LitReview Anggita

PROCEEDINGS, 4th ITB Geothermal Workshop 2015
Institut Teknologi Bandung, Bandung, Indonesia, March 16-20, 2015
PROCEEDINGS, 3rd ITB Geothermal Workshop 2015

Application of Geochemical Methods in Geothermal Exploration in Indonesia: a Literature Review (Part
1)
Anggita Agustin*, Dasapta Erwin Irawan**, Arif Susanto***, and Rina Herdianita**
* Groundwater Engineering Master Program, Faculty of Earth Sciences and Technology, Institut Teknologi
Bandung, Jl. Ganesha No. 10, 40132 Bandung, Indonesia
** Research Group on Applied Geology
*** Research Group on Geology
Faculty of Earth Sciences and Technology, Institut Teknologi Bandung,
Jl. Ganesha No. 10, 40132 Bandung, Indonesia
agustinanggita@gmail.com and d.erwin.irawan@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
A literature search using Google Scholar and
Scopus have been done using the keywords
"Geochemistry" and "Geothermal". As many as 298
relevant documents in form of conference abstracts,
proceedings, and journal papers have been selected
from a total of 522 documents of geothermal of
Indonesia, using the following criteria: the
availability of pdf and data set, and the quality of
writing. Comparison tables were made to review
all based on the time line and the methods. Based
on the evaluation of the paper, we can draw some
points. The applications of geochemical methods in
geothermal exploration in Indonesia have not been
published until in 1975 in Geochemistry of the
Kawah Kamojang Geothermal System, Indonesia
by Kartokusumo, Mahon and Seal describing major
consituents from leached from sthe surface rock in
Kamojang Geothermal System, Indonesia. Several
frequently used methods detected in our literature,
are Geothermometry in 1992, Equilibrium
Giggenbach in 2001 and Stable Isotop in 2014.
Kamojang field were the most published
geothermal site in Indonesia 65 papers, followed by
Darajat field, 36 papers and Karaha field, 31
papers. From our gathered library, also noted that
the major ion methods have been frequently
mentioned as the best method to identify
geothermal fluid types in the geothermal system of
Indonesia.
Keywords: Geothermal, Indonesia, geochemistry
INTRODUCTION
Indonesia is one of the largest energy consumer and
producer that has very significant reserves of
geothermal energy. Total potential geothermal
resources and reserves are estimated at 28.994
MWe (megawatts-electrical) with an installed

capacity of 1.996 MWe (WWF, 2012).
Promising tectonic setting that Indonesia has which
is known as The Ring of Fire make the enormous
renewable energy potential but yet still have little
progress production compare to fossil fuel power.
Increasing fosil fuel price prices make renewable
energy such as geothermal is well positioned to
help Indonesias energy security.
The objective of this paper is to give a preliminary
review on the application of geochemical method
in geothermal industry in Indonesia. In the
following sections we will discuss the number of
papers discussing the use of geochemical methods
in various geotermal fields.
We are going to maximize the use of online
databases to gather informations on this subject.
Therefore this paper will only be mentioning
previous papers that available online. Due to the
large volume of informations, we divide the paper
into two parts: this part (Part 1) will extract a rough
overview, while a more systematic discussion will
be written in the Part 2.
METHODS
We conducted there search trials in this paper. The
first search using the keywords allintitle:
geothermal (AND) exploration (AND) Indonesia
on
the
following
databases:
Scopus
(http://www.scopus.com),
GoogleScholar
(http://Scholar.google.com),
and
Geothermal
Research
Council
(GRC)
library
(https://www.geothermal-library.org/), International
Geothermal Association and Pusat Sumber Daya
Geologi (PSDG)
GoogleScholar brought 12,400 documents.
Scopus gave 61 documents, with in the period
of 1970 to 2014. Scopus results comprised of 22

peer-reviewed articles, 24 conference papers,

and the rest were technical reports.
Another trial on GRC Geothermal Library
showed 178 documents within the period of
1972 to 2013 (see Table 1).
Table 1. Summary of online search result using
search terms: 'geothermal' (AND)
'exploration' (AND) 'Indonesia'
Database Total1 PP2
CP3 TR4 Per5
Google12400 NA
NA NA NA
Scholar
Scopus
61
22
24
15
GRC
178
50
66
56
6
1
Total documents, 2Peer-reviewed papers, 3Conference

papers/proceedings, 4Technical reports/book chapters, 5Period
span
Second search trial using search terms allintitle:

geothermal
(AND)
Geochemistry
(AND)
Indonesia in the same databases showed different
results:
8440 documents (GoogleScholar),

15 documents (Scopus), and
21 documents (GRC) (see Table 2).
There are no facility in GoogleScholar database to

separate the type of the docs. On the other hand,
Scopus presented nine peer-reviewed papers, five
conference papers, and one technical report. The
oldest entry from Scopus was published in 1979,
while GRC gave a paper published in 1975.
Table 2. Summary of online search result using
search terms: 'geothermal' (AND)
'Geochemistry' (AND) 'Indonesia'
Database Total1 PP2
CP3 TR4 Per5
Google8440
NA
NA NA NA
Scholar
Scopus
15
9
5
1
GRC
21
4
7
10
1
Total documents, 2Peer-reviewed papers, 3Conference

papers/proceedings, 4Technical reports, 5Period span
Low numbers of Indonesian authors were detected

by Scopus from the first and second trials.
University of Utah was the first rank institution
followed by Institut Teknologi Bandung, and
Deutsches GeoForschungsZentrum GFZ. We also
identified that Radja, V.T was the author with the
highest number of paper discussing geothermal in
Indonesia (12 documents), followed by Moore, J.N
(11 documents) and Alis, R. (7 documents).
Although the first and second trial had considerable
more results, but we decided to use the third trial
because it shows less doc than the other two trials
that will give us opportunities to have a deeper
review. The list also contains papers with specific
discussion on each field. The third focussed only on

the GRC Geothermal Library. We used specific
geothermal fields as the keywords (Table 3). We
gathered 522 docs then screened down to 298 docs.
From
database
International
Geothermal
Association (IGA) with terms allintitle: :
Geochemistry AND Indonesia there are 14340
documents which poorly sorted, because some of
documents described geothermal field in other
country. Documents in IGA sorted by year which
20 documents in each page. Although full version
of documents are available but it is hard to find
document that specifically described geochemistry
of geothermal in Indonesia. Based on the number
of finds IGA had more documents than more
spesific about geothermal rather than GRC or
Scopus.
Pusar Sumber Daya Geologi (PSDG) database
sorted by year with specific category Energy and
the full version of documents also available.
Although the database not as big as others, but lot
of documents about the geochemistry of new
promising field in Indonesia written in 2011, such
as Gunung Lawu, Gunung Arjuno, Kepahiang
(Bengkulu), Wai Sekat (Maluku), Gunung Kapur
(Jambi), and Candi Umbul-Telomoyo.
Table
3. Number of documents explicitely

mentioned various geothermal fields in
Indonesia in the title
Geothermal Field
Documents
Kamojang
65
Darajat
36
Karaha
31
Bali
30
Wayang Windu
27
Lahendong
26
Salak
22
Dieng
17
Sibayak
15
Ulu Belu
15
Kotamobagu
Sarulla
Patuha
Lumut Balai
Hulu Lais
Total
298
GENERAL OVERVIEW

Based on the records of GRC Library total

documents discussing geothermal in indonesia are
522 documents including reports, proceedings,
university journals, and peer-reviewed papers. As
many as 469 documents from international authors
and only 43 documents from Indonesian authors.
There are 189 documents from international level
proceedings: Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir
Engineering, New Zealand Geothermal Workshop,
World Geothermal Congress and Asian Geothermal
Symposium.
Based on the same library, geothermal research
about geothermal in Indonesia already written in
1970 by Arismunandar and Radja for Bulletin of
the National Institute of Geology and Mining,
Bandung. Number of geothermal research in
Indonesia is double up in through decades.
Significant increase was in early 1990s where 145
documents in total was written, and it still keep up
until 2000s (see Graphic 1). But specifically
geothermal geochemistry first written by
Kartokusumo et.al in 1975. Among of all
documents Kamojang field is the most discussed
geothermal field in Indonesia, followed by Darajat
field.
Number of documents
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
few kilometers depth and it is sets water

(Nicholson, 1993). The problem towards
geothermal are cost and risk of exploration that has
been an issue in early stage of exploration. Most
important issues in geothermal resource is
geochemical exploration. Its used to assess the
subsurface temperatures in resevoir, tracing the
origin flow of geothermal fluids within reservoir,
dating, also to predict deposition and corrosion.
The development of geochemistry for geothermal
fluids started in early 1960s when the isotopic
signature of fluids that showed the content of
thermal waters was close to local groundwater had
been studied in early 1960s (Craig, 1963). Those
research proven that chemical constituent of
geothermal water could simply be leached from
crustal rocks (Elis and Mahon, 1964). Based on
these findings, the formations of geothermal
solutions was explained largely in terms of the
interaction of meteoric waters with crustal rocks at
elevated temperatures, with magmatic contributions
limited to the supply of heat. The solutions of
similar chemistry to seawater-influened geothermal
system has been found in Iceland (Bischoff, 1981
atau 1989?). In 1987 research about White Island
volcano for long time period showed that
geothermal discharge got convinced that magmatic
contributions to geothermal disharges may be much
more important than generally assumed
(Giggenbach, 1987). In meantime geologist
(Bohham, 1986; Hedenquist, 1987; White and
Hedenquist, 1990) found increasingly convincing
evidence of a magmatic connection to ore
deposition. In 1988 Giggenbach came up with
ternanry diagram that is one of the best way to
distinguishing different types of geothermal water
based on major ion is the use of the chloridesulphate and bicarbonate (Giggenbach, 1988).
year
Graphic 1. Number of documents about geothermal

of Indonesia from 1970 to 2014.
EARLY STUDIES
GEOTHERMAL
GEOCHEMISTRY
OF
Geothermal system based on fluid that requires

heat sources and fluid which transfers the heat
towards the surface. Since fluid geochemistry is
involved in all stages of geothermal industry
(exploration, evaluation and production), the
understanding to the chemical state is essential
(Nicholson, 1993). Each of geothermal field is
different system that distinct characteristics which
are refelcted in chemistry of geothermal fluids.
However they all have in common heat source at
NATIONAL SCALE GEOCHEMISTRY OF

GEOTHERMAL
On this paper discussion about geochemistry of
geothermal of Indonesia devided based on islands.
Because some of geothermal data are confidential,
it was difficult to discuss in detail about geothermal
geochemistry in each field, so the discussion only
used data that can be found on the journals or
papers were published.
Java, Bali and Flores Islands
The first unpublished document about geothermal
in Indonesia was written by a Dutch scientist in
Kawah Kamojang since 1896 until 1951 (Basoeki
and Radja, 1975). According to the paper, Jughuhn
was also listed as the premier observer of Kawah
Kamojang. In 1929, Stehn wrote little appreciable

change in surface activity over the period 1600 to

1929 (Stehn, 1929). After Stehn, there was no other
research until in 1971 when volcanologist team and
geothermal research specialist from New Zealand
arrived and conducted survey of Kamojang, two
exploration wells each approximately 600 m deep
have been drilled in the area (Kartokusumu et.al,
1978).
In Darajat field, exploration began in 1971 (Healy,
1971) and was followed by Hochstein in 1975 who
conducted geochemical surveys of the fumaroles,
hot springs, and streams (Hochtein, 1975). Based
on Geothermal Development in Republic Indonesia
(Finn, 1979) during 1965 until 1968, UNESCO and
France also undertook geothermal surveys on Java.
In the 1970s, still according to Finn (1979), US
Geological Survey expert (Muffler) has surveyed
the geothermal potential of the Dieng Mountains
and in the same period, the Indonesian Institute of
Power Research has estimated 250 MegaWatts
(MW) of geothermal potential in South Sulawesi.
Pertamina Geothermal document written by Ganda
et al in 1992 mentioned that all active geothermal
prospect are along the volcanic chain in the center
of Java island. On that time they estimated total
resources of 8100 MW. One of the most promosing
is Kamojang Gothermal Field. Kamojang is located
in high volcanic terrain beneath the upper slopes of
Gandapua Volcanic complex and also in along the
axis of the Sunda Volcanic Arc, which extend from
Sumatra to Flores (Mulyanto et al, 2010).
First geochemical activity was the detailed
description of the surface of Kawah Kamojang
(Stehn, 1929). The temperatures of many surface
water was 93 to 94.5oC and close to local boiling
point. Stenhn also noted that five wells in 1926
were drilled in depth ranging from 18.5 to 130 m,
according to his report temperature ranging from
120 to 140oC (Stehn, 1929). In 1975
Kartokusumoet al collected water and steam
samples of features in thermal area, rivers and
streams draining the area. They analized the major
constituents and determined the general character
of fluid, also using 18O;16O and 13C;12C. The results,
water were all acid in pH 2 to 3 and contain high
concentration of sulfate (1000 to 1500 mg.kg-1).
The 18O;16O ratios in local cold meteoric water fall
on the line expressed by the relationship D-7.6
18O + 12.8. Ratios in surface hot waters and
steam condensates fall close to the meteoric water
D values of -50 to -50 and 18O values of -7 to
-8, or on a line representing nonequilibrium
evaporation of the meteoric waters. Estimates of
steam separation temperatures from 18O;16O and
13
C;12C result give values ranging from 210 to
250oC with a trend indicating a value of between

220 to 230oC (Kartokusumo,et.al. 1975).
Later on 25 years after Kartokusumo, fluid
inclusion geothermometry result came from Utami
(1999, 2000). The fluids sample from CHR-1
(1725M) and KMH-12 (995m) were predominantly
of 2 phases, liquid and vapor, ranging from 0.2 to
0.4. The homogenisation temperatures of well
KMJ-12 mostly fall within the range of 240-245 oC.
In the other side CRH-1 was within range 245250oC. Kamojang quartz, calcite and anydrite are
commonly associated in activities, their presence in
vugs and veins mostly matches the occurrences of
partial losses of circulation. Fluids samples from
Kamojang intermediate levels have pH values near
neutral and their major constituents are sodium,
calcium, and silica, that probably resulted from
water-rock interactions in which the were mostly
removed to solution, as is indicated by mass
transfer calculation (Utami, 1999).
Tracer injection in Kamojang actually has been
done at KMJ-15 in 1883, 1992 with activity 370
GBg and in 2003 KMJ-46 was injected with
activity 550 GBg (Dwikorianto et al, 2000). Tracer
injection tests were used to determined the
interconnection between water reinjection and
production wells and that injection at KMJ-15 (see
Figure 1) the breaktrhough time of water
reinjection was about 5 to 7 years and mass
recovery of all 7 wells production is about 13.5%
and the average of temperature decline rate in
reservoir was about 0.21oC in 10 years but in in
KMJ-46 the tritium was injected in 2003 was
already detected at six wells but breakhtrough time
has not been reach yet (Dwikorianto et al, 2000).

Figure 1. The location of reincection wells at

Kamojang
Geothermal
Field
(Dwikorianto, 2005)
From the surface thermal manifestation monitoring
research, the most that most of surface discharge
fluid from feature are acid and contain high
concentrations of sulfate, but very low
concentration of chloride and the geochemistry of
thermal surfave manifestations in the Kamojang
area has been gradually changing during the steam
production period, and the gas concentration in the
surface manifestations has increased from 2006 to
2008 (Mulyanto et al, 2010).
Meanwhile, in Darajat where on the rugged eastern
flanks of MT. Kendang in a north-south treding
Quaternany volcanic range. The volcanics vary
from andesites to basalt and include poorly
differentiated lavas and breccia (Whittome and
Salveson, 1990). As mention before Darajat field,
exploration began in 1971 by Healy and was
followed by geochemical surveys of the fumaroles,
hot springs and streams by Mahon and resistivity
surveys by Hochtein. In 1977 two slim-hole wells
were located and drilled to 760 meters for
Pertamina under New Zealand aid agreement with
Indonesian Goverment (Whittome and Salveson,
1990).
Geochemical data were documented at 1920 to
1990 meters elevation in Kawah Darajat, that
comprised of numerous fumaroles, mud plots,
boiling pools with high gas flux, and hot springs
and that fumaroles vents have been measeured at
103oC and range down to 50 oC at some hot springs.
(The surface waters are acid-sulphate in nature with
pH values ranging from 1.8 to 2.7. The surface
waters are acid-sulphate in nature with pH values
ranging from 1.8 to 2.7 and gas content are similar
but to slightly higher than those found at
Kamojang. Some SO2 and HCl have been seen
which is evidende of magmatic contributions to the
steam, and sulphuric acid has been found to form
from SO2 and oxidized H2S in the geochemical
samples (Whittome and Salveson, 1990).
Geochemical model in Darajat made by Morrison
(1996) that can be partitioned into three regions ;
condenstion cell, upflow and edge field. In 2010
Chevron Geothermal and Power published research
about role of Boron cycling and superheat
monitoring that condensate migrated away from
injectors as liquid and partially boiled
concentration the boron (Dawud et al, 2010).
Through time steam boiled from the more
concentrated liquid injectate boils and increase the
boron and decreased the non-condensable gas of

the Darajat Reservoir and the effect of the
migration of partially boiled liquid injectate was
that expected superheat increases are muted and
delayed (Dawud et al, 2010).
Karaha, the another large potentially geothermal
resource in Java, was delineated by Kahara-Telaga
Bodas Company, LLC (KBC) in 1990s (Moore et
al 2000). Karaha field described as partially vapordominated system (see Figure 2) (Allis et al, 2001).
U.S Dept of Energy did research to improved
undestanding of how vapor-dominated system form
and how magmatic-geothermal fluids interact in
andesit-hosted geothermal system, in result a single
large, high temnperatur geothermal system exist
beneath the Telaga Bodas-Karaha and the system
extends at least 10 km along strike. Later on in
2001 previous scientist with Powell wrote another
document spesifically about geochemistry in
Karahas reservoir, used isotopic analyses of liquids
and gases and indicated that reservoir had relatively
low salinity of 1-2 TDS (Powell et al, 2001).
Variations in the choride/boron ratios in Karaha of
the fluids in particular played an important role in
controlling the chemistry of reservoir. Ternary
diagram of Li, Cl and B by Giggenbach (1988)
Karaha most of samples showed lie along a trend
defined by the addition of low Cl/B steam and
originating near the Cl/B trend defined by diorite,
in the other hand, gases in Karaha have nonetheless
failed to achieve equilibrium with H2S and CH4. In
conclusions Karaha field had lack of homogenity in
brine and gas chemistry in reservoir was very
poorly mixed (Powell et al, 2001).
Figure 2. North-south cross section through the

Karaha-Telaga Bodas geothermal
system modified by Allis in 2000 (Allis
et al, 2001)
The CO2/N2 vs Total Gas Diagram of Karaha in
2002 showed that the distributin in bladed-calcite
fluid-inclusion CO2/N2 is consistent with fluid
boiling, and Karaha inclusions were trapped as gas
cap was forming and that CO 2/N2 ratios suggested
that near-surface fluids were not boiling or exhibit
as in the case of sample at 780m (Norman et al,

2002). Newest Karahas geochemical in 2012 by

described the evolution of partially vapordominated Karaha system provided a unique
opportunity to characterize the evolution of an
active volcano-hosted geothermal system (Moore,
2012). Four distict hydrothermal mineral as
semblages document the evolution of the
geothermal system and the transition from liquid to
vapour-dominated
conditions,
the
earliest
assemblage represent the initial liquid-dominated
system generated during emplacement of the
gradiorite between 5910 76 and 4200 150
years BP and the toumaline, biotite, actiolite,
epidote and clay minerals were deposited
contemporaneously at progessively greater
distances from intrusive contact (Moore, 2012).
Not like the other geothermal field previously in
Wayang Windu the hot springs are generally neutral
bicabonate in chemistry with variable amounts of
sulfate (5-65%) and have temperatures ranging
from ambient to 66oC and from the chemical
analysis of brine from the firlds deep liquid
dominated reservoir and gas discharge of the wells
revealed that the system is composed of three
regions with distict chloride and NCG contents
(Abrenica et al, 2010). Based on result the mineral
assembage zones that characterize the subsurface of
northern Wayang Windu can be classified as agrilic,
propylitic or advanced agrilic type of alteration.
Based The Overview OF The Wayang Windu
Geothermal Field, West Java Wayang Windu
displays features transitional between vapourdominated and liquid-dominated and Wayang
Windu geothermal is operated by Star Energy
Geothermal (Wayang Windu) Ltd and have total
capacity 227 MW (Bogie et al, 2008).
Indonesian Diretorate General of Oil and Gas,
investigating of Awibengkok (Gunung Salak)
already started in 1982 by Uncoal Geothermal of
Indonesia, Ltd (UGI) with Indonesian National Oil
Company (Pertamina) (Takhyan et al, 1990).
Gunung Salak has NACl Brine chemistry and
13.000 ppm of TDS with temperature ranging from
221 - 321oC (Soeparjadi et al, 1998).
First well in Dieng already drilled in 1979 and had
been used as s steam producer for the 2 MW non
condencing turbine since 1981 (Bachrun et al,
1995). Chemical analysis in Dieng shown that the
major part of most of the gases consists of CO 2 and
H2S, and the rest concists of N 2 and organic gases
(Sulaiman and Suwana, 1989). Geochemical
research of Dieng in 2001 described gas
geochemistry and used isotope stable that the gas
samples were determined for H 2, He, N2, O2, Ar,
CH4, CO2 and H2S content by chromatographic

method and isotop samples were analized for 18O
and 2H ratio from H2O and 13C ratio from two
periods of sampling shows varied values that
indicate the dynamics of reservoirs fluid (Prasetio
et al, 2010). Interpretated result that N 2, Ar and also
isotopic ratio of 18O and 2H clearly indicate that the
fluid was meteoric origin and has been experienced
intense water-rock interaction in high temperature,
although there is possibility of magmatic
contribution and from the geothermometer the
lowest temperature is 240oC in HCE-7B and the
higest 333oC in HCE-28A ((Sulaiman and Suwana,
1989).
Bratan geothermal in Bali has been already
investigated in detail and the potential was about
215 MW (Ganda et al, 1992). Bratan is vapourdominated system occurs beneath the Bratan
caldera in Central Bali and the first samples were
analysed in 1971 and 1972, and the resisivity
survey was in 1973 until 1975 by Indonesian
goverment and New Zealand undertaken by
GENZL with Pertamina and GSI as counterparts
(Mulyadi and Hochtein, 1981). Geochemistry of
the most springs in Bratan samples that contained
acid water, consist of Na-Mg bicarbonate-sulfate
waters with attain successively higher concntration
of NaCl and although the temperaturs of all springs
were rather low (38 to 52oC) the higher
temperatures of the unmixed deeper fluids are
indicated by the high SiO2 values and the low Na/K
ratios (Mulyadi and Hochtein, 1981).
Flores island was investigated in 1989 and 200
MW all suggested as the possible potential (Ganda
et al, 1992). Geothermometry report indicate that
reservoir temperatures ranging from 200 250 oC
and the elevations of the boiling springs on the
shores of Wai Sano suggest the presence of a
significant geothermal reservoir at depth and
presently that Namparmacing thermal activity
might be linked to the Wai Sano system (Johnstone,
2005).
Table 4. Summary of online search bibliography
Geochemistry of Geothermal in Java,
Bali and Flores
Year
Keywords
1975
Authors
Basoeki and
Radja
1929
Stehn
"Geothermal" (AND) "Kamojang"
1971
Healy
1975
Hochtein
Kartokusumo
et.al
Kartokusumu
et.al
1975
1978


1979
1990
Finn
Mulyadi and
Hochtein
Sulaiman and
Suwana
Whittome and
Salveson
1992
Ganda et al
"Geothermal" (AND) "Indonesia"
1996
Morrison
1998
Soeparjadi et al
"Geothermal" (AND) "Darajat"

"Geothermal" (AND) "Gunung
Salak"
2000
2000
Utami
Dwikorianto et
al
2001
Allis et al
"Geothermal" (AND) "Karaha"
2001
Powell et al
2002
Norman et al
Geothermal (AND) "Darajat"
2005
Johnstone
"Geothermal" (AND) "Flores"

"Geothermal" (AND) "Wayang
Windu"
1981
1989
2008
Bogie et al
"Geothermal" (AND) "Bali"

"Geothermal" (AND) "Dieng"
2010
Mulyanto et al
2010
Dawud et al
2010
Abrenica et al
Geothermal (AND) "Darajat"

"Geothermal" (AND) "Wayang
Windu"
2012
Moore
centred in a terrain dominated by several large

andesitic volcanoes which have been over the last 4
millions years. They already did geothermometer
research that indicate maximum reservoir
temperatures high as 260oC with zone upflow could
exist beneath Ulu Belu area at the north and lateral
of thermal water to the south. In result that the
chemical constiturnt of 13 hot springs and 2 gas
samples can be classified as sulfate waters and
chloride waters and the sulphate content is highly
variable due to derived from oxidation hydrogen
sulfide in the vadose zone (Sunaryo et al, 1993).
The chloride cocentration of around 600-875 ppm
and Cl/B ratios of 35-50, the low Cl/B ratios are
caused by relatively high B contents which is
indicated a possibility of interaction between
reservoir water and sedimentary rock, the relatively
high ratios of Cl/SO4 with little magnesium
concentrations, suggesting these waters coming
from deep reservoir and uniquely the soil mercury
surveys of the Ulu Belu area and the result the soil
mercury content greater than 260 ppb and
occasionally coincide with thermal features
(Sunaryo et al, 1993).
Sumatra Island
The oldest documents about Sumatra geothermal
was from Akil (1975) in the Proceedings of The
Second US Symposium on the Development and
Use of Geothermal Resources. Described Lampong
(Lampung) was estimated 200 MW potential. The
other old document written by Ganda et al (1992)
noted that the geothermal prospect in Sumatra were
situated along the great Sumatra graben
neighboring the Bukit Barisan ridge with total
estimated resource potential was 4885 MW and the
first being drilled was Sibayak (Akil, 1975). The
Volvcanological Survey of Indonesia (VSI) drilles
2 slim holes in 1981 ans started exploration well in
1999 in Lempur (Central Sumatra) (Fauzi et al,
2000).
Sibayak geothermal field first stage development
was in 1994, and expected to be commercial by
early 1998, the fluid chemistry of Sibayak were
brine that incated by silicic acid with 500 ppm of
concentration (Sulaiman and Pudyastuti, 1997).
The ratio of monomeric silica of the amorphous
silica solubility in Sibayak can be calculated from
Fournier and Rowe (1997) equation (Fauzy et al,
2000).
Ulu Belu geothermal field the oldest document
were from Pertamina in 1993 (see Figure 3)
(Sunaryo et al, 1993). It mentioned that Ulu Bleu is
Figure 3. Compilation map of Ulu Belu prospect

South Sumatra, Indonesia (Sunaryo et
al, 1993)
The hydrothermal minerals distributions and
alteration zones from Pertamina Geothermal
Division research described about the cooling
indications and the result that there has been

cooling in the Ulu Belu geothermal system at depth

down to 1000 m or -300 m depth with respect sea
level and the cooling largely ceases as the
measured temperature of 220oC is compatible with
presence of the youngest hydrothermal minerals in
reservoir (Kamah et al, 2000). Another detail about
subsurface alterations of subsurface at Ulu Belu
concluded that the hydrothermal zonations consists
of four hydrothermal mineral zones, the mectite
zone is present at shallow levels (from near the
surface 650 m as,l., and the mixed layer clay zone
occurs at 500 to 650 m (a.s.l), and also the choriteepidote zone occurs at deeper than 100 m (m.s.l)
(Suharno and Browne, 2000). The inclusions were
probably trapped under boiling conditoins and the
higher than measured temperatures, this suggests
that cooling has occured although the measure well
temperatures may be too low, as the wells were not
thermally stable when the measurements were
made (Suharno and Browne, 2000).
In Sarulla chemistry features documented in 1995
on Geology and Thermal Features of the Sarulla
Contract Area (Gunderson et al, 1995). Most of
the Sarulla springs are dulute, low to moderate flow
bicarbonate springs with low Cl and High Mg
contents and represent steam-heated groundwaters,
and the low TDS and high Mg of the water
indicated that it has re-equilibrated and/or mixed at
low temperature, the substantial Cl content suggest
that there is significant component of reservoir
brine and the geothermometers, in results said that
the Na-K temperatures only 170oC (Gunderson et
al, 1995).
The Hulu Lais fluids chemistry analyses on
hotspring water shows a dilutions od shallow
meteoric groundwater and indicated that some may
originate from a single hot water reservoir, however
hot spring waters located in the Southern parts
contain higher Cl/HCO3 than hosed located in the
North indicating less shallow groundwater
contaminations (Budiarjo et al, 2001). The higher
HCO3/SO4 ratios in the Northen hot springs
designates the fluids flow from the south to north,
and the mercury anomaly forms a lineation
trending Northwest-Southeast that coincides with
the main fault pattern in the area and
geothermometry result were obtain ranges values of
240 300oC (Budiarjo et al, 2001).
Kepahiang integrated investigation area located
within the Regency Kepahiang and Rejang Lebong,
Bengkulu Province (Kusnadi et al, 2011).
Geothermal manifestations Kepahiang and
surrounding area consists of: Fumaroles / solfatara,
craters, accompanied by sublimation sulfur quite
thick at the top of G. Kaba (temperature of 96360C, the air temperature 23,1oC) (Kusnadi et al,
2011). Fumaroles Sempiang in Bukit Itam
accompanied airpanas (94,1oC temperature in air
temperature 30,1oC). Below the estimated surface
temperature associated with geothermal reservoirs
of gas geotermometer 250oC, considered as high
enthalpy (Kusnadi et al, 2011). Kaba and Sempiang
crater-type sulfuric acid, while the hot water 1
Babakan Bogor, Bogor Babakan 2, Sindang Teak,
Suban, Paste Rejo, and Bayung hot water,
bicarbonate type (Kusnadi et al, 2011). In the
triangular diagram of Na-K-Mg, all the hot springs
in the zone is immature water, in addition to the
interaction of the fluid with rocks in hot conditions,
also mixed with surface water (meteoric water), in
the triangular diagram Cl, Li, the position of all the
hot springs tend toward Cl-B, while the hot water
first and Babakan Bogor Bogor 2 Babakan hot
water there is a trend towards the middle zone of
the diagram there are indications of hot water
interacts with volcanic system before reaching the
surface (Kusnadi et al, 2011).
Geochemistry of Geothermal in Sumatra.
Year
Authors
Keywords
1975
Akil (1975)
"Geothermal" (AND) "Lampung"
1992
Ganda et al
1993
"Geothermal" (AND) "Ulubelu"
1997
Sunaryo et al
Gunderson et
al, 1995).
Sulaiman and
Pudyastuti
2000
Fauzi et al
2000
Kamah et al
Suharno and
Browne, 2000
Budiarjo et al,
2001).
1995
2000
2001
"Geothermal" (AND) "Sarulla"

"Geothermal" (AND) "Sibayak"

"Geothermal" (AND) "Hululais"
Sulawesi Island
Early exploratory investigations have been carried
out in North Sulawesi and South Sulawesi were
documented with 1500 MW prospect (Ganda,
1992). Lahendong is located 40 km south of
Manado in North Sulawesi and has been under
development by Pertamina since 1984 and between
193 and 1997 Uncoal North Sumatra Geothermal
Ltd (UNSG) drilled 13 wells in three different
prospects and discovered high temperature

geothermal system in each area (Fauzi et al, 2000).

The alteration of Lahendong in the subsurface
rocks at Lahendong, that formed by direct
deposition from circulating fluids and the
hydrothermal minerals encountered in the studied
wells include clays, calc-silicates, carbonates,
sulphate, sulfide, oxides and silica (Utami et al,
2004). From early chemical analysis report in
Lahendong, fumaroles and mud-pools shows that
chloride and silica concentrations, sodium
pottasium ratio, Cl/Br ratio of the surface hot
waters originated from a deep hot-water source
(Basoeki and Radja, 1978 and 1979). The mass
transfering during hydrothermal alterations
demostrated interaction processes of fluid and rock
helped with the SOMA adn FORTRAN programs
(Utami et al, 2006).
In Kotamobagu geochemical study of hot spring
water in 2011 documented the 9 water samples
from thermal spring, river, and shallow well at
northen side of Mt. Muayat. In result the
conductivities in range from 160 to 320 S/cm
with pH relatively natural about 6-8.
Figure 5. Ternary plot for Cl, SO4 and HCO3 hot

spring water Kotamobagu (Riogilang,
2011)
The geothermometer result in Mt. Muayat the
minimal temperature ranging from 130-250oC and
the maksimum temperature is 260oC The ternary
diagram showed that all samples belong to a region
of ar immature waters (Riogilang et al, 2011).
Stable isotope method result shown that the
meteoric water has recharged to the ground of Mt.
Muayat flowes through the shallow aquifer at low
temperature to the west or southwest, and the
source of hot spring recharge in Kotamobagu was
located from 890 m to 1227 m above the sea level
of Mt. Muayat (Riogilang et al, 2012).

Geochemistry
of
Geothermal
in
Sulawesi.
Year
1992
Figure
4. Location map of Kotamobagu

geothermal field (Riogilang, 2011).
The plotted samples at near of the corner of SO4 on

the SO4-Cl axis is Cl-SO4 type, and this discharge
may be directly delivered from a lateral flow of
deep Cl-SO4 water (see Figure 4) (Riogilang et al,
2011).
2000
2004
2006
2011
Authors
(Ganda,
1992).
Fauzi et al,
2000).
(Utami et al,
2004).
(Utami et al,
2006).
(Riogilang et
al, 2011).
Keywords
"Geothermal" (AND)
"Indonesia"
"Geothermal" (AND)
"Indonesia"
"Geothermal" (AND)
"Lahendong"
"Geothermal" (AND)
"Lahendong"
"Geothermal" (AND)
"Kotamobagu"
CONCLUSIONS
Geochemical methods is very important to
geothermal explorations, at all stages in geothermal
industry. However due to the confidentiality
reasons, there are not many open geochemical data
found. One of the impact will be very low number

of geothermal publication, focussing in the

geochemical analysis in various fields in Indonesia.
In our perspective, all published data are still
involving somewhat conventional geochemical
analyses. Such analyses are meant to assess the
economical value of the field. However, our search
result shows many potential gap in geochemical
research in Indonesia. One of the potential topic is
the use of trace elements (such as Hg, Li and B),
stable isotope (such as 3H, 3H, 18O).
Boron cycle in geothermal area is one of the
interesting topic in many geothermal system in
Indonesia. Published work on such analysis, and
also on lithium and mercury, is only found in
Darajat field.
Another interesting topic, but yet still un-observed
is rare earth elements (REE). There are some
unpublished researches assessing REE in a very
small scale field.
Our last view find that all published works are lack
of multivariable statistical analysis, such as cluster
and principal component analysis. The analysis is
important to pin point the dominant element in a
particular geothermal system. Such element could
be the main distinct signature of the field. Another
analysis like decision tree that maximize the use of
multiple regression technique could also be one
promising technique to evaluate geochemical data,
and to predict the composition over time.
Hopefully this paper could give the reader
additional preliminary view about the past, present,
and future of geochemical analysis in geothermal
fields in Indonesia.
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PROCEEDINGS, 4th ITB Geothermal Workshop 2015

Institut Teknologi Bandung, Bandung, Indonesia, March 16-20, 2015

PROCEEDINGS, 3rd ITB Geothermal Workshop 2015

MWe (megawatts-electrical) with an installed

PROCEEDINGS, 4th ITB Geothermal Workshop 2015

peer-reviewed articles, 24 conference papers,

Total documents, 2Peer-reviewed papers, 3Conference

Second search trial using search terms allintitle:

8440 documents (GoogleScholar),

There are no facility in GoogleScholar database to

Total documents, 2Peer-reviewed papers, 3Conference

Low numbers of Indonesian authors were detected

discussion on each field. The third focussed only on

3. Number of documents explicitely

PROCEEDINGS, 4th ITB Geothermal Workshop 2015

Based on the records of GRC Library total

few kilometers depth and it is sets water

Graphic 1. Number of documents about geothermal

Geothermal system based on fluid that requires

NATIONAL SCALE GEOCHEMISTRY OF

PROCEEDINGS, 4th ITB Geothermal Workshop 2015

change in surface activity over the period 1600 to

250oC with a trend indicating a value of between

PROCEEDINGS, 4th ITB Geothermal Workshop 2015

Figure 1. The location of reincection wells at

boron and decreased the non-condensable gas of

Figure 2. North-south cross section through the

PROCEEDINGS, 4th ITB Geothermal Workshop 2015

2002). Newest Karahas geochemical in 2012 by

CH4, CO2 and H2S content by chromatographic

"Geothermal" (AND) "Kamojang"

"Geothermal" (AND) "Kamojang"

"Geothermal" (AND) "Kamojang"

"Geothermal" (AND) "Kamojang"

"Geothermal" (AND) "Kamojang"

PROCEEDINGS, 4th ITB Geothermal Workshop 2015

"Geothermal" (AND) "Kamojang"

"Geothermal" (AND) "Indonesia"

"Geothermal" (AND) "Darajat"

"Geothermal" (AND) "Kamojang"

"Geothermal" (AND) "Karaha"

"Geothermal" (AND) "Karaha"

Geothermal (AND) "Darajat"

"Geothermal" (AND) "Flores"

"Geothermal" (AND) "Bali"

"Geothermal" (AND) "Kamojang"

"Geothermal" (AND) "Kamojang"

Geothermal (AND) "Darajat"

"Geothermal" (AND) "Karaha"

centred in a terrain dominated by several large

Figure 3. Compilation map of Ulu Belu prospect

PROCEEDINGS, 4th ITB Geothermal Workshop 2015

cooling in the Ulu Belu geothermal system at depth

"Geothermal" (AND) "Lampung"

"Geothermal" (AND) "Indonesia"

"Geothermal" (AND) "Ulubelu"

"Geothermal" (AND) "Indonesia"

"Geothermal" (AND) "Ulubelu"

"Geothermal" (AND) "Sarulla"

"Geothermal" (AND) "Ulubelu"

PROCEEDINGS, 4th ITB Geothermal Workshop 2015

geothermal system in each area (Fauzi et al, 2000).

Figure 5. Ternary plot for Cl, SO4 and HCO3 hot