually be
effected.
The purpose
elementary
gon of 17
of this chapter, then, will be to
way how
show
in an
to inscribe in the circle the regular poly-
sides.
we
possess as yet no method of construction based

upon considerations purely geometrical, we must follow the
path indicated by our general discussions. We consider, first
Since
of
all,
the roots of the cyclotomic equation

x
16
+x +.
+x +x+l = 0,
2
15
and construct geometrically the expression, formed of square

roots, deduced from it.
We
know
form
e
and
that the roots can be put into the transcendental
= cos 2k7T +
2k7T
sin
1, 2,
2*7T
16)
if
= cos +
2-7T
ci
that
(k
eK
sin
jy,
Geometrically, these roots are represented in the complex
plane by the vertices, different from
1,
of the regular polygon
of 17 sides inscribed in a circle of radius 1, having the origin
THE REGULAR POLYGON OF

is
The
center.
traction
it
leparture.
K is
is
selection of
fixed
The fundamental
2.
he 16 roots
idea of the solution
34
the following
is
number a is said to be a
when the congruence
property
= 9
= 10
= 13
3 5 EE
36
37
38
primitive root
= + 1 (mod. 17)
las for least solution s
33
which completely
root to the
a8
3 X EE
e 1}
stated, a
the modulus 17
iesses this
as the point of
modulus 17 we may arrange

of the equation in a cycle in a determinate order.
As already
some
the angle corresponding to
eK .
Forming a primitive
e 1?
k times the angle corresponding to
letermines
;o
upon
25
arbitrary, but for the con-
e 1 is
essential to indicate
Having
17 SIDES.
= 17 1 16.
for
The number 3
pos-
we have
=14
=
3U =
3 13
3 14
3 15
3^=
3 16
39
=15
= 11
= 16
10
=12
=
=
=
2
6
(mod. 17).
Let us then arrange the roots eK so that their indices are

he preceding remainders in order
e 3> c 9> e 10> e 13> e 5> 15> e ll> c 16> c 14> c 8> c 7> c4> c 12 c2j 6j 1
Notice that
if
is
the remainder of 3 K (mod. 17),
= 17q +
= e/ =
3*
rhence
f
r'
is
eT
the next remainder,
ex
we have
we have
r,
3
.
similarly
= / = (*/). =fe).
+1
er.
fence in this series of roots each root is the cube of the preceding.
Gauss's method consists in decomposing this cycle into

ams containing 8, 4, 2, 1 roots respectively, corresponding
) the divisors of 16.
Each of these sums is called a period.
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
26
The periods thus obtained may be
calculated successively as
roots of certain quadratic equations.
The process
just outlined is only a particular case of that
employed in the general case of the division into p equal

parts.
The
ally arranged
periods
tions.
may
roots of the cyclotomic equation are cyclic-
by means of a primitive root of
p,
and the
be calculated as roots of certain auxiliary equa-
The degree of these last depends upon the prime fac 1. They are not necessarily equations of the
tors of p
second degree.
The general
case has, of course, been treated in detail
Gauss in his Disquisitiones,
and
also
by Bachmann
by
in his
work, Die Lehr von der Kreisteilung (Leipzig, 1872).
In our case of the 16 roots the periods may be formed

manner Form two periods of 8 roots by
taking in the cycle, first, the roots of even order, then those
of odd order.
Designate these periods by x x and x 2 and
replace each root by its index.
We may then write symbol3.
in the following
ically
Xl
x2
= 9 + 13 + 15 + 16 + 8 + 4+ 2 +
= 3 + 10 + 5 + 11 + 14 + 7 + 12 +
Operating upon
of 4 terms
Xl
and
yi
y2
y3
y4
z1
z2
z3
z4
the same way,
6.
we form 4
periods
= 13 + 16+ 4+
= 9 + 15+ 8+ 2,
= 10 + ll+ 7+
= 3+ 5 + 14 + 12.
Operating in the same

of 2 terms
x 2 in
1,
1,
6,
way upon
= 16 +
= 13 + 4,
-15 + 2,
= 9 + 8,
l,
the
y's,
z5
z6
z7
z8
we
obtain 8 periods
= ll+
= 10+
= 5 + 12,
= 3 + 14.
6,
7,

It
now remains
to
show that
17 SIDES.
27
these periods can be calculated
successively by the aid of square roots.
sum
It is readily seen that the
4.
of the remainders corre-
sponding to the roots forming a period

These roots are then er and e 17 _ r
z is
always equal to 17.
er
>
e 17
_r
= cos
= cos
'2ir
(17
jy
= cos
2tT
sin (17
sin
r)
2iTT
9
r)
2-7T
sin
rjy+i
Hence
er
Therefore
all
+ v = 2 cos
we
the periods z are real, and
readily obtain
zt
= 2O cos,
z2
= 2 cos 4 j^,
z6
= 2 cos 7 ^,
z3
= 2 cos 2 j|,
z7
= 2 cos 5 j|,
z4
= 2cos8t^,
z8
= 2 cos 3jy.
27T
Moreover, by
z5
= 2 cos
2-rr
6,
definition,
yi
= Zi + z + z + z
= zi + z y = z + z
5.
It will be necessary to
Xl
2,
the following artifice
= z + z + z -f z
= z + z y =Z + Z
x2
4,
of the different periods.
into
4,
y3
6,
8,
8.
determine the relative magnitude

For this purpose we shall employ
We divide
17 equal parts and denote by
the semicircle of unit radius

Si,
S2
S J7 the distances
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
28
A 1? A 2
A 17 from the
S i7 being equal to the diam-
of the consecutive points of division

initial point of the semicircle,
eter,
^ 4lA
A*
Hence
= 2sin 34 = 2cOS
That
may
this
17
2tt
2 cos
a,4
,
:
the values
The
figure
5~
z6
= Si,
:== Sg,
we find
Hence
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
Z l == Si3,
Z4
be identical with
= 17
= 17 4h.
3, 7, 11, 15.
Z2
Z3
3T^-
we must have
4h
The angle
2.
TT
.
k+p
9, 5, 1,
has the same measure as the
2/C7T
Giving to
half of the arc A K 0, which equals
values 13,
equal to
i.e.,
A k A 17
Z7
Z8
Si5,
=
=S
S7
for k the
Sn,
S3
5
shows that S K increases with the index
hence the I
order of increasing magnitude of the periods z is

Z 4> Z 65 Z 5? Z 7> Z 2> Z 8) Z 3j Z l-
Moreover, the chord A K A K + p subtends p divisions of the semithe triangle OAÂ^ + p shows
is equal to S
p
circumference and
that
K
+p
Ok
-+"
Op,
and a fortiori
^k + v
^k + t ~r ^p + re-
calculating the differences two and two of the periods

easily find
y,
we
y
yi y
yi y
y y
y y
yi
2
2
y3
Hence
we
13
o,
yi-
0,
obtain in a similar
We now
15
x2
6.
29
= S + Si S + S > 0,
= Sis + Si + S + Sn > 0,
= Sis + Si + S S >
= S Sis + S + S n > 0,
= S Sis + S S <
y* = S Sn + S S < 0.
y < y < y <
2
Finally
17 SIDES.
way
<
Xi.
= 2 cos
JjTT
propose to calculate z x
ing this calculation and constructing z l5
After mak-
we can
easily deduce
In order to find
the side of the regular polygon of 17 sides.
the quadratic equation satisfied by the periods,
we proceed
to
determine symmetric functions of the periods.

Associating z x with the period z 2 and thus forming the
period
yi,
we
have,
first,
zi
Let us now determine

z1z2
zxz2
+z =
2
We
yi.
have
= (16 + l)-(13' + 4),
where the symbolic product Kp represents

CK
&K
+ p*
p,
remem-
bering to subtract 17 from K-j-pas often as possible.
Thus,
Hence
it
should be represented symbolically by k
z 1 z2
Therefore z 1 and
= 12 + 3 + 14 + 5 = y
z 2 are
z
(0
whence, since
zx
>z
4.
the roots of the quadratic equation

2
- yi z + y = 0,
4
2,
_
yi + Vyi^ - 4y
2
r
Z
l
-f-
4
?
Z2
_
yi-
2
Vyi -4y,
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
30
We
Associating y x with the

must now determine y x and y 4
period y 2 thus forming the period x 1? and y 3 with the period
y 4 thus forming the period x 2 we have, first,
.
yi
+y =
2
xi."
Then,
yi y 2
=(13
+ 16 + 4 + l)(9 + 15 + 8 + 2).
Expanding symbolically, the second member becomes equal

to the
sum
of all the roots
that
is,
to
1.
Xl
-V + 4
Therefore y x
and y 2 are the roots of the equation
y*-xiy -l = 0,
(,)
>y
_ + Vxx + 4
yi-
whence, since y x
2,
Xl
y2
'
_
~
Xl
Similarly,
y3
+y =x
and
y 3y 4
Hence
1.
y 3 and y 4 are the roots of the equation

2
W)
whence, since y 4
y4
It
_
-
x2
>y
-x y-l=0;
2
3,
+Vx + 4
2
y8
'
_
~
x2
now remains to determine x x and

sum of all the roots,
-Vx + 4
2
2
x2
'
Since x x
+x
is
equal to the
xi
+ x = 1.
2
Further,
Xl x 2
= (13 + 16 + 4 + 1 + 9 + 15 +8 + 2)
(10 + 11 + 7 + 6 + 3 + 5 + 14 + 12).
Expanding symbolically, each root occurs 4 times, and thus

XiXa
= 4.

Therefore
xx
and
x 2 are
Xl
x1
>
-fx-4 = 0;
x 2,
_ -l +o VTf
Solving equations
by a
31
the roots of the quadratic

x
whence, since
17 SIDES.
rj,
X2
rf,
_ - 1 - Vl7
o
determined
in succession, z x is
series of square roots.
Effecting the calculations,
we
see that z x depends
upon the
four square roots
Vl7,
vV +
4,
Vx 2 2 +
4,
V yi -4y 4
2
If we wish to reduce z x to the normal form we must see

whether any one of these square roots can be expressed
rationally in terms of the others.
Now, from the roots of (rj),
Vx! 2
Vx 2 2
+ 4=y y
+4=y y
x
3,
3.
Expanding symbolically, we verify that

(yi
(yi - ya)
-y
- ys) =
(y 4
2)
(y 4
y*) 2
(x,
- x ),*
3
(13 + 16 + 4 + 1 - 9 - 15 - 8 - 2)
(3 + 5 + 14
+ 12-10-11-7-6)
= 16+ 1 + 10+ 8- 6- 7- 3 2
+ 2+ 4+13+11- 9-10- 6- 5
+ 7 + 9 + 1 + 16-14-15-11-10
+ 4+ 6 + 15 + 13-11-12- 8- 7
- 12 - 14 - 6 - 4 + 2 + 3+16 + 15
- 1- 3-12-10+ 8+ 9+ 5+ 4
-11-13- 5- 3+ 1+ 2 + 15 + 14
- 5 - 7 - 16 - 14 + 12 + 13 + 9 + 8
= 2(16 + l + 8 + 2 + 4+13+lo+9-10-6-7-3-ll-5-14
-12)
2(xi
x 2 ).
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
32
that
is,
Vx x2 + 4 Vx 22 + 4
= 2 Vl7.
Hence Vx 2 + 4 can be expressed rationally in terms of the

This equation shows that if two of
other two square roots.
2
x 2 are positive, the

the three differences y x
y 2 y4
y3 xx
same is true of the third, which agrees with the results ob,
tained directly.
Eeplacing now
x l9
y lt y 4
by their numerical values, we
obtain in succession
*i=
-1 + V17
>
_- 1 + Vl7 + V34 - 2 Vl7

1 - Vl7 + V34 + 2 Vl7
y4=
_ 1 + Vl7 + \/34 - 2 Vl7

J68+12Vl7-16\/34+2Vl7-2(l-Vl7)V34-2Vl7
_
The
algebraic part of the solution of our problem
completed.
is
now
We have already remarked that there is no known
construction of the regular polygon of 17 sides based upon
purely geometric considerations.
There remains, then, only
the geometric translation of the individual algebraic steps.

7.
We may
be allowed to introduce here a brief historical
account of geometric constructions with straight-edge and

compasses.
In the geometry of the ancients the straight edge and com; the difficulty lay merely in
passes were always used together
bringing together the different parts of the figure so as not to

draw any unnecessary
the construction were
17 SIDES.
33
lines.
Whether the several steps in
made with straight edge or with com-
passes was a matter of indifference.
On
the contrary, in 1797, the Italian Mascheroni succeeded
in effecting all these constructions with the compasses alone
methods in his Geometria del compasso, and

claimed that constructions with compasses were practically
more exact than those with the straight edge. As he expressly stated, he wrote for mechanics, and therefore with a
Mascheroni' s original work is difficult
practical end in view.
to read, and we are under obligations to Hutt for furnishing
a brief resume in German, Die Mascheroni''sehen Constructionen
he
set forth his
(Halle, 1880).
Soon
after, the
French, especially the disciples of Carnot,
the author of the Geometrie de position, strove, on the other
hand, to effect their constructions as far as possible with

the
straight
(See also Lambert, Freie Perspective,
edge.
1774.)
Here we may ask a question which algebra enables us to

answer immediately In what cases can the solution of an
algebraic problem be constructed with the straight edge alone ?
The answer is not given with sufficient explicitness by the
:
We
authors mentioned.
shall say
With the straight edge alone we can

expressions whose form
With
a similar view Brianchon published in 1818 a paper,
Les applications de
how
construct all algebraic
is rational.
la theorie des transversales, in
his constructions can be effected in
straight edge alone.
He
which he shows
cases with the
many
likewise insists upon the practical
value of his methods, which are especially adapted to field
work
in surveying.
Poncelet was the
first,
in his Traite des proprieties projectives
(Vol. I, Nos. 351-357), to conceive the idea that
to use a single fixed circle in connection
it is
sufficient
with the straight lines
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
34
of the plane in order to construct all expressions depending
npon square
roots, the center of the fixed circle
being given.
This thought was developed by Steiner in 1833 in a
cele-
brated paper entitled Die geometrischen Constructionen, ausge-
fhrt mittels der geraden Linie und eines festen Kreises, als
Lehrgegenstand fr hhere Unterrichtsanstalten und zum Selbstunterricht.
To construct the
8.
regular polygon of 17 sides
we
shall
follow the method indicated by von Staudt (Crelle's Journal,

Vol.
XXIV,
nal,
Vol.
by Schrter (Crelle's JourThe construction of the regular

made in accordance with the methods
1842), modified later
LXXV,
1872).
polygon of 17 sides
is
indicated by Poncelet and Steiner, inasmuch as besides the

straight edge but one fixed circle
First,
circle
we
will
we can
show how with
is
used.*
the straight edge
and one fixed
solve every quadratic equation.
At the extremities
we draw two
(Fig. 4)
of a diameter of the fixed unit circle
tangents,
and
select the
axis of X,
lower as the
and the diameter
perpendicular to
axis of Y.
tion of the circle

x
the
0.
px + q =
4.
be any quadratic equation

Required to construct the roots x x
x x and x 2
upon the axis of X.
Lay off upon the upper tangent from A
with real roots
and
as
is
+ y(y-2) =
Let
Fig.
it
Then the equa-
x2
ment measured by -
upon the
axis of X
to the right, a seg-
from 0, a segment
P
*
Mascheroni construction of the regular polygon of 17 sides by

is given in Math. Annalen, Vol. XL VIII, 1896, pp. 390-392.
L. Gerard

measured by -
17 SIDES.
35
connect the extremities of these segments by
the line 3 and project the intersections of this line with the
from
circle
A,
by the
segments thus cut
and
x2
and 2, upon the axis of X. The

upon the axis of X are measured by x x
lines 1
off
Proof.
Calling the intercepts
we have
the equation of the line
2x
+x
2x
+x
upon the
1,
axis of X, x x
and
x2,
(y-2)=0;
(y-2)
of the line 2,
we multiply
If
the
x2+
members
first
x^
get
0.
two equations we
of these
_ 2) + x_^ (y _ 2)2 =
x(y
as the equation of the line pair
formed by 1 and
ing from this the equation of the circle,
we
()
Subtract-
2.
obtain
^px(y-2) + ^(y-2)*-y(y-2) =
This
is
a conic passing through the four
the equation of
intersections of
the lines 1 and 2 with the
y~ + ~4~
Xl
"I
X2
which
xi
H~
x2
is
the
=P
X1X2 /
(y
r>\
~~ 2
equation of the line
an(i x i x 2
q>
^* +
we
circle.
y 2,
we can remove the factor

tangent, and we have left
this equation
ing to the
0.
From
correspond-
~ y = A>
If
3.
we now make
get
j(y-2)-y = 0,
and the transversal 3 cuts
off
from the
line y
=2
the seg-
FAMOUS PBOBLEMS.
36
ment
4
-
and from the
line y
P
correctness of the construction
9.
is
q
the segment P
Thus the
established.
In accordance with the method just explained, we shall

the roots of our four quadratic equations.
now construct
They are (see
x
()
pp. 29-31)
4 = 0, with roots x and x

= 0, with roots yx and y
y 1 = 0, with roots y and y
yi z + y4 = 0, with roots z and z
+
0/)
()
x2
xx
yx
y4
zx
(v)
~~ I
y ~~ x iY
>x
>y
>y
>z
2,
2,
8,
2.
These will furnish

Zl
whence
it
is
= 2 cos
x i? x 2> yi?
We
it is sufficient
to construct
y<t
then lay
tangent, y
off
the following segments
upon the upper
'
all
j4
xi
x2
yi
X,
+
may
2,
upon the axis of
This
We
easy to construct the polygon desired.
notice further that to construct z x
x,'
x,'
be done in the following manner
4 upon
the
The
+ 4 upon the axis of X

tangent y = 2 cuts the circle in
straight line connecting the point
with the point
y/

two
17 SIDES.
which from the point A
points, the projection of
the upper vertex of the circle, gives the two roots

first
37
(0, 2),
x 1? x 2 of
the
quadratic equation as intercepts upon the axis of X.
To
we have
solve the second equation
to lay off
above
xi
and
below.
Xl
To determine the
point
first
we connect
xx
upon the
axis of
X with A, the upper vertex, and from 0, the lower vertex,

draw another straight line through the intersection of this
line with the circle.
This cuts off upon the upper tangent
4
the intercept
This can easily be shown analytically.
xi
The equation
of the line
2x
and that of the
from A
to x x (Fig. 5),
+ x y 2x
x
l5
circle,
x
+ y(y-2) = o,
give as the coordinates of their intersection
2x t 2
4 Xl
X!
The equation
4' Xl *
of the line from
+ 4'
through this point becomes

Xi
y=2
3utting off
upon
x>
= 2 the intercept X4
l
We
)f
reach the same conclusion still more simply by the use

some elementary notions of projective geometry. By our
construction
)f
we have obviously
associated with every point
the lower range one, and only one, point of the upper, so
lihat
to the point x
versely.
oo
corresponds the point
x'
= 0, and con-
Since in such a correspondence there must exist a
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
38
linear relation, the abscissa
the equation
x'
x'
of the upper point
must
satisfy
const.
.
=2
constant =
Since
x'
when
= 2,
as
obvious from the figure, the
is
4.
X1
+i
o
Fig.
6.
upon the axis of X we connect the point
To determine
xl
4 upon the upper with

gent (Fig-
6).
we connect with
diameter
+1
upon the lower tanThe point thus determined upon the vertical
the point
the point
This line
above.
xi
cuts off
upon the
line from 4 to
X the intercept
axis of
For the
xi
-f-
1,
5y
+ 2x = 2,
Hence
intersects the vertical diameter in the point (0, ).
the equation of the line from
to
this point is
xi
5y
and
its
- 2x x = 2,
x
intersection with the lower tangent gives
xi
The projection from A

1
'
to
xi
with
of the intersections of the line
from
the circle determines upon the axis of X the
xi
two roots of the second quadratic equation, of which, as

already noted,
ponds, as
we need only
shown by the
17 SIDES.
39
This corres-
the greater, y v
figure, to the projection of the
upper
intersection of our transversal with the circle.

Similarly,
tion.
Upon
we obtain the
roots of the third quadratic equa-
the upper tangent
we
project from
section of the circle with the straight line
the axis of X the root
intercept
+x
2.
This immediately gives the
t
,
by reason of the correspondence just explained.
Fig.
we connect
If
this point
7.
with the point where the vertical
diameter intersects the line joining
we
the inter-
which gave upon
above and
upon the axis of X the segment
cut off
+ 1 below,
as desired.
x2
If
we
circle
project that intersection of this transversal with the
which
axis of X,
lies in
the positive quadrant from A upon the
we have constructed the required
root y 4 of the third
quadratic equation.
We
have
finally to
ratic equation
below.
We
and
determine the root
z x of the
for this purpose to lay off
fourth quad-
above and
solve the first problem in the usual way, by pro-
jecting the intersection of the circle with the line connecting
A with
-f-
y x below, from
obtaining.
upon the upper tangent, thus
For the other segment we connect the point
+ 4 above with y
below, and then the point thus determined
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
40
upon the
off
vertical diameter produced with
upon the axis of X exactly the segment
This line cuts
desired.
+ 2x = 2y
(y4-4)y
For
yi
the line a (Fig. 8) has the equation

4.
Fig.
It cuts off
upon the
The equation
vertical diameter the
of the line b
2yix
and
its
8.
is
Y4
segment
y4
then
+ (y 4) y = 2y
4
-4
4,
intersection with the axis of X has the abscissa
yi
If
we
circle
If
we
project the upper intersection of the line b with the
from A upon the axis of
X,
we
desire the simple cosine itself
obtain z 1
= 2 cos
we have only
to
draw a
diameter parallel to the axis of X, on which our last projecting

ray cuts
off directly cos
point gives immediately the
A perpendicular
first
erected at this
and sixteenth vertices of the
regular polygon of 17 sides.
The period z 1 was chosen arbitrarily we might construct

same way every other period of two terms and so find
the remaining cosines. These constructions, made on separate
figures so as to be followed more easily, have been combined
;
in the
in a single figure (Fig. 9),
which gives the complete construc-
tion of the regular polygon of 17 sides.
17 SIDES.
41
CHAPTER
V.
General Considerations on Algebraic Constructions.
We
now lay aside the matter of construction with

and compasses. Before quitting the subject we
may mention a new and very simple method of effecting cerHermann Wiener * has
tain constructions, paper folding.
shown how by paper folding we may obtain the network of
Singularly, about the same time a
the regular polyhedra.
Hindu mathematician, Sundara Row, of Madras, published a
little book, Geometrical Exercises in Paper Folding (Madras,
Addison & Co., 1893), in which the same idea is considerThe author shows how by paper folding we
ably developed.
may construct by points such curves as the ellipse, cissoid, etc.
1
shall
straight edge
2.
how
Let us now inquire
lems whose analytic form
is
to solve geometrically prob-
an equation of the third or of
higher degree, and in particular, let us see
how
the ancients
The most natural method is by means of the

For example,
conies, of which the ancients made much use.
they found that by means of these curves they were enabled
succeeded.
to solve the problems of the duplication of the cube
We
trisection of the angle.
and the
shall in this place give only a
general sketch of the process, making use of the language

of
modern mathematics
Let
it
for greater simplicity.
be required, for instance, to solve graphically the
cubic equation
x
+ a)<2+ bx + c = 0>
or the biquadratic,
x
+ax
bx 2
+ cx + d=0.
* See Dyck, Katalog der Mnchener mathematischen Ausstellung von

1893, Nachtrag, p. 52.
ALGEBRAIC CONSTRUCTIONS.
Put
=y
43
our equations become
+ ay + bx + c =
+ axy + by + ex d = 0.
xy
and
The
-\-
roots of the equations proposed are thus the abscissas
of the points of intersection of the
The equation
x
two
conies.
=y
represents a parabola with axis vertical.

tion,
xy
-f-
ay
+ bx + c =
The second equa-
0,
represents an hyperbola whose asymptotes are parallel to the
axes of reference (Fig. 10).
FlG.
section
One
of the four points of inter-
10.
upon the axis of Y, the other three at a

and their abscissas are the roots of the equa-
is at infinity
finite distance,
tion of the third degree.
In the second case the parabola
is
the same.
The hyper-
bola (Fig. 11) has again one asymptote parallel to the axis of
X while the other
is
no longer perpendicular to
The curves now have four

distance.
this axis.
points of intersection at a finite
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
44
The methods
of the ancient mathematicians are given in
work of M. Cantor, Geschichte der

Mathematik (Leipzig, 1894, 2d ed.). Especially interesting is
Zenthen, Die Kegelschnitte im Altertum (Kopenhagen, 1886,
in German edition).
As a general compendium we may mendetail in the elaborate
tion Baltzer, Analytische Geometrie (Leipzig, 1882).
3.
Beside the conies, the ancients used for the solution of

the above-mentioned problems, higher
curves constructed for this very pur-
We
pose.
shall
mention here only
the Cissoid and the Conchoid.
The cissoid of Diodes (c. 150

may be constructed as follows
12)
To a circle draw a tangent
b.c.)
(Fig.
(in the
on the right)
and the diameter perpendicular to it.
Draw lines from 0, the vertex of the
circle thus determined, to points upon
the tangent, and lay off from
upon
each the segment lying between its
intersection with the circle and the
figure the vertical tangent
The locus of points so determined is the cissoid.

To derive the equation, let r be the
radius vector, 6 the angle it makes with
tangent.
Fig.
12.
the axis of X.
If
we produce
tangent on the right, and call the diameter

the total segment equals
of*
The portion cut
off
cos 6
circle is cos
hence
0.
The
difference of the
two segments
cos
cos 6
= sin
cos
6'
to the
the circle
is
1,
by the
r,
and
By
transformation of coordinates
equation,
(x
The curve
we
45
obtain the Cartesian
+ y )x-y = 0.
2
of the third order, has a cusp at the origin,
is
symmetric to the axis of X. The vertical tangent to

the circle with which we began our construction is an asymp-
and
is*
Finally the cissoid cuts the line at infinity in the
tote.
cir-
cular points.
To show how to solve the Delian problem by the use

we write its equation in the following form
this curve,
We now
construct the straight line,
This cuts
off
upon the tangent
intersects the cissoid in a point for
This
is
of
=1
the segment
X,
and
which
the equation of a straight line passing through the
point y
0, x
1, and hence of the line joining this point
to the point of the cissoid.
This line cuts
We
now
see
1,
draw a
upon the axis of Y the intercept
how 1^2 may be
Y the
the axis of
x
off
intercept 2,
= 0,
line
and through
from the origin
cept on this tangent equals

4.
its
Let
off
upon
intersection with the cissoid
to the tangent x
/
Lay
join this point to the point
1.
The
inter-
2.
The conchoid of Nicomedes
as follows
constructed.
3
A.
(c.
be a fixed point, a
150
its
b.c.) is
constructed
distance from a fixed
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
46
If
line.
we
pass a pencil of rays through
each ray from
directions a segment
is
b,
off
on
the locus of the points so determined
According as b
the conchoid.
and lay
intersection with the fixed line in both
its
greater or less than
is
the origin
jugate point
a,
a node or a con-
is
for b
a it is
a cusp (Fig. 13).
Taking for axes of X a

the perpendicular and paral-
through
lei
line,
the fixed
to
we have
r_
'
whence
(x
-fy
)(x-a) 2 -b
The conchoid
fourth
is
= 0..
then of the
has a double
order,
point at the origin, and is

composed of two branches
having for common asymptote
=
+y
the line x
a.
factor (x 2
Further, the
shows that the

curve passes through the cirfig.
cular points at infinity, a mat13.
immediate importance.
any angle by means of this curve in the
following manner
Let <
MOY (Fig. 13) be the angle to
ter of
We may
trisect
be divided into three equal parts.
OM
b,
an arbitrary length.
b describe a circle,
of
X with origin
On
With M
the side
OM
as a center
lay off
and radius
and through M perpendicular to the axis

draw a vertical line representing the
asymptote of the conchoid to be constructed.
Construct the
47
with A, the intersection of the circle

Connect
conchoid.
as is
and the conchoid. Then is /_ AOY one third of /_
easily seen from the figure.
Our previous investigations have shown us that the problem of the trisection of the angle is a problem of the third
<f>,
degree.
It
admits the three solutions

<f>-\-2 7r
r ~3~~
<
<
+4
7r
~~
Every algebraic construction which solves this problem by

the aid of a curve of higher degree must obviously furnish all
the solutions.
Otherwise the equation of the problem would
These different solutions are shown in
not be irreducible.
The circle and the conchoid intersect in eight
the figure.
points.
Two of them coincide with the origin, two others
None of these can give

There remain, then, four points
This
of intersection, so that we seem to have one too many.
is due to the fact that among the four points we necessarily
find the point B such that
M B 2 b, a point which may be
determined without the aid of the curve.
There actually
remain then only three points corresponding to the three
roots furnished by the algebraic solution.
with the circular points at
infinity.
a solution of the problem.
5.
In
all
braic curves,
these constructions with the aid of higher alge-
we must
consider the practical execution.
We
need an instrument which shall trace the curve by a continuous movement, for a construction by points is simply a
method
of approximation.
Several instruments of this sort
have been constructed some were known to the ancients.

Nicomedes invented a simple device for tracing the conchoid.
It is the oldest of the kind besides the straight edge and
compasses.
(Cantor, I, p. 302.) 'A list of instruments of
;
more recent construction may be found in Dyck's Katalog,

pp. 227-230. 340, and Nachtrag, pp. 42, 43.
PART
IL
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS AND THE QUADRATURE OF THE

CIRCLE.
CHAPTER
I.
Cantor's Demonstration of the Existence of
Transcendental Numbers.
1.
Let us represent numbers as usual by points upon the

If
axis of abscissas.
we
restrict ourselves to rational
the corresponding points" will
throughout (berall
small there
less, as
is
an
dicht),
infinite
i.e.,
numbers
the axis of abscissas densely
fill
in
any interval no matter how
number
of such points.
Neverthe-
the ancients had already discovered, the continuum
of points
upon the
axis
is
not exhausted in this
way
between
the rational numbers come in the irrational numbers, and the
question arises whether there are not distinctions to be
among
made
the irrational numbers.
Let us define first what we mean by

Every root of an algebraic equation
a
<o
+ a^-
-f
algebraic numbers.
+ a n_ + a =
l0 )
an algebraic number. Of
Rational numbers
occur as a special case in equations of the form
with integral
course
we
coefficients is called
consider only the real roots.
-|- a.i
0.
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
50
We
now ask
the question
Does the totality of real
numbers form a continuum, or a discrete series
that other numbers may be inserted in the intervals ?
:
algebraic
such,
X These new
numbers, the so-called transcendental numbers,
would then be characterized by
this property, that they cannot
be roots of an algebraic equation with integral coefficients.
This question was answered
first by Liouville (Comptes

and Liouville's Journal, Vol. XVI, 1851), and
in fact the existence of transcendental numbers was demonstrated by him. But his demonstration, which rests upon the
rendus, 1844,
theory of continued fractions,

investigation
is
is
rather complicated.
The
notably simplified by using the developments
given by Georg Cantor in a memoir of fundamental importance, lieber eine Eigenschaft des Inbegriffes reeller algebraischer
Zahlen (Crelle's Journal, Vol.
shall give his demonstration,
LXXVII,
making use
of a
notion which Cantor, under a different form,
1873).
We
more simple
it is
true, sug-
gested at the meeting of naturalists in Halle, 1891.

2.
The demonstration rests upon the fact that algebraic
numbers form a countable mass, while transcendental numbers
do not. By this Cantor means that the former can be arranged
in a certain order so that each of

place, is
numbered, so to speak.
them occupies a
definite
This proposition
may
be
stated as follows
The manifoldness of real algebraic numbers and the manifoldness of positive integers can be brought into a one-to-one
correspondence.
We
seem here
to
meet a contradiction.
The positive intenumbers since

with one and one
gers form only a portion of the algebraic
each number of the
first
can be associated
only of the second, the part would be equal to the whole.
This objection rests upon a false analogy. The proposition

is always less than the whole is not true for
that the part
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS.
infinite masses.
51
example, that we
It is evident, for
may
establish a One-to-one correspondence between the aggregate

of positive integers
1,
and the aggregate of positive even num-
thus
12
2n
In dealing with infinite masses, the words great and small are
inappropriate.
As a
substitute, Cantor has introduced the
word power (Mchtigkeit), and says Tivo infinite masses have

the same poiver when they can be brought into a one-to-one cm*respondence with each other.
The theorem which we have to
prove then takes the following form
The aggregrate of real
algebraic numbers has the same power as the aggregate of
:
positive integers.
We
obtain the aggregate of real algebraic numbers by seek-
ing the real roots of
all algebraic
> n + a^"- +
1
equations of the form
+a
_ lW
+a =
n
the a's are supposed prime to one another, a positive,

and the equation irreducible. To arrange the numbers thus
all
obtained in a definite order,
we
consider their height N as
defined by
= n-l+|a + |a +
l
ai|
'
representing the absolute value of a
{,
+ ,a
|,
as usual.
given number
To a
N corresponds a finite number of algebraic

equations.
For, N being given, the number n has certainly
an upper limit, since N is equal to n
1 increased by positive
numbers; moreover, the difference N
(n
1) is a sum of
positive numbers prime to one another, whose number is
obviously
finite.
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
52
|a
|ax
|a 2
|a 3
|a4
Equation.
<KN)
2xl=0
x2=0
-1
+2
12
3x
x2
1
1
x-1=
x - 2 =
-3
-1.61803
z3 =
2x - =0
1=
- 1.41421
3
2
Among
-1
x =0
2
1
Roots.
1
1
-0.70711
- 0.61803
- 0.33333
+ 0.33333
+
+
+
+
+
0.61803
0.70711
1.41421
1.61803
3
equations we must discard those that are

which presents no theoretical difficulty.
Since
the number of equations corresponding to a given value of
these
reducible,
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS.
N
is
finite
limited, there corresponds to a determinate
mass of algebraic numbers.
We
53
N only a
shall designate this
by <(N). The table contains the values of </>(l), <(2), <A(3),

<(4), and the corresponding algebraic numbers w.
We arrange now the algebraic numbers according to their
height, N, and the numbers corresponding to a single value of
N in increasing magnitude. We thus obtain all the algebraic
numbers, each in a determinate place. This is done in the
last column of the accompanying table.
It is, therefore,
evident that algebraic numbers can be counted.
3.
is
We now
state the general proposition
In any portion of the axis of abscissas, however small, there

an infinite number of points which certainly do not belong to
a given countable mass.

Or, in other words
The continuum of numerical values represented by a portion
of the axis of abscissas, however small, has a greater power
than any given countable mass.
This amounts to affirming the existence of transcendental
numbers. It is sufficient to take as the countable mass the
aggregate of algebraic numbers.
To demonstrate this theorem we prepare a table of algebraic
numbers as before and write in it all the numbers in the form
of decimal fractions.
None of these will end in an infinite
series of 9's.
For the equality
:
= 0.999
'
shows that such a number is an exact decimal. If now we

>an construct a decimal fraction which is not found in our
table and does not end in an infinite series of 9's it will
certainly be a transcendental number.
By means of a very
simple process indicated by Georg Cantor we can find not
only one but infinitely many transcendental numbers, even
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
54
when the domain
in
which the number
Suppose, for example, that the

ber are given.
Take
Cantor's process
for 6th decimal a
is
first five
is
number
to lie is very small
decimals of the num-
as follows.
different
from 9 and from
the 6th decimal of the first algebraic number, for 7th decimal
number
from 9 and from the 7th decimal of the

In this way we obtain a decimal
fraction which will not end in an infinite series of 9's and is
a
different
second algebraic number, etc.
certainly not contained in our table.
The proposition
is
then
demonstrated.
We
by this that (if the expression is allowable) there

more transcendental numbers than algebraic. For
see
are far
when we determine the unknown decimals, avoiding the 9's,

we have a choice among eight different numbers we can
thus form, so to speak, 8 transcendental numbers, even when
the domain in which they are to lie is as small as we please.
;
CHAPTER
IL
Attempts at the Computation

and Construction of
Historical Survey of the
ir.
In the next chapter we shall prove that the number
ir
belongs to- the class of transcendental numbers whose existence was

first
shown
in the preceding chapter.
The proof was
given by Lindemann in 1882, and thus a problem was
definitely settled which, so far as our
knowledge
goes, has
occupied the attention of mathematicians for nearly 4000

years, the problem of the quadrature of the circle.
number it is not algebraic, it certainly cannot

be constructed by means of straight edge and compasses.
The quadrature of the circle in the sense understood by the
For,
if
ancients
the
is
then impossible.
It
is
extremely interesting to
follow the fortunes of this problem in the various epochs of

science, as ever
new attempts were made
to find a solution
with straight edge and compasses, and to see

sarily fruitless efforts
worked
for
how
advancement
these neces-
i the
mani-
fold realm of mathematics.
The following brief historical survey is based upon the

work of Eudio
Archimedes, Huygens, Lambert,
excellent
Legendre, Vier Abhandlungen ber die Kreismessung, Leipzig,

1892.
This book contains a German
translation
of the
While the mode of

presentation does not touch upon the modern methods here
discussed, the book includes many interesting details which
investigations of the authors named.
are of practical value in elementary teaching.
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
56
Among
1.
the attempts to determine the ratio of the
diameter to the circumference we
may
empirical stage, in which the desired end
measurement or by
distinguish the
first
was
to be attained
by
direct estimation.
known mathematical document, the Ehind

2000
b.c.), contains the problem in the well(p.
known form, to transform a circle into a square of equal
The
oldest
Papyrus
of the papyrus, Ahmes, lays down the

Cut off of a diameter and construct a
square upon the remainder
this has the same area as the
The writer
area.
following rule
The value
circle.
of
2.
thus obtained
Much
very inaccurate.
used in the Bible
it
(1
The Greeks
is (-y-)
less accurate
Kings,
7.
23,
is
= 3.16
the value
2 Chronicles,
it
puted the area of the
circle
work kvkXov
3,
4. 2).
and
rose above this empirical standpoint,
especially Archimedes, who, in his
not
fierpyja-Ls,
com-
by the aid of inscribed and
cir-
cumscribed polygons, as is still done in the schools.

His
method remained in use till the invention of the differential
calculus
it
by Huygens
was especially developed and rendered

(d.
1654) in his work,
De
practical
magnitudine
circuit
inventa.
As
in the case of the duplication of the cube and the
trisection of the angle the
Greeks sought also to
effect the
quadrature of the circle by the help of higher curves.
_1
Consider for example the curve y
sin x, which repreGeometrically, ir
sents the sinusoid with axis vertical.
appears as a particular ordinate of this curve
from the
standpoint of the theory of functions, as a particular value of
our transcendental function.

a transcendental curve
tus.
we
Any
apparatus which describes
shall call a transcendental appara-
transcendental apparatus which traces the sinusoid
gives us a geometric construction of
ir.
In modern language the curve y
= sin-1
is
called an
THE CONSTRUCTION OF
integral curve because
57
it.
can be defined by means of the
it
integral of an algebraic function,
/dx
The ancients called such a curve a quadrairix or TerpaywviThe best known is the quadratrix of Dinostratus
which, however, had alb.c.)
350
(p.
ready been constructed by Hippias of
t,ovaa.
Elis
(p.
420
an angle.
b.c.) for
the trisectin of
Geometrically
it
may
be
Having given a
defined as follows.
and two perpendicular radii OA

two points M and L move with
constant velocity, one upon the radius
OB, the other upon the arc AB (Fig.
Fig. 14.
Starting at the same time at
14).
and A, they arrive simultaneously at B. The point of intersection P of OL and the parallel to OA through M describes
circle
and
B,
the quadratrix.
From
this definition
Further, since for y
and from
follows that y
it
proportional to
is
7T
= we have
1,
= tan -1 - the equation of the curve becomes

= tan-y.
x
It
meets the axis of X at the point whose abscissa

x
= lim
for y
tan-y
is
0.
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
58
_2_
hence
7T
According to this formnla the radius of the circle is the

mean proportional between the length of the quadrant and
the abscissa of the intersection of the quadratrix with the
This curve can therefore be used for the
axis of X.
rectifica-
tion and hence also for the quadrature of the circle.
This
use of the quadratrix amounts, however, simply to a geo-
metric formulation of the problem of rectification so long as
we have no apparatus
for describing the curve
by continuous
movement.
Fig. 15 gives
an idea of the form of the curve with the
branches obtained by taking values of 6 greater than
ir
or
Evidently the quadratrix of Dinostratus
is
Fig.
less
than
it.
15.
-1
not so convenient as the curve y
sin
x, but
appear that the latter was used by the ancients.
3.
names
The period from 1670

of Leibnitz,
analysis.
it
does not
to 1770, characterized
Newton, and Euler, saw the
rise of
by the
modern
Great discoveries followed one another in such an
almost unbroken series that, as was natural,

into the background.
critical rigor fell
For our purposes the development
THE COMPUTATION OF
59
n.
of the theory of series is especially important.
Numerous
methods were deduced for approximating the value of ir. It

will suffice to mention the so-called Leibnitz series (known,
however, before Leibnitz)
3^-5
This same period brings the discovery of the mutual dependence of e and
The number
tt.
natural logarithms, and
e,
hence the exponential function, are
first
found in principle in
This number seemed at
the works of Napier (1614).
first to
have no relation whatever to the circular functions and the

number ir until Euler had the courage to make use of imaginary exponents.
In this way he arrived at the celebrated
formula
= cos x +
which, for
x =
e^
becomes
tt,
e in
This formula
mathematics.
is
transcendence of
sin
certainly one of the
it,
x,
l.
The modern proofs
are all based on
4.
most remarkable
in all
of the transcendence of
since the first step
is
e.
After 1770 critical rigor gradually began to resume
rightful place.
Among
its
In this year appeared the work of Lambert
Vorlufige Kenntnisse fr die so die

suchen.
it
always to show the
Quadratur des Cirkuls
other matters the irrationality of
dis-
tt is
In 1794 Legendre, in his Elements de geometrie,

showed conclusively that ir and tt 2 are irrational numbers.
cussed.
But a whole century elapsed before the question was

modern point of view. The startingSur la fonction exponent ielle
point was the work of Hermite
(Comptes rendus, 1873, published separately in 1874). The
5.
investigated from the
transcendence of e
is
here proved.
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
60
An
analogous proof
Hermite, was
for
{Mathematische Annalen,
ir9
closely
Lindemann
by
given
XX,
1882.
related
to
Ueber die
that
of
Zahl
ir
See also the Proceed-
ings of the Berlin and Paris academies),
The question was then

investigations of
settled for the first time, but tHe
Hermite and Lindemann were
still
very
complicated.
The
first
simplification
Berliner Berichte of 1885.
was given by Weierstrass in the

The works previously mentioned
were embodied by Bachmann in his text-book, Vorlesungen

ber die Natur der Irrationalzahlen, 1892.
But the spring of 1893 brought new and very important
In the first rank should be named the
simplifications.
memoirs of Hubert in the Gttinger Nachrichten.
Still
Hubert's proof is not absolutely elementary there remain
:
traces of Hermite's reasoning in the use of the integral
'
But Hurwitz and Gordan soon showed that this transcendental formula could be done away with {Gttinger Nach; all three papers are reproduced
with some extensions in Mathematische Annalen, Vol. XLIII).
The demonstration has now taken a form so elementary
that it seems generally available.
In substance we shall
richten; Comptes rendus
follow Gordan' s
mode
of treatment.
CHAPTER
The Transcendence
We
1.
III.
of the
Number
e.
take as the starting-point for our investigation the
well-known series
e
= 1+ i+ 2 + -"^+
i
which is convergent for all finite values of x. The difference

between practical and theoretical convergence should here be
insisted on.
Thus, for x
1000 the calculation of e 1000 by
means of this series would obviously not be feasible. Still
the series certainly converges theoretically
for
we
easily
term the factorial n in the

denominator increases more rapidly than the power which
see
that
after
1000th
the
has
x
occurs in the numerator.
This circumstance that
for
n!
any
finite
value of
the limit zero
when
becomes
infinite
has an important bearing upon our later demonstrations.
We
now propose
The number e
to establish the following proposition
an algebraic number,
with integral coefficients of the form
is
not
F(e)= Co + C 1 e + C2 e2 +is
impossible.
The
coefficients
i.e.,
+C
Q may be
n e*
an equation
supposed prime to
one another.
We
shall use the indirect
method
of demonstration, show-
ing that the assumption of the above equation leads to an

absurdity.
The absurdity may be shown
in the
following
!;
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
62
We
way.
multiply the members of the equation F (e)
a certain integer
by
so that
MF(e)=MC + MC ie + MC
We
shall
show that the number
(1)
Each
of the products Me,
Me 2
rated into an entire part
M K and
+MCn e n = 0,
+'
2e
can be chosen so that
-Me may be
11
a fractional part
eK ,
sepa-
and our
equation takes the form
= MCo + MA + M
+ C +C
M F(e)
The
n en
integral part
MC+MA +
is
2 e2
iei
(2)
+ "+ M Cn
+
+ C = 0;
C2
not zero.
-+M
Cn
This will result from the fact that when divided
by a prime number
it
gives a remainder different from zero
The expression
(3)
Ciej
+C +
2 e2
'
+C
n en
can be made as small a fraction as we please.
These conditions being
fulfilled,
from
zero,
The
and a proper
the equation assumed
sum
manifestly impossible, since the
is
of an integer different
fraction, cannot equal zero.
salient point of the proof
quite accurately, as follows
may
be stated, though not
With an exceedingly small
error
we may assume
e,
'
'
en
proportional to integers which certainly do not satisfy our
assumed equation.
2.
We
make use
shall
in our proof of a
symbol
and a
certain polynomial <(x).
The symbol
Thus,
we
is
simply another notation for the factorial
shall write the series for e x in the

ex
= 1 4^ h 4^ h 4^
2
4^
^
h"
4-
form
TRANSCENDENCE OF THE NUMBER
63
e.
The symbol has no deeper meaning it simply enables us to

write in more compact form every formula containing powers
and factorials.
;
Suppose,
we have given
e.g.,
a developed polynomial
= tc
f(x)
rx
r
.
We
represent by
%c
and write under the form
f(h),
r
>
the
sum
c 1 -l
But
if
f (x)
+c
is
-2!
+c
-3!+-
'
by
+ h) = 2 c
+ h) =
r
r (k
c' r
-n!
and
f (h)
is
to
finally replace
Thus, for example,
r !.
f(k
the
not developed, then to calculate
develop this polynomial in powers of

h
+c
depending on
The polynomial
c'r
c' r
r!,
k.
which we need for our proof
<(x)
is
the
following remarkable expression
* (x)
where p
is
x)(2
A x)-
^
= xp-,[(1
1
a prime number,
and
|C
|,
-Cn
x)p
the degree of the algebraic
equation assumed to be satisfied by

greater than n
(p-l)\
and
later
e.
we
We
shall
shall suppose p
make
it
increase
without limit.
To
get a geometric picture of this polynomial <(x)
we
con-
struct the curve
= *.
At the points
1, 2,
an inflexional tangent, since
the curve has the axis of X as

it
in an odd number of
X is tangent without
and n the curve remains
meets
it
points, while at the origin the axis of

inflexion.
For values of
between
in the neighborhood of the axis of X

it
recedes indefinitely.
for greater values of
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
64
Of the function
properties
x being
1.
<(x) tends
values of
Put
<
we
(x)
will
now
establish three important
supposed given and p increasing without limit,
toward
its
sum of
zero, as does also the
the absolute
terms.
= x (1 x) (2 x)
x)
(n
"^
YW
jut
we may then
write
^p
1)!
which for p infinite tends toward zero.

To have the sum of the absolute values of < (x) it is sufficient to replace
x by |x| in the undeveloped form of <(x).
The second part is then demonstrated like the first.
2. h being an integer,
(h) is an integer not divisible by p
and therefore different from zero.
Develop < (x) in increasing powers of x, noticing that the
terms of lowest and highest degree respectively are of degree
1 and np
We have
p
p 1.
<f>
r=np+p
^ c,x-=
)=2
7
+(X
r=p-l
w + w
C'XP-1
C''*X
np+P-1
+.
X
(
Hence
r=np+p
*(h)=2
cjtf.
i^p-1
Leaving out of account the denominator (p

occurs in
all
1)
!,
which
the terms, the coefficients c r are integers.
denominator disappears as soon as we replace
by
r!,
This
since
p_1
is h
1) !. All the terms
(p
of the development after the first will contain the factor p.
the factorial of least degree
As
to the
first, it
may
be written
(1-2-3-
-n)P-(p-l)!
1)'
Cp
and
is
certainly not divisible
Therefore
and hence
<(h)
<j>
by p since p
(n!) p
(h) ^z 0.
'
>
(mod.
n.
p),

Moreover,
alone
<
3.
(h
We
<j>
(h) is a
very large,
is
to
very large number
= p(p + l)...(np + p-l).
T=f^
an integer
have
(h
<
and
one of the numbers
1,
n,
divisible by p.
+ k) = %c
+ k) = %
r
(h
a formula in which
term
its last
viz.
being an integer,
k) is
even
65
e.
we
c' r h
are to replace h r
by
only after hav-
ing arranged the development in increasing powers of
h.
According to the rules of the symbolic calculus, we have

first
r(
_(
One
l-k-h)(2-k-h)---(-h)---(n-k-h)] P
(p-1)!
of the factors in the brackets reduces to
term of lowest degree in

We may then write
h in
the development
is
hence the
of degree
p.
r=np+p-l
4>(h
The
2c' h
+ k) = r=P
r
r
.
have for numerators integers and for

As already explained, this denominator disappears when we replace h r by r!. But now all the
terms of the development are divisible by p; for the first
coefficients
still
denominator (p
1)!.
may be
( l) k P
1)
written
kP- 1 [(k
(n
- k) !]p
= (<
(h
3,
+ k)
is
We
then divisible by
kP
kP" 1 [(k
- 1)
(n
p.
can now show that the equation
F<V)=C,-f- C ie
is
impossible.
+Ce
2
+-
+C
n e"
- k)
!]p
p.
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
66
For the number M, by which we multiply the members of

this equation,
(h)
=C
F (e)
we
<f>
select
(h) -f
<
Crf
(h), so
that
+C
(h) e
2 </>
(h) e
+C
n <
(h)e*.
(h) e k, into
Let us try to decompose any term, such as C k <

We have
an
integer and a fraction.
ek
<f>
(h)
=e
%c
r
.
Considering the series development of e k any term of this

sum, omitting the constant coefficient, has the form
,
*.h*=h-+
Replacing
by
or
!,
-2T +
Vr + 7+i)T +
'
'
what amounts
to the
same thing, by one
of the quantities
rh'"
r(r
1) h'"
r(r
1)
and simplifying the successive

e*
= +j
h*
h'-'k
The
+ k)
fii'st.
r
;
2
,
(r
1)
-2-h,
fractions,
+ '~ ^ h"V +
'
+jhk'"1 +k r
k
k'
.r
(h
+1
+
'
line has the
(r.+ l)(r
+ 2)
same form
as the
development of
we have the
in the parenthesis of the second line
series
+ H
k
OH-rr
l-t-(r
whose terms are respectively
less
* = i+ k +
l)(r
+ 2)-rh-
+_+...
3!
,
J<^
line in the
qr,k' e
q rk being a proper fraction.
than those of the series
expansion of e k h r
represented by an expression of the form
The second
k\
may
therefore be
67
e.
sum
Effecting the same decomposition for each term of the

e
%c
it
takes the form

ek
%c
=%c
The first part of

number divisible by
tends toward zero
^q
%q
this
sum
when
r
,
simply <(h-f
is
Further
p (2, 3).
r)k c r k
r)k c r k
*(k)
a fortiori of
+ ky + e
(h
= 2jc
k);
this is a
(2, 1),
k'j
the same is true

p becomes infinite
also, since e k is a finite quantity,
:
and
of e
Jq
r)k
c,k
r
,
which we may represent by
ek .
The term under
C k e < (h), has then been put

C k < (h + k) and a quantity Ckek
of p, may be made as small as we
consideration,
under the form of an integer

which, by a suitable choice
please.
Proceeding similarly with
F(e)<A(h)-C ^(h)
all
the terms,
+ C cA(h + l)-h+ CiCi + C +
now easy
terms of the
the
first,
|
<(h) is
get finally
+C
+C
2 e2
It is
we
n en
to complete the demonstration.
first line after
the
first
(h
+ n)
All the
by p for
by p; hence
are divisible
than p < (h) is not divisible

not divisible by the prime number p. Consequently
1
is less
sum of the numbers of the first line is not zero.

The numbers of the second line are finite in number each
of them can be made smaller than any given number by a
the
suitable choice of p
and therefore the same
is
true of their
sum.
Since an integer not zero and a fraction cannot have zero
for a sum, the
assumed equation
Thus, the transcendence of

demonstrated.
is
e,
impossible.
or Hermite's Theorem,
is
CHAPTER
The Transcendence
1.
7T
The demonstration
given by Lindemann
the case of
IV.
of the
Number
it.
of the transcendence of the
number
an extension of Hermite's proof in

While Hermite shows that an integral equa-
e.
is
tion of the form
C + C ie + C 2 e 2 ++ Cn e Q =
cannot exist, Lindemann generalizes this by introducing
-
place of the powers
e2
e,
e
e
kl
11
sums
of the
k2
+ e ++e +
l2
in
form
+ e k*
+ ev
where the k's are associated algebraic numbers, i.e., roots of

an algebraic equation, with integral coefficients, of the degree
N the I's roots of an equation of degree N', etc. Moreover,
some or all of these roots may be imaginary.
Lindemann's general theorem may be stated as follows
The number e cannot satisfy an equation of the form
;
(1)
+C (e + e
kl
k2
+-
+ e k*)
+ e v)+-
=0
+ Cê + e +
where the coefficients Q are integers and the exponents k
11
12
t,
Ij,
are respectively associated algebraic numbers.
The theorem may also be stated

The number e is not only not an algebraic number and therefore a transcendental number simply, but it is also not an
interscendental * number and therefore a transcendental number
:
of higher order.
* Leibnitz
calls a function
interscendental function.
x\ where X
is
an algebraic
irrational,
an

Let
+ a^' +
ax N
bx
'
+ b^'- +
1
kt
+ bN =
that having for roots the exponents
i5
These equations
etc.
are not necessarily irreducible, nor the coefficients of the
terms equal to
69
+ aN =
be the equation having for roots the exponents

N
it.
first
symmetric functions of
our later developments need
It follows that the
1.
the roots which alone occur in
not be integers.
In order to obtain integral numbers
will be sufficient to
it
consider symmetric functions of the quantities

ak l9 ak 2
bl 2 ,
bli,
ak N
*
,
bl ff ., etc.
These numbers are roots of the equations

N
+ axy*" + a ay- +
+
-f btf*'- + b by
1
y
'
N '-2
+ aâ*- = 0,
1
+ b^b*'" =
1
0, etc.
These quantities are integral associated algebraic numbers,

and their rational symmetric functions real integers.
We shall now follow the same course as in the demonstration of Hermite's theorem.
We
assume equation
members by an integer
such as
an integral part and a
M(e kl
M(e
ll
we multiply both
and we decompose each sum,
k2
M(ekl +
into
to be true
(1)
+-
+ e kN
),
fraction, thus
+ e +- + eks)=M +
+ e + -+e v)=M +
k2
c1 ,
2 ,
l2
Our equation then becomes
C M
+C
+C
ll
+C M +
+ cl +
8
0.
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
70
We
show that with a
shall
suitable choice of
the
sum
of
an integer not
divisible by a certain prime number p, and consequently
that the fractional part can be made as
different from zero
small as we please, and thus we come upon the same contra-
the quantities in the
represents
line
first
diction as before.
2.
We
symbol
shall again use the
M =^(h),
the multiplier the quantity
=r! and
where
ralization of <(x) used in the preceding chapter,
follows
select as
if/(x) is
a gene-
formed as
A(x)^
l 1)!
(p
-x)-
[Oi x)
x)
(l 8
(l w
x)]
b* p
b N p b*" p
'
number greater than the absolute value
a prime
is
(k-x)]-a*-a*'P-a*"P-
'
where p
[(k 1 -x)(k 2
of
each of the numbers

ô? a 5 b,
and
later will be
assumed
the factors a Hp b N p
'
have
in the
aN b N
,,
to increase without limit.
As
to
they have been introduced so as to
development of
i/r(x)
symmetric functions of the
quantities
that
is,
ak 1;
ak,
bli,
bl 2 ,
ak N
bl,,,
rational integral numbers.
Later on
we
shall
have
to develop the expressions
The presence
we wish
same
factors will still be necessary if
the coefficients of these developments to be integers
each divided by (p
1.
of these
\f/(h)
is
1)
!.
an integral number, not
sequently different from zero.
divisible by p
and
con-

Arranging
xj/
powers of
(h) in increasing
r=Np+N'p+
iKh)
takes the form
+p
=2
h, it
71
it.
cr h r
r=p-l
In this development
all the coefficients have integral numerand the common denominator (p

1)
The coefficient of the first term h p_1 may be written
ators
!.
ak x ) p a N p a N
'
_ lv
(ak x
(blx
( l) irp+N
'p
(p-1)!
ak2 bl 2
bl N .) p b
x -1 p N p N "p
a a
Np
bN
"
"
'
'--(a N a
(b H .b
N '-1 p sp
b b*" p
)
term we replace h p_1 by its value (p

1) the
denominator disappears. According to the hypotheses made
regarding the prime number p, no factor of the product is
divisible by p and hence the product is not.
The second term c p h p becomes likewise an integer when
we replace h p by p! but the factor p remains, and so for all
of the following terms.
Hence \p (h) is an integer not divisible by p.
2. For x, a given finite quantity, and p increasing ivithout
If in this
limit,
\\i
(x)
=Jc
sum
tends toward zero, as does also the
We may
<Kx)
write
= 2c
= X_ lv [a
x
r
ir
ay
b*b w '(k 1
x)(k x)-
0-x)(l-x)Since for
stant,
x of
we may
-(k x
(U- x)
given value the expression in brackets

replace
it
by
K.
We
-x)
is
]'
a con-
then have
(xK)^ 1
* = =)! K
'
a quantity which tends toward zero as p increases indefinitely.
1.
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
72
The same reasoning will apply when each term

replaced by its absolute value.
3.
J ^(k +
The expression
We
h) is
an
of
(x)
is
integer divisible by p.
have
-k -h)-k,-h)(l 2 -k ,-h)-
a<-1 )P[(k -k,-h)(k 2

1
a-'Pb-P[(l 1
The vth
-(-h)-
t/
(l w
-(k N
-k,-h)]P
-k ,-h)p
J
factor of the expression in brackets in the second
and hence the term of lowest degree in

Consequently
line is
if/
h,
r=xp+x'p+
Kk
+ h)=
h is h p
+p-l
c'M
r=p
whence
v=y
r=xp+N'p+
2^(k +
h)
+p
C' r h
r
.
F=p
l'=l
The numerators
and integral,
symmetric functions of the quantities
of the coefficients C'r are rational
for they are integral
ak L
ak 2
bli,
bl 2 ,
ak x
-,
bl N ,
and their common denominator is (p

1)
If we replace h r by r the denominator disappears from all
the coefficients, the factor p remains in every term, and hence
the sum is an integer divisible by p.
!
Similarly for
v=\
We
have thus established three properties of

(x) analogous
to those demonstrated for < (x) in connection with Hermite's
theorem.
if/
We
3.
now
n.
return to onr demonstration that the assumed
equation
(1)
+C
(e
kl
+e k2 +-
/f(h),
+ e k -)+C
(e
ll
l2
+e +-
-e
v )+- =0
For this purpose we multiply both members
cannot be true.
by
thus obtaining
k
C iA(h)+C 1 [e V(h) + e V(h)
+ e k^(h)] +
=0,
and try to decompose each of the expressions in brackets into

The operation will be a little
a whole number and a fraction.
longer than before, for k may be a complex number of the form
2
k'
k
ik".
We shall need to introduce k|
k"
Vk' 2
One term of the above sum is
= +
=+
ek
The product
ek
tf,
(h)
= ek % c h = % c
may
r
.
be written, as shown before,

k
tk + + l)(r + 2) +
(r
The absolute value
of every
term of the
series
+ + l + + l)(r + 2) +
(r
is less
than the absolute value of the corresponding term in
the series
k
Hence
r
q rk being a
than
<e' k
+ 1 + + l)(r + 2)
+1
'
(r
'
or
(r
'
+ l)(r + 2)
=-n
.Pl k
qr, k e
'
complex quantity whose absolute value
1.
We may
e
'
then write
^(h)= 2 c
k r
e h
=Jc
(h
+ k) + % c
r
q r>k k
e'
kl
is
less
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
74
By
giving
snm
ing the
in succession the indices 1, 2,
and form-
n,
the equation becomes
V(h) +
V(h) +
="SV (k,
+el ^(h)
+ h) +T je W 2 cJVfcJ-
Proceeding similarly with
the other sums, our equation
all
takes the form

(2)
Co A (h) 4-
dig* (k, +
h)
v=l
+ Ci$te\K\ Clk
p=l
By
2,
qT K
,
+ C^V
+ h) +
v=l
(| F
+ c/s'S
v=l
we can make ^|c r k r
elV!c r l%q r)li/
>=0.
as small as
we
please
by taking
p sufficiently great.
Since q rk
|
<
1,
this will be true
a fortiori
of
r
and hence
also of
2 2
?=1
Since the coefficients
c r k ,q r)k e \K\
r
are finite in value
sum which occurs in the second line

p, be made as small as we please.
The numbers of the first line are,
and in number, the

by increasing
of (2) can,
after the
first, all divis-
number, C ^(h), is not (1).

(3),
Therefore the sum of the numbers in the first line is not
divisible by p and hence is different from zero.
The sum of
an integer and a fraction cannot be zero. Hence equation (2)
by p
ible
is
but the
first
impossible and consequently also equation
(1).
We now
come to a proposition more general than the

preceding, but whose demonstration is an immediate conse4.
The proof for the more general case where C = may be reduced
by multiplication by a suitable factor, or may be obtained directly
to this
by a proper modification
of
\p
(h).
75
it.
quence of the latter. For this reason we shall call it Lindemann's corollary.
kl
ll
C'o+C' 1 e +C' 2 e +-
(3)
in which the coefficients are integers even

k 1}
lf
'
'
this, let k 2 , k 3
the equation satisfied by

all
when
the exponents
are unrelated algebraic numbers.
To demonstrate
Form
<>,
kx
kK
be the other roots of
similarly for
may
the polynomials which
2,
3,
etc.
>,
be deduced from
(3)
by replacing k x in succession by the associated roots k 2

Multiplying the expres2
x by the associated roots
sions thus formed we have the product
,
JC'o+C' 1 e*+C' 2 e
/3
= Co + Ci (e + e +
+C
(e
k2
kl
kl+ll
+e
he
kl+l2
a
1
k
*)
+C
1, 2,
=l,2,-
-,*
(e
kl+k2
+ ek2+ka +
+' )+
In each parenthesis the exponents are formed symmetrically

, and are therefore
from the quantities k 1^
roots of an
i?
algebraic equation with integral coefficients.
Our product
comes under Lindemann's theorem; hence it cannot be zero.

Consequently none of its factors can be zero and the corollary
is
demonstrated.
We may now
deduce a
The number e cannot
still
satisfy
more general theorem.

an equation of the form
C J> + C<Pek +.C<?e

<
where the
=0
exponents are unrelated
coefficients as well as the
algebraic numbers.
For, let us form all the polynomials which we can deduce

from the preceding when for each of the expressions C (1) we
substitute one of the associated algebraic numbers
i
(2)
C ?,
(
C\
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
76
If
we multiply
we
the polynomials thus formed together
get
the product
= l,2,-
+ C ?ek + C ?V+
0=1,2,
a, jB.-y,
= C + C k e +C e ++ C e k+ k +C e +
+
+
k
1, 2,
-,!
n2
k>k
where the
coefficients
+-
>
are integral symmetric functions of
the quantities
and hence are
c<>>,
qj>,
cv,
c<;>,
c<?>,
c<?>,
By
rational.
the previous
we have
expression cannot vanish, and
proof such an
.
accordingly Linde-
mann's corollary in its most general form

:
+C e +C e
k
where the exponents
k,
I,
+-
'as well as the coefficients
Ci,
are algebraic numbers.
This
may
also be stated as follows
In an equation of the form
C
the exponents
5.
and
+C e +C e
k
coefficients
From Lindemann's
of interesting results.
+-
cannot all be algebraic numbers.
corollary
we may deduce
a number
an
For consider the remarkable equa-
First, the transcendence of it is
immediate consequence.
tion
1
-f-
irr
0.

The
not.
\ir is
Therefore,
hence the
transcendental.
it is
Again consider the function y
6.
1 =
of this equation are algebraic
coefficients
exponent
77
it.
=e
-We know
x
.
that
This seems to be contrary to our theorems about the
e.
transcendence of
This
e.
is
We
not the case, however.
must notice that the case of the exponent

was implicitly
excluded.
For the exponent
the function if/(x) would lose
its essential properties and obviously our conclusions would
not hold.
= =
=
=
Excluding then the special case (x

1), Lindemann's
0, y
x
corollary shows that in the equation y
log e y, y and
e or x
x, i.e., the number and its natural logarithm, cannot be algebraic simultaneously.
To an algebraic value of x corresponds
a transcendental value of y, and conversely. This is certainly
a very remarkable property.
If we construct the curve y
e x and mark all the algebraic
whose coordinates are algeamong them without meeting

a single one except the point x = 0, y
The theorem still
1.
holds even when x and y take arbitrary complex values. The
points of the plane,
i.e.,
all
points
braic numbers, the curve passes
exponential curve
is
then transcendental in a far higher sense
than ordinarily supposed.

7.
A further
consequence of Lindemann's corollary
transcendence, in the same higher

y
= sin-1 x
and
The function
sense, of
the
is
the
function
similar functions.
y
= sin -1 x
2
ix
is
defined by the equation
= e e~
iy
iy
.
We
see, therefore, that here also x and y cannot be algebraic

simultaneously, excluding, of course, the values x
0.
0, y
We may
then enunciate the proposition in geometric form
The curve y
= sin -1
x,
like the curve y
no algebraic point of the plane, except
=e
0, y
x
,
passes through
0.
CHAPTER
V.
The Integraph and the Gteometric Construction
of
it.
Lindemann' s theorem demonstrates the transcendence

and thus is shown the impossibility of solving the old
problem of the quadrature of the circle, not only in the sense
understood by the ancients but in a far more general manner.
1.
of
it,
It is not only impossible to construct it
and compasses, but there
is
with straight edge
not even a curve of higher order
defined by an integral algebraic equation for which
tt is
the
ordinate corresponding to a rational value of the abscissa.
An
actual construction of
ir
can then be effected only by the
aid of a transcendental curve.

desired,
we must use
If such a
construction
is
besides straight edge and compasses
a " transcendental " apparatus which shall trace the curve by
continuous motion.
2.
Such an apparatus is the integraph, recently invented
and described by a Russian engineer, Abdank-Abakanowicz,
and constructed by Coradi of Zurich.
This instrument enables us to trace the integral curve
Y=F(x)=/f(x)dx
when we have given the
differential curve
= f(x).
For this purpose, we move the linkwork of the integraph

so that the guiding point follows the differential curve
For a
tracing point will then trace the integral curve.
description of this
original
mempir
ingenious instrument
(in
we
German, Teubner, 1889
Gauthier- Villars, 1889).
refer
;
the
fuller
to
the
in French,
GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION OF
79
it.
We shall simply indicate the principles of its working.

For any point (x, y) of the differential curve construct the
auxiliary triangle having for vertices the points (x, y), (x, 0),
(x
1, 0); the hypotenuse of this right-angled triangle makes
with the axis of X an angle whose tangent
y.
Hence, this hypotenuse is parallel to the tangent to the inte-
gral curve at the point (X, Y) corresponding
fig.
to
the point
(x, y).
ig.
The apparatus should be so constructed then that the tracmove parallel to the variable direction of this
ing point shall
hypotenuse, while the guiding point describes the differential

curve.
This
is
effected
by connecting the tracing point with

is vertical and moves so as to
a sharp-edged roller whose plane
be always parallel to this hypotenuse.

roller firmly
upon the paper
advance only in the plane of the
The
construction of
Take
ir is
is
of especial interest.
the approximate
for us its application to the
for differential curve the circle

x
presses this
roller.
practical object of the integraph
evaluation of definite integrals
3.
A weight
so that its point of contact can
+y2==r2
FAMOUS PROBLEMS.
80
the integral curve
is
then
=/ Vr 2
dx
= - sin- - + Vr - x
2
2
.
This curve consists of a series of congruent branches.

points where
it
r7r
o,
Upon
the lines X
the intersections have for ordinates
7T
2
r
If
we make
The
meets the axis of Y have for ordinates
1,
->
4
3 7T
-t-j
2
r
the ordinates of these intersections will
determine the number
7r
or its multiples.
worthy of notice that our apparatus enables us to

trace the curve not in a tedious and inaccurate manner, but
with ease and sharpness, especially if we use a tracing pen
It is
instead of a pencil.
Thus we have an actual constructive quadrature of the

along the lines laid down by the ancients, for our
circle
curve
is
by them.
only a modification of the quadratrix considered
e\e*^
Bo may
r Srni
TITLE
Famous problems of elem
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Mathematics Famous Problems PDF

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HN

AN AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION OF F. KLEIN'S

WOOSTER WOODRUFF BEMAN

the University of Michigan

DAVID EUGENE SMITH

the Michigan State Normal College

GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS

Wooster Woodruff Bema.v and David Eugene Smith

and more rigorous methods

demonstration developed by modern mathematics are looked

upon by the mass

professors as abstruse and

excessively abstract, and accordingly as of importance only

ing this tendency it gave

pleasure to set forth last

in a brief course of lectures before a larger audience

usual what modern science has to say regarding the possibility

had had occasion

to present a sketch of these lectures in

Easter vacation course at Gttingen.

confirmed by the experience of the

The audience seemed

this impression has

ture therefore to present a short exposition of

the Association for the Advancement of the Teaching of Math-

ematics and the Natural Sciences, for the meeting to be held at

This exposition has been prepared by Oberlehrer

the vacation course just men-

He also had at his disposal the lecture notes written

I hope that this unpretending little book

promote the useful work of the association.

Gttingen, Easter, 1895.

the Gttingen meeting of the

the Advancement of the Teaching of Mathematics and the

Natural Sciences, Professor Felix Klein presented a discussion of the three

famous geometric problems of antiquity,

of the cube, the trisection of an angle,

and the quadrature of the

viewed in the light of

This was done with the avowed purpose of bringing the

That Professor Klein

shown by the favorable reception

to succeed in this effort is

French and Italian have already appeared.

elementary, not even a

the questions answered are such as these

Under what circumstances

and integral calculus being

By what means can

a geometric consjb*tation pos-

can we prove that e and

Professor Klein's consent to a translation was sought and

preparation the authors have also

the French translation by Professor J. Griess, of Algiers,

thank Professor Ziwet for

ance in improving the translation and in reading the proofsheets.

Practical and Theoretical Constructions

of the Construction of Algebraic Expressions.

The irreducible equation 0(x) = o

Other rational equations

The corresponding equation

Algebraic Equations Solvable by Square Roots.