ABSTRACT

Climate change is a serious and long-term challenge that has the potential to affect each and
every one of us .It is one of the biggest issues facing the world today-a global threat no nation
or person can resolve alone. Human beings effect the climate from the beginning of their
lives upto end. All the bathing, scrubbing .preening, drinking, dancing etc .during the course
of our life have effects on the climate. Our contribution towards the carbon footprint starts
getting really big when we are at point of constructing houses and other construction
processes.
In this report we have discussed the various factors contributing towards the emissions of
green house gases, hazardous wastes produced ,impact of construction on the climate, impact
of different construction materials(cement, fine aggregate ,timber ,coarse aggregate and
concrete etc.) .A good amount of data showing these adverse effects have been presented
available from different search reports and internet.
Alternative construction materials and new environment friendly techniques (nontoxic paints,
passive design, photovoltaics, etc) have been discussed in details.
As it is a well known fact that we brought nothing into this world and we can take nothing
out of it. But we are leaving behind mounds of garbage. But the real legacy we leave behind
is our impact on the planet in terms of the resources we consume .This is our human footprint
and we need to take care of it if we want to make the earth a good place for the coming
generations

CONTENTS

PAGE

1. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

2. ABSTRACT

Chapter-1
WHAT IS CARBON FOOTPRINT

1.1

INTRODUCTION

1.2

TYPES OF CARBON FOOTPRINT

11

1.3

BREAKDOWN OF TYPICAL

12

PERSONS CARBON FOOTPRINT

1.4

COMPARISON OF CO2 EMISSIONS

13

FROM VOLCANOES VS. HUMAN

ACTIVITIES

2 | Page

Chapter-2
WHY CARBON FOOTPRINT

2.1

GLOBAL DIMMING

14

2.2

OZONE DEPLETION

15

2.3

GLOBAL WARMING

16

2.4

NEEDS OF CARBON FOOTPRINT

17

Chapter-3
CALCULATION OF CARBON FOOTPRINT

3.1

C02 CALCULATOR

18

3.2

OTHER METHODS

19

Chapter-4
GREENHOUSE EFFECT

4.1

INTRODUCTION

4.2 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

22
24

3 | Page

Chapter-5
GLOBAL WARMING

5.1

INTRODUCTION

31

5.2

CAUSES OF GLOBAL

42

WARMING
5.3

EFFECT OF GREENHOUSE

42

GASES ON ATMOSPHERE
5.4

EVIDENCES FOR GLOBAL

44

WARMING AND CLIMATIC

CHANGE

Chapter-6
IMPACT OF CONSTRUCTION ON CLIMATE

6.1

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

51

6.2

FIELD OF CONSTRUCTION LIKE

53

HIGHWAYS, MULTI-STOREY
BUILDINGS, DAMS

4 | Page

Chapter-7
HAZARDOUS WASTES

7.1 TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION

56

WASTES
7.2

EFFECT OF WASTES ON

61

CLIMATE

Chapter-8
LIFE CYCLE OF A BUILDING

8.1 ADVERSE EFFECTS OF A

63

BUILDING ON CLIMATE
8.2

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN

67

ONSITE AND OFFSITE

CONSTRUCTIONS

5 | Page

Chapter-9
CONTROL OF GREENHOUSE GAS
EMISSIONS

9.1 ALTERNATIVE CONSTRUCTION

73

MATERIALS
9.2 TECHNIQUE OF CARBON

75

OFFSETTING
9.3

CONCEPT OF GREEN BUILDING

77

9.4

ECO-FRIENDLY CONSTRUCTION

107

TECHNIQUES
9.5

CONCEPT OF RECYCLING THE

111

WASTES

Chapter-10
CONSTRUCTION WASTE MANAGEMENT

10.1 WHY CONSTRUCTION WASTE

116

MANAGEMENT
10.2

MANAGING RESIDENTIAL

124

CONSTRUCTION WASTE
10.3

DONATION TO ORGANIZATIONS

127
6 | Page

Chapter-11
NEED OF AN HOUR-SAVING THE PLANET

11.1 TIPS TO REDUCE PRIMARY

129

AND SECONDARY FOOTPRINT

11.2

CARBON OFFSET PROJECTS

130

11.3

RESPONSIBILITY OF MANKIND

131

7 | Page

CHAPTER-1 WHAT IS CARBON FOOTPINT

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The term carbon footprint has become tremendously popular over the last few years. With
climate change high up on the political and corporate agenda, carbon footprint calculations
are in strong demand.Numerous approaches have been proposed to provide estimates,
ranging from basics online calculations to sophisticated life cycle analysis or input output
based methods.
This report suggests a scientific definition based on commonly accepted principles, Need of
carbon footprint, global warming, greenhouse gases emission etc.
But what exactly a carbon footprint. While the term is itself rooted in the language of
Ecological Footprinting

(Wackernagel 1996) the common baseline is that the carbon

footprint stands for a certain amount of gaseous emissions that are relevant to climate change
and are associated with human production or consumption activities.

Definitions of 'carbon footprint' from the grey literature.

"The carbon footprint is the amount of carbon dioxide emitted due to your daily activities
from washing a load of laundry to driving a carload of kids to school."(BP 2007)
The carbon footprint was calculated by "measuring the CO2 equivalent emissions from its
premises, company-owned vehicles, business travel and waste to landfill." (Patel2006, British
Sky Broadcasting)
8 | Page

" A methodology to estimate the total emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) in carbon
equivalents from a product across its life cycle from the production of raw material used in its
manufacture, to disposal of the finished product (excluding in-use emissions).(Carbon Trust
2007)
" A technique for identifying and measuring the individual greenhouse gas emissions from
each activity within a supply chain process step and the framework for attributing these to
each output product (we [The Carbon Trust] will refer to this as the products carbon
footprint)." (Carbon Trust 2007, p.4)
" The full extent of direct and indirect CO2 emissions caused by your business
activities."(Energitics 2007)
"The Carbon Footprint is a measure of the impact human activities have on the
environment in terms of the amount of greenhouse gases produced, measured in tonnes of
carbon dioxide."(ETAP 2007)
"The demand on biocapacity required to sequester (through photosynthesis) the carbon
dioxide (CO2) emissions from fossil fuel combustion." (Global Footprint Network2007)
"A carbon footprint is a measure of the amount of carbon dioxide emitted through the
combustion of fossil fuels. In the case of a business organization, it is the amount ofCO2
emitted either directly or indirectly as a result of its everyday operations. It also might reflect
the fossil energy represented in a product or commodity reaching market."(Grub &Ellis2007)
"A carbon footprint is the total amount of CO2 and other greenhouse gases, emitted over the
full life cycle of a process or product. It is expressed as grams of CO2equivalent per kilowatt
hour of generation (gCO2eq/kWh), which accounts for the different global warming effects
of other greenhouse gases."(Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology 2006.)
Based on the above definitions we can reach to a common definition, which is most suitable
to all cases:

9 | Page

"The carbon footprint is a measure of the exclusive total amount of carbon dioxide emissions
that is directly and indirectly caused by an activity or is accumulated over the life
stages of a product."
This includes activities of individuals, populations, governments, companies, organisations,
processes, industry sectors etc. Products include goods and services. In any case, all direct
(on-site, internal) and indirect emissions (off-site, external, embodied, upstream,
downstream) need to be taken into account.
'The total amount' of CO2 is physically measured inmass units (kg, t, etc) and thus no
conversion to an area unit (ha, m2, km2, etc) takes place.

1.2 TYPES OF CARBON FOOTPRINT

A carbon footprint is made up of the sum of two parts, the direct/primary footprint and the
indirect /secondary footprint.
1. The primary footprint is a measure of our direct emissions of co2 from the burning
of fossil fuels including domestic energy consumption and transportation(e.g. car and
plane)
2. The secondary footprint is a measure of the indirect CO 2 emissions from the whole
lifecycle of products we use those associated with their manufacture and eventual
breakdown.
Primary footprint can be analyzed by the following examples:1.
2.
3.
4.

Holidays Going by air

Electricity- Using nonrenewable energy
Gas- using gas geyser
Travelling around- Using personal conveyance

Secondary footprint can be analyzed by the following examples:1. Bottled water- Tap water is safe to drink in most Asian and North American and
European countries, yet people still insist on buying bottled water. If the bottle is
labeled as being from volcanic springs you can bet that it has probably been
10 | P a g e

imported from some distance. Imagine the carbon footprint of the flight/shipping of
the water! And thats before adding in the emissions due to making of the bottle and
/or recycling it.
2. Food and Drink from far distances When you go the supermarket. Look at the
label to identify which country the food is from. There is no need to buy New Zealand
Apples from India but people do!
3. Meat eating Consumption of meat, especially red meat.
4. Clothes from far off lands- People buy the clothes that come from more than 1000
miles away.
5. High packaged items Goods and products that have unnecessary packaging
increase the footprint.

1.3 BREAKDOWN OF TYPICAL PERSONS CARBON

FOOTPRINT
Population has nearly doubled since 1970, a growth rate nearly twice the national average.
Human activities strain the natural environment in many ways, including direct human
interventions in the landscape through such activities as dam building, timber harvest (which
has also widely replaced diverse natural forests by single-species plantations), and land-use
conversion from the original forests, wetlands, grasslands and sagebrush to expansion of
metropolitan areas, intensively managed forests, agriculture and grazing. The consequences
include loss of old-growth forests, wetlands, and native grass and steppe communities; urban
air pollution; extreme reduction of many salmon runs; and increasing numbers of threatened
and endangered species.

11 | P a g e

Fig.1.1 THE PIE CHART ABOVE SHOWS THE MAIN ELEMENTS WHICH MAKE UP
THE TOTAL OF AN AVERAGE PERSONS CARBON FOOTPRINT.

1.4

COMPARISON

VOLCANOES

OF

VS.

CO2

EMISSIONS

HUMAN

FROM

ACTIVITIES

Scientists have calculated that volcanoes emit between about 130-230 million tonnes (145255 million tons) of CO2 into the atmosphere every year (Gerlach, 1999, 1992). This
estimate includes both sub aerial and submarine volcanoes, about in equal amounts.
Emissions of CO2 by human activities, including fossil fuel burning, cement production, and
gas flaring, amount to about 22 billion tonnes per year (24 billion tons) (Marland, et al.,
1998).
Human activities release more than 150 times the amount of CO2 emitted by volcanoes--the
equivalent of nearly 17,000 additional volcanoes like Kilauea (Kilauea emits about 13.2
million tonnes/year).

CHAPTER-2 WHY CARBON FOOTPRINT

2.1 GLOBAL DIMMING

12 | P a g e

Fig.2.1

It's now established that when particulate material (e.g. soot and carbon products), generated
from vehicle exhausts, aircraft and industry, enters the atmosphere, then less light reaches the
ground - this is known as 'Global Dimming'.
Since the 1950s sunlight reaching the Earth has significantly reduced. In Israel, where the
first measurements were taken, sunlight intensity has reduced by some 22% and in the UK it
has reduced by about 10%.
Why is this important? Global dimming causes a drop in temperature around the world that
can upset established climates - altering season length and characteristics, and change the
Earth's monsoon patterns. Scientists believe that global dimming was a key cause of the
Ethiopian droughts back in the 1980s.
Does Global Dimming counteract Global warming? Global Dimming can, and actually has,
slowed the effects of Global Warming. However, the Earth's population is now doing
something about the amount of carbon particulates being released in to the atmosphere, by
fitting catalytic converters to cars and reducing emissions from power stations etc. Many
scientists now believe that the rate of global warming has been significantly underestimated
because of global dimming, and global warming will accelerate giving us even less time than
originally thought to take action.

2.2 OZONE DEPLETION

13 | P a g e

Most people are well aware that the World's Ozone layer is being depleted. Until
recent times, aerosol products have contained CFC propellant chemicals, now
proven to destroy ozone in the upper atmosphere. Most countries have introduced
regulations to ban / minimise use of CFCs.

Why does this matter?

Holes in the Ozone layer expose us to harmful UV light, linked strongly with skin
cancer, cataracts and impaired immune systems. It is also thought to reduce crop yields
and have deleterious effects on ocean and amphibious populations worldwide.

Common misconceptions about ozone depletion include: Holes in the ozone layer let more sun rays reach the ground,
causing global warming
Increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere causes ozone
depletion.
The sun burns holes in the ozone layer.

Even though the hole in the ozone layer doesn't contribute to global warming. We should
still be concerned about the affects of increased UV light.

What a COMMON MAN can DO?

Some CFC products are still in use - most commonly in air conditioning units.
Your car and maybe also your home have air conditioning units that feature
ozone depleting refrigerant chemicals; if these are released into the atmosphere,
they will cause harm. Make sure that you choose a reputable services company,
who will safely recover the refrigerant chemicals when you have your equipment
serviced... then you will avoid risk to the environment.
Maximizing the use of solar energy.
Preventing the de-forestation.

2.3 GLOBAL WARMING

14 | P a g e

An increase in global average surface temperature resulting from an increase in the amount of
carbon dioxide, methane, and certain other trace gases in the atmosphere. These gases are
known collectively as greenhouse gases because they contribute to a warming of the Earth's
surface and lower atmosphere, a phenomenon called the greenhouse effect. In part because
the emission of carbon dioxide is related to the essential use of carbon-based energy sources,
the issue of global warming incorporates a broad scientific and political debate about its
significance and consequences.

Fig.2.2 Factories that burn fossil fuels help to cause global warming

2.4 NEED OF CARBON FOOTPRINT.

Do you know what your carbon footprint is? or do you even know what the concept of
carbon footprint is?
It addresses environmental issues ranging from energy efficiency and water conservation
through to environmentally preferable materials and waste avoidance during construction
15 | P a g e

.The construction of buildings accounts for almost 10% of the worlds production of
greenhouse gases. Houses built using green principles and technologies can be much more
energy efficient than conventional houses, and save money from the moment building starts
all the way to the end of a buildings life construction.
So it is very Important for everyone of us to know the carbon footprint related to our daily
activities.
These analyses can then help us to:

Compare the impacts of different product or project options

Identify improvement actions

Demonstrate continual improvement

Raise employee awareness

Environmental reviews and appraisals

Project environmental management plans

Site waste management plans

Training programmes including tool box talks

Environmental monitoring and auditing

Project Environmental Co-ordinator

Environmental management systems (ISO ISO14001/BS8555)

Sustainability action plans

Sustainable design guidance and advice

Sustainability appraisals

CHAPTER-3 CALCULATION OF
CARBON FOOTPRINT
16 | P a g e

The real question for us is: how big is the footprint each makes? This is practically possible
to measure with, some precision. We can calculate carbon footprints for virtually anything,
including:

Geographical regions

Corporate activity

Particular products/services

Construction projects

The CO2 Calculator

The CO2 calculator can be used to calculate CO2 emissions from everyday electrical
appliances and automobiles based on energy consumption figures. By marking the
appliances we use and filling out the required information, we can get a quick idea of

how we can impact on the environment through our lifestyle.

The final calculation is based on the number of households, and points out how
people impact on the environment as a collective force. Try adding and subtracting the
various items to see what products tend to have larger impacts.
For example:

CO2 emission from burning one liter of gasoline is calculated to be 0.64kgC/L,

according to figures from the Environment Agency of Japan.

Flight calculator:

17 | P a g e

These are used to find carbon dioxide emission per person while
travelling (by air) from one place to another place.

Flight calculator

From

To
Type

Return

One way

For
Total CO2 = 0 tonnes

3.2 OTHER METHODS

Products produced from different materials are often compared on the basis of the material
mass.
EXAMPLE 1: Comparison on mass basis, disregarding the functional unit:
For a one-way glass bottle, the Carbon Footprint has been calculated as 0,94 kg CO2e per kg.
For the aluminum can, considering 50 % recycling rate, the Carbon Footprint has been
calculated as 8,96 kg CO2 per kg. It seems that the Carbon Footprint of the glass bottle is
lower than the Carbon Footprint of the aluminum can. But the glass bottle is 25 times heavier
than the aluminum can of the same volume. Consideration of the functional unit, as required
by ISO 14044 standard, means that the Carbon Footprint of 1 kg aluminum cans has to be
compared with the Carbon Footprint of 25 kg of glass bottles. Then the 8,96 kg CO2e for the
aluminum cans must be compared with 23,5 kg CO2e for the glass bottle.
18 | P a g e

CARBON TRUST METHODOLOGY

Carbon trust has developed a methodology to calculate the green house gases
emission, which is described in short here.
Methodology overview:
This comprises five key steps to calculate green house gas emission from the supply chain.
Step 1: analyse internal product data.
Step2: build supply chain map.
Step3: define boundary condition and indentify data requirements.
Step4: collect primary and secondary data.
Step5: calculate carbon emission by supply chain process steps.

All GHG emissions are measured by mass and converted into CO2 equivalent using 100
years global warming potential (GWP) coefficient .eg.methane has a GWP 23,because 1kg of
Methane has GWP of 23kg of CO2.

Carbon Footprinting Software for Construction

Construction Footprinter is a carbon footprint analysis tool, far more sophisticated than a
simple carbon calculator. It has been developed specifically to address the issue facing the
construction industry and is an ideal way for developers and contractors to measure their
carbon footprint and assess alternative ways of reducing it.

Developed for the Construction Industry

Can be tailored to each project and/or applied to a whole estate of property

Web-based and easy-to-use

Models What if scenarios and compares datasets

Real-time generation of reports and charts

Allows multiple users across organisations and supply chains

19 | P a g e

Construction Footprinter is powered by software developed by Best Foot Forward and is

based on data from their experience of analysing carbon footprints over 10 years and is
compliant with all existing and emerging standards including the WRI (World Resources
Institute) and WBCSD (World Business Council for Sustainable Development) Green
House Gas protocol.
It allows you to include the embodied carbon of materials including the energy used in
the processing and extraction of the material. It can also take into account the materials
transport element of your project.

CHAPTER-4

GREENHOUSE EFFECT

20 | P a g e

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Greenhouse Effect is a warming of the Earth's surface and troposphere (the lowest layer of
the atmosphere), caused by the presence of water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, and
certain other gases in the air. Of these gases, known as greenhouse gases, water vapour has
the largest effect.
The atmosphere allows most of the visible light from the Sun to pass through and
reach the Earth's surface. As the Earth's surface is heated by sunlight, it radiates part of this
energy back toward space as infrared radiation. This radiation, unlike visible light, tends to be
absorbed by the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, raising its temperature. The heated
atmosphere in turn radiates infrared radiation back toward the Earth's surface. (Despite its
name, the greenhouse effect is different from the warming in a greenhouse, where panes of
glass transmit visible sunlight but hold heat inside the building by trapping warmed air.)

Fig.4.1 The greenhouse effect on Earth

The major greenhouse gases are water vapour, which causes about 3670% of the greenhouse
effect on Earth (not including clouds); carbon dioxide, which causes 926%; methane, which
causes 49%, and ozone, which causes 37%. It is not possible to state that a certain gas
causes a certain percentage of the greenhouse effect, because the influences of the various
21 | P a g e

gases are not additive. (The higher ends of the ranges quoted are for the gas alone; the lower
ends, for the gas counting overlaps.)[3][4] Other greenhouse gases include, but are not limited
to,

nitrous

oxide,

sulfur

hexafluoride,

hydrofluorocarbons,

perfluorocarbons

and

chlorofluorocarbons (see IPCC list of greenhouse gases).

The major atmospheric constituents (nitrogen, N 2 and oxygen, O2) are not greenhouse
gases. This is because homonuclear diatomic molecules such as N2 and O2 neither absorb nor
emit infrared radiation, as there is no net change in the dipole moment of these molecules
when they vibrate. Molecular vibrations occur at energies that are of the same magnitude as
the energy of the photons on infrared light. Heteronuclear diatomics such as CO or HCl
absorb IR; however, these molecules are short-lived in the atmosphere owing to their
reactivity and solubility. As a consequence they do not contribute significantly to the
greenhouse effect.
Late 19th century scientists experimentally discovered that N2 and O2 did not absorb
infrared radiation (called, at that time, "dark radiation") and that CO2 and many other gases
did absorb such radiation. It was recognized in the early 20th century that the known major
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere caused the earth's temperature to be higher than it would
have been without the greenhouse gases.
Without the heating caused by the greenhouse effect, the Earth's
average surface temperature would be only about 18 C (0 F). On Venus the very high
concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere causes an extreme greenhouse effect
resulting in surface temperatures as high as 450 C (840 F).
Although the greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring phenomenon, it is possible that the
effect could be intensified by the emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere as the
result of human activity. From the beginning of the Industrial Revolution through the end of
the 20th century, the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increased 30 percent and
the amount of methane more than doubled. A number of scientists have predicted that humanrelated increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases could lead to an
increase in the global average temperature of 1.4 to 5.8 C (2.5 to 10.4 F) by the end of the
21st century. This global warming could alter the Earth's climates and thereby produce new
patterns and extremes of drought and rainfall and possibly disrupt food production in certain

22 | P a g e

regions. Other scientists involved in climatic research maintain that such predictions are
overstated, however.

Fig.4.2 Pattern of absorption bands created by

greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and their
effect on both solar radiation and up going the
thermal radiation.

4.2 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

1. Carbon: Carbon exists in the Earth's atmosphere primarily as the gas carbon dioxide
(CO2). The overall atmospheric concentration of these greenhouse gases has been increasing
in recent decades, contributing to global warming.
2. Carbon credit: Carbon credits are a tradable permit scheme. They provide a way to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions by giving them a monetary value. A credit gives the owner the right
to emit one ton of carbon dioxide.
3. Carbon footprint: "The carbon footprint is a measure of the exclusive total amount of
carbon dioxide emissions that is directly and indirectly caused by an activity or is
accumulated over the life stages of a product."

23 | P a g e

4. Carbon neutral: Refers to the practice of balancing carbon dioxide released into the
atmosphere from burning fossil fuels, with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of
useful energy, so that the net carbon emissions are zero, or alternatively using only renewable
energy.
5. Carbon offsetting: The act of mitigating ("offsetting") greenhouse gas emissions. A wellknown example is the planting of trees to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions from
personal air travel.
6. Carbon project: A business initiative that receives funding because of the cut of emission
of greenhouse gases (GHG's) that will result. To prove that the project will result in real,
permanent, verifiable reductions in Greenhouse Gases, proof must be provided in the form of
a project design document and activity reports validated by an approved third party.
7. Carbon Sequestration: A process that removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
through a variety of means of artificially capturing and storing carbon (while releasing
oxygen). The main natural areas of capturing CO2 are (1) the oceans and (2) plants and other
organisms that use photosynthesis to remove carbon, turning it into biomass and releasing
oxygen back into the
atmosphere.
8. Chicago Climate Exchange (CCX) is the worlds first and North Americas only
voluntary, legally binding greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction and trading system for emission
sources and offset projects in North America and Brazil. CCX employs independent
verification, includes six greenhouse gases, and has been trading greenhouse gas emission
allowances since 2003. The companies joining the exchange commit to reducing their
aggregate emissions by 6% by 2010.

9. Clean Energy: is a term describing what is thought to be environmentally friendly sources

of power and energy. Typically, this refers to renewable and non-polluting energy sources.

24 | P a g e

10. Climate change: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically
ascertain mechanisms responsible for relatively recent changes observed in the Earth's
climate. The dominant mechanisms to which recent climate change has been attributed all
result from human activity. They are:
Increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases
Global changes to land surface, such as deforestation
Increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols.
11. CO2 Equivalent: Although most of the emissions contributing to GhGs are actually
CO2, some of the emissions are from methane (from waste disposed in landfills) and the
other 5 gases associated with greenhouse gases.
12. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): A concept which encourages organizations to
consider the interests of society by taking responsibility for the impact of the organization's
activities on customers, employees, shareholders, communities, and environment in all
aspects of their operations. Decisions made should be based not only on financial factors such
as profits or dividends, but also
based on the immediate and long-term social and environmental consequences of their
activities.
13. Ecological Footprint: The ecological footprint measures human demand on nature. It
compares human consumption of natural resources with planet Earth's ecological capacity to
regenerate them. It is an estimate of the amount of biologically productive land and sea area
needed to regenerate the resources a human population consumes and to absorb the
corresponding waste, given prevailing technology. Using this assessment, it is possible to
estimate how many planet Earths it would take to support humanity if everybody lived a
given lifestyle.
14. Energy development: The ongoing effort to provide sustainable energy resources
through knowledge, skills, and constructions. When harnessing energy from primary energy
sources and converting them into more convenient secondary energy forms, such as electrical
energy and cleaner fuel, both emissions (reducing pollution) and quality (more efficient use)
are important.

25 | P a g e

15. Environmental sustainability: Environmental sustainability is defined as the ability of

the environment to continue to function properly indefinitely. The goal of environmental
sustainability is to minimize environmental degradation without using the resources up faster
than they can be replenished.
16. Emission Factors: Representative values that attempts to relate the quantity of a
pollutant released to the ambient air with an activity associated with the release of that
pollutant.
17. Emissions trading (or cap and trade): An administrative approach used to control
pollution by setting a limit or cap on the amount of a pollutant that can be emitted achieving
reductions in the emissions of pollutants. Companies that emit the pollutant are given credits
which represent the right to emit a specific amount. Companies that pollute beyond their
allowances must buy (trade) credits from those who pollute less than their allowances or face
heavy penalties.
18. Global warming: refers to the increase in the average temperature of the Earth's nearsurface air and oceans in recent decades and its projected continuation.
19. Global Reporting Initiative: The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) produces the worlds
de facto standard in sustainability reporting guidelines. Sustainability reporting is the action
where an organization publicly communicates their economic, environmental, and social
performance.
20. Greenhouse gas: Greenhouse gases (GHG) are components of the atmosphere that
contribute to the greenhouse effect. Some greenhouse gases occur naturally in the
atmosphere, while others result from human activities such as burning of fossil fuels such as
coal. Greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and
ozone.
21. GhG Protocol: The most widely accepted standard for calculating GhG emissions.

26 | P a g e

22. Greenwashing: is a term that is used to describe the actions of a company,

government, or other organization which advertises positive environmental practices while
not fully living up to this reputation.
23. Greenhouse effect: The greenhouse effect is the process in which the emission of
infrared radiation by the atmosphere warms a planet's surface. The name comes from an
analogy with the warming of air inside a greenhouse compared to the air outside the
greenhouse.
24. HVAC: is an initialism/acronym that stands for "heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning"
25. Kyoto protocol: An amendment to the international treaty on climate change, assigning
mandatory emission limitations for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions to the
signatory nations. As of December 2006, a total of 169 countries and other governmental
entities have ratified the agreement (representing over 61.6% of emissions from Annex I
countries). Notable exceptions include the United States and Australia.
26. (LEED) Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design: Green Building Rating
System, developed by the U.S. Green Building Council, provides a suite of standards for
environmentally sustainable construction. There are 4 different levels: Certified, Silver, Gold,
and Platinum.
27. Life Cycle Assessment: The assessment of the environmental impact of a given product
or service throughout its lifespan. The goal of LCA is to compare the environmental
performance of products and services, to be able to choose the least burdensome one. The
procedures of life cycle assessment (LCA) are part of the ISO 14000 environmental
management standards.
28. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs): A semiconductor diode that emits incoherent narrowspectrum light when electrically biased in the forward direction of the p-n junction. This
effect is a form of electroluminescence. An LED is usually a small area source, often with
extra optics added to the chip that shapes its radiation pattern.

27 | P a g e

29. Net metering: A state level electricity policy for consumers who own qualifying
facilities," which are generally smaller, renewable energy sources such as a wind or solar
power. Under net metering, a system owner receives retail credit for at least a portion of the
electricity they generate.
30. Pound of Co2: An everyday equivalent would be watching 1 hour of TV creates about
pound of CO2, driving one gallon of gas in a car is equal to about 23 lbs of CO2.
31. Renewable Energy Certificates (also known as Green tags, Renewable Energy Credits,
or Tradable Renewable Certificates (TRCs): are the property rights to the environmental
benefits from generating electricity from renewable energy sources.
32. Renewable Portfolio Standards: A regulatory policy that requires the increased
production of renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, biomass, and geothermal
energies. Washingtons Initiative 937: Electric utilities with > 25,000 customers to obtain
15% of their electricity from new renewable resources by 2020
33. Social responsibility: A doctrine that claims that an entity whether it is state,
government,corporation, organization or individual has a responsibility to society.
34. Sustainable Building: is the practice of increasing the efficiency of buildings and their
use of energy, water, and materials, and reducing building impacts on human health and the
environment, through better siting, design, construction, operation, maintenance, and removal
the complete building life cycle.
35. Sustainable development: Balancing the fulfillment of human needs with the protection
of the natural environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but in the
indefinite future.
36. Sustainable design (also referred to as "green design", "eco-design", or design for
environment"): The essential aim of sustainable design is to produce places, products and
services in a way that reduces use of non-renewable resources, minimizes environmental
impact, and relates people with the natural environment.

28 | P a g e

37. (VOC) Volatile organic compounds: Organic chemical compounds that have high
enough vapor pressures under normal conditions to significantly vaporize and enter the
atmosphere. VOCs are sometimes accidentally released into the environment, where they can
damage soil and groundwater. Vapors of VOCs escaping into the air contribute to air
pollution. Common artificial sources of VOCs include paint thinners, dry cleaning solvents,
and some constituents of
petroleum fuels (eg. gasoline and natural gas).
38. (WRI) World Resources Institute: WRI helps develop and promote policies with the
intention of protecting the Earth and improving peoples lives by providing objective
information and practical proposals for policy and institutional change that will foster
environmentally sound, socially equitable development.

CHAPTER-5

GREENHOUSE EFFECT
29 | P a g e

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of the Earth's near-surface air and
oceans since the mid-twentieth century and its projected continuation.
The average global air temperature near the Earth's surface increased 0.74 0.18 C (1.33
0.32 F) during the hundred years ending in 2005. [1] The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) concludes "most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures
since the mid-twentieth century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic
greenhouse gas concentrations"[1] via the greenhouse effect. Natural phenomena such as solar
variation combined with volcanoes probably had a small warming effect from pre-industrial
times to 1950 and a small cooling effect from 1950 onward. [2][3] These basic conclusions have
been endorsed by at least thirty scientific societies and academies of science, [4] including all
of the national academies of science of the major industrialized countries. [5][6][7] While
individual scientists have voiced disagreement with some findings of the IPCC,[8] the
overwhelming majority of scientists working on climate change agree with the IPCC's main
conclusions.[9][10]
Climate model projections summarized by the IPCC indicate that average global surface
temperature will likely rise a further 1.1 to 6.4 C (2.0 to 11.5 F) during the twenty-first
century.[1] The range of values results from the use of differing scenarios of future greenhouse
gas emissions as well as models with differing climate sensitivity. Although most studies
focus on the period up to 2100, warming and sea level rise are expected to continue for more
than a thousand years even if greenhouse gas levels are stabilized. The delay in reaching
equilibrium is a result of the large heat capacity of the oceans. [1]
Increasing global temperature will cause sea level to rise, and is expected to increase the
intensity of extreme weather events and to change the amount and pattern of precipitation.
Other effects of global warming include changes in agricultural yields, trade routes, glacier
retreat, species extinctions and increases in the ranges of disease vectors.
Remaining scientific uncertainties include the amount of warming expected in the future, and
how warming and related changes will vary from region to region around the globe. Most
30 | P a g e

national governments have signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol aimed at reducing
greenhouse gas emissions, but there is ongoing political and public debate worldwide
regarding what, if any, action should be taken to reduce or reverse future warming or to adapt
to its expected consequences.

Fig. 5.1 Global warming: Variations in the Earth's surface temperature, 1861-2000
The global average surface temperature range for each year from 1861 to 2000 is shown by
solid red bars, with the confidence range in the data for each year shown by thin whisker
bars. The average change over time is shown by the solid curve.

Fig.5.2 Global warming: effect on Arctic sea ice and polar bears

The dramatic decrease in the area and thickness of Arctic sea ice since the late 20th century is
especially hard on polar bears, which depend on ice floes during the summer for resting and
as platforms for hunting seals, their primary prey. The decreasing summer sea ice is forcing

31 | P a g e

bears to swim greater distances than normal, leaving the animals exhausted, underweight, and
vulnerable to drowning

5.2 CAUSES OF GLOBAL WARMING

5.2.1 Carbon Dioxide from Power Plants

In 2002 about 40% of U.S. carbon dioxide emissions stem from the burning of fossil fuels for
the purpose of electricity generation. Coal accounts for 93 percent of the emissions from the
electric utility industry
Coal emits around 1.7 times as much carbon per unit of energy when burned as does
natural gas and 1.25 times as much as oil. Natural gas gives off 50% of the carbon dioxide,
the principal greenhouse gas, released by coal and 25% less carbon dioxide than oil, for the
same amount of energy produced. Coal contains about 80 percent more carbon per unit of
energy than gas does, and oil contains about 40 percent more. For the typical U.S. household,
a metric ton of carbon equals about 10,000 miles of driving at 25 miles per gallon of gasoline
or about one year of home heating using a natural gas-fired furnace or about four months of
electricity from coal-fired generation.

5.2.2 Carbon Dioxide Emitted from Cars

About 33% of U.S carbon dioxide emissions comes from the burning of gasoline in internalcombustion engines of cars and light trucks (minivans, sport utility vehicles, pick-up trucks,
and jeeps). Vehicles with poor gas mileage contribute the most to global warming. For
example, according to the E.P.A's 2000 Fuel Economy Guide, a new Dodge Durango sports
utility vehicle (with a 5.9 liter engine) that gets 12 miles per gallon in the city will emit an
estimated 800 pounds of carbon dioxide over a distance of 500 city miles. In other words for
32 | P a g e

each gallon of gas a vehicle consumes, 19.6 pounds of carbon dioxide are emitted into the
air. [21] A new Honda Insight that gets 61 miles to the gallon will only emit about 161
pounds of carbon dioxide over the same distance of 500 city miles. Sports utility vehicles
were built for rough terrain, off road
driving in mountains and deserts. When they are used for city driving, they are so much
overkill to the environment. If one has to have a large vehicle for their family, station wagons
are an intelligent choice for city driving, especially since their price is about half that of a
sports utility. Inasmuch as SUV's have a narrow wheel base in respect to their higher
silhouette, they are four times as likely as cars to rollover in an accident. [33]
The United States is the largest consumer of oil, using 20.4 million barrels per day. In his
debate with former Defense Secretary Dick Cheney, during the 2000 Presidential campaign,
Senator Joseph Lieberman said, "If we can get 3 miles more per gallon from our cars, we'll
save 1 million barrels of oil a day, which is exactly what the (Arctic National Wildlife)
Refuge at its best in Alaska would produce."
If car manufacturers were to increase their fleets' average gas mileage about 3 miles per
gallon, this country could save a million barrels of oil every day, while US drivers would save
$25 billion in fuel costs annually.

Fig.5.3 Cars also contribute to CO2 in the atmosphere.

33 | P a g e

Fig.5.4 This graph shows the increase of carbon dioxide in the air over the past
few centuries

5.2.3 Carbon Dioxide from Airplanes

The UN's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimates that aviation causes 3.5
percent of global warming, and that the figure could rise to 15 percent by 2050.

5.2.4 Carbon Dioxide from Buildings

Buildings structure account for about 12% of carbon dioxide emissions.

5.2.5 Methane

While carbon dioxide is the principal greenhouse gas, methane is second most important.
According

to

the

IPCC,

Methane

is

more

than

20

times

as

effective as CO2 at trapping heat in the atmosphere. US Emissions Inventory 2004 Levels of
atmospheric methane have risen 145% in the last 100 years. [18] Methane is derived from
sources such as rice paddies, bovine flatulence, bacteria in bogs and fossil fuel production.
Most of the worlds rice, and all of the rice in the United States, is grown on flooded fields.
When fields are flooded, anaerobic conditions develop and the organic matter in the soil
decomposes, releasing CH4 to the atmosphere, primarily through the rice plants. US
Emissions Inventory 2004.

34 | P a g e

Fig.5.5 Methane is on the rise since 1750

Fig.5.2.5.1Cows such as these contribute a large amount of methane to the air.

5.2.6 Water Vapor in the Atmosphere

Water vapor is the most prevalent and most powerful greenhouse gas on the planet, but its
increasing presence is the result of warming caused by carbon dioxide, methane and other
greenhouse gases.

Water vapor holds onto two-thirds of the heat trapped by all the

greenhouse gases.[129] As the Earth heats up relative humidity is able to increase, allowing
the planet's atmosphere to hold more water vapor, causing even more warming, thus a
positive feedback scenario. Because the air is warmer, the relative humidity can be higher (in
essence, the air is able to 'hold' more water when its warmer), leading to more water vapor
in the atmosphere, says the NCDC. There is much scientific uncertainty as to the degree this
feedback loop causes increased warming, inasmuch as the water vapor also causes increased
cloud formation, which in turn reflects heat back out into space.

5.2.7 Nitrous oxide

35 | P a g e

Another greenhouse gas is Nitrous oxide (N2O), a colourless, non-flammable gas with a
sweetish odour, commonly known as "laughing gas", and sometimes used as an anaesthetic.
Nitrous oxide is naturally produced by oceans and rainforests. Man-made sources of nitrous
oxide include nylon and nitric acid production, the use of fertilisers in agriculture, cars with
catalytic converters and the burning of organic matter. Nitrous oxide is broken down in the
atmosphere by chemical reactions that involve sunlight.

Fig.5.6 Nitrous Oxide has been on the rise since 1750

5.2.8 Deforestation

After carbon emissions caused by humans, deforestation is the second principle cause of
atmospheric carbon dioxide. Deforestation is responsible for 20-25% of all carbon emissions
entering the atmosphere, by the burning and cutting of about 34 million acres of trees each
year. We are losing millions of acres of rainforests each year, the equivalent in area to the size
of Italy. [22] The destroying of tropical forests alone is throwing hundreds of millions of tons
of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere each year. We are also losing temperate forests. The
temperate forests of the world account for an absorption rate of 2 billion tons of carbon
annually. [3] In the temperate forests of Siberia alone, the earth is losing 10 million acres per
year.

36 | P a g e

Fig.5.7 Deforestation and Forest Fires contribute to an increase in CO2 levels

Fig.5.8
The Amazon Rain Forest, which is in parts of Brazil, French Guiana, Suriname,
Guyana, Venezuela, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, and
Bolivia, is subjected to a great deal of deforestation

5.2.9 City Gridlock

In 1996 according to an annual study by traffic engineers [as reported in the San Francisco
Chronicle December 10, 1996] from Texas A and M University, it was found that drivers in
Los Angeles and New York City alone wasted 600 million gallons of gas annually while just
37 | P a g e

sitting in traffic. The 600 million gallons of gas translates to about 7.5 million tons of carbon
dioxide in just those two cities.
5.2.10 Carbon in Atmosphere and Ocean

The atmosphere contains about 750 billion tons of carbon, while 1020 billion tons are
dissolved in the surface layers of the world's ocean.

Also:
Forests

610 billion tons of Carbon

Soils

1580

Deep Ocean

38100

"

"
"

"
"

"

5.2.11 Permafrost

Permafrost is a solid structure of frozen soil, extending to depths of 2.200 feet in some areas
of the arctic and subarctic regions, containing grasses, roots, sticks, much of it dating back to
30,000 years. About 25% of the land areas of the Northern Hemisphere hold permafrost,
which is defined as soil whose temperature has been 32 degrees Fahrenheit (0 degrees
Celsius) for a period of at least 2 years. Permafrost is under 85% of Alaska land surface and
much of Canada, Scandinavia and Siberia and holds about 14 per cent of the world's carbon.
The hard permafrost on which is built homes and other buildings, can, with rising
temperatures, turn into a soft material causing subsidence and damage to buildings, electric
generating stations, pipelines and other structures. Ground instability would cause erosion,
affect terrain, slopes, roads, foundations and more. [121]
Svein Tveitdal, Managing Director of the Global Resource Information Database
(GRID) in Arendal, Norway, a UNEP environmental information center monitoring the
thawing of permafrost, told a meeting at the 21st session of the United Nation's Governing
Council in Nairobi, Kenya on February 7, 2001: "Permafrost has acted as a carbon sink,
locking away carbon and other greenhouse gases like methane, for thousands of year. But

38 | P a g e

there is now evidence that this is no longer the case, and the permafrost in some areas is
starting to give back its carbon. This could accelerate the greenhouse effect." (83)
In a December, 2005 study climate models at National Center for
Atmospheric Research (NCAR) show that climate change may thaw the permafrost located in
the top 10 feet of permafrost, releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. "People have
used models to study permafrost before, but not within a fully interactive climate system
model," says NCAR's David Lawrence, the lead author. The coauthor is Andrew Slater of the
University of Colorado's National Snow and Ice Data Center. "Thawing permafrost could
send considerable amounts of water to the oceans," says Slater, who notes that runoff to the
Arctic has increased about 7 percent since the 1930s. According to the NCAR press release
(December 19, 2005) permafrost may contain 30% of all the carbon found in soil worldwide.
In areas to a depth of 11.2 feet climate models (assuming business as usual scenarios) show
permafrost presently in an area of 4,000,000 square miles shrinking to 1,000,000 square
miles by 2050 and 400,000 square miles by 2100. With a scenario of low emissions
(assuming a high degree use of alternative energy sources and conservation) permafrost is
still expected to shrink to 1.5 million miles by 2100.........In a USA Today (December 26,
2005) interview David Lawrence says, "If that much near-surface permafrost thaws, it could
release considerable amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, and that could
amplify

global

warming,"

.."We

could

be

underestimating

the

rate of global temperature increase."

In a study reported in the journal Science June 16, 2006 ( San Francisco
Chronicle article) researchers say that thawing permafrost may add to the buildup in
atmospheric greenhouse gases significantly, stating that present climate models do not
include releases of Siberian carbon dioxide from permafrost. Dr. Ted Schuur of the University
of Florida traveled to Siberia and secured samples of permafrost soil up to 10 feet in length,
maintaining it in a frozen state until arriving back in his laboratory, where the thawing soil
was attacked by microbes, releasing carbon dioxide in the process. The frightening scenario
that scientists, Sergey A. Zimov of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Ted Schuur and Stuart
Chapin III of the University of Alaska, paint is one of hundreds of billions of tons of
greenhouse gases entering an already destabilized atmosphere this century, spurring yet more
warming in a positive feedback syndrome. Extend this scenario to Alaska, Canada and

39 | P a g e

Scandinavia, where permafrost underlies much of these regions and there's no other way to
describe it. We're in trouble.

5.2.12 Tundra

A name very suited to the environs of the arctic and subarctic, tundra means 'treeless plain' in
Finnish. The tundra is a biome (a major segment of a particular region having distinctive
vegetation, animals and microorganisms adapted to a unique climate), home to about 1700
kinds of plants, including shrubs, mosses, grasses, lichens and 400 kinds of flowers.
About 50 billion tons of carbon are estimated to be held in a frozen state in the tundra, and
now the tundra is beginning to become a source of carbon dioxide. In the 1970's University of
California biologist Walter Oechel studied carbon dioxide emissions in the tundra, which
until this time had been thought of as a carbon sink. Doing further tests in the 1980's, Oechel
discovered that this was no longer the case, that warming temperatures had changed the
tundra to a net emitter of carbon dioxide. Says Oechel, " We found to our great surprise that
the tundra was already losing carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. So that by the start of these
experiments, which was in 1982, the tundra had already warmed and dried enough, that its
historic role as a carbon sink had reversed and changed. It was now losing carbon dioxide to
the atmosphere. That was totally unexpected."

5.3

EFFECT

OF

GREENHOUSE

GASES

ON

ATMOSPHERE

40 | P a g e

Given the natural variability of the Earths climate, it is difficult to determine the extent of
change that humans cause. In computer-based models, rising concentrations of greenhouse
gases generally produce an increase in the average temperature of the Earth. Rising
temperatures may, in turn, produce changes in weather, sea levels, and land use patterns,
commonly referred to as climate change.
Assessments generally suggest that the Earths climate has warmed over the past century
and that human activity affecting the atmosphere is likely an important driving factor. A
National Research Council study dated May 2001 stated, Greenhouse gases are
accumulating in Earths atmosphere as a result of human activities, causing surface air
temperatures and sub-surface ocean temperatures to rise. Temperatures are, in fact, rising.
The changes observed over the last several decades are likely mostly due to human
activities, but we cannot rule out that some significant part of these changes is also a
reflection of natural variability.
However, there is uncertainty in how the climate system varies naturally and reacts to
emissions of greenhouse gases. Making progress in reducing uncertainties in projections of
future climate will require better awareness and understanding of the buildup of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and the behavior of the climate system.

5.4

EVIDENCES

FOR

GLOBAL

WARMING

AND

CLIMATIC CHANGE

41 | P a g e

The evidence for global warming and climate change includes the following:-

1. Sea temperatures have risen by on average 0.5 degrees C (0.9 degree F) over the last
40 years [Tim Barnett, Scripps Institution of Oceanography in La Jolla, California]

2. 20,000 square kilometers of fresh water ice melted in the Arctic between 1965 and
1995 [Ruth Curry, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in Connecticut]
3. Worldwide measurements from tidal gauges indicate that global mean sea level has
risen between 10 and 25 cm (18 cm average) during the last 100 years [Warrick et al.,
1996]
4. Global surface temperatures have risen about 0.7C in the past 100 years [Met Office]
5. 11 of the last 12 years rank amongst the 12 warmest years on record for global
temperatures (since 1850) [IPCC, 2007]
6. Since 1975, the increase of the 5-year mean temperature is about 0.5C - a rate that is
faster than for any previous period of equal length [NASA, 1999]
7. Average annual temperature in the Arctic has increased by about 1 C over the last
century -- a rate that is approximately double that of global average temperatures
[IPCC, 1998]

8. There is widespread evidence that

glaciers

are

retreating

in

many

mountain areas of the world. For

example, since 1850 the glaciers of the
European Alps have lost about 30 to
40% of their surface area and about
half of their volume [Haeberli and
Beniston, 1998]
Fig.5.9

42 | P a g e

CHAPTER -6

IMPACT OF CONSTRUCTION
ON CLIMATE

6.1 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

1. EMISSIONS DUE TO CONCRETE

Concrete is the most widely used construction material. Current average

consumption of concrete is about 1 tonne per year per every living human being. Human
beings do not consume any other material in such tremendous quantities except for water.
Due to its large consumption, even small reductions of green house gas emissions per ton of
manufactured concrete can make a significant global impact. Reliable estimates of
greenhouse gas emission footprint of various construction materials are becoming important,
because of the environmental awareness of the users of construction material. Life cycle
assessment of competing construction materials (e.g. steel and concrete) [1] can be conducted
before the type of material is chosen for a particular construction. This topic provides green
house gas emissions data collected from typical concrete manufacturing plants for this
purpose. The basic constituents of concrete are cement, water, coarse aggregates and fine
aggregates. Extraction of aggregates has considerable land use implications [2]. However, the
major contributor of green house emissions in the manufacture of concrete is the Portland
cement. It has been reported that the cement industry is responsible for 5% of global
anthropogenic CO2 emissions [3]. As a result, emissions due to Portland cement have often
become the focus when assessing the greenhouse gas emissions of concrete. However, as
demonstrated by the data presented here, there are also other components of concrete
manufacture which are responsible for green house gas emissions that need consideration.
With users beginning to require detailed estimates of the environmental impacts of the
materials in new construction projects, this study was intended to provide the basis for a
rating tool for concrete, based on CO2 emissions. Other cementitious components considered
43 | P a g e

include ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), a by-product of the steel industry, and
fly ash, a by-product of burning coal. These two materials are generally used to replace a
portion of the cement in a concrete mix. The use of water in concrete leads to minimal CO2
emissions, which leaves cement, coarse and fine aggregates, GGBFS and fly ash as the main
material contributors to the environmental impacts of concrete. In addition to the production
of materials, the processing components of concrete production and placement were
considered. Transport, mixing, and in-situ placement of concrete all require energy input
leading to CO2 emissions.
Fig.1 shows the concrete CO2 emissions diagram. The CO2 emissions from most
of the activities involved in concrete production and placement result from the energy
consumed to accomplish them. Hence, to find the CO2 emissions associated with an activity,
the energy consumption per unit of material produced had to be audited. The exception to this
rule is cement, where approximately 50% of the emissions are process based, due to the
decomposition of limestone in the kiln with the remainder associated with kiln fuels and
electricity [3,6]. Previous research into the environmental impacts of cement production has
already yielded several estimates of the CO2 emissions per tonne of cement produced.
Similarly, fly ash and GGBFS have also both been investigated previously, and their
emissions quantified. So the research that was conducted covered the production of coarse
and fine aggregates and admixtures, raw materials transport, concrete batching and transport,
and on-site placement activities.

Fig. 1: Concrete CO2 emissions system diagram

44 | P a g e

2. Emissions due to Coarse Aggregates

Data to estimate the CO2 emissions due to the production of coarse aggregates was gathered
from two quarries. The first produced granite and hornfels aggregates, and the second
produced basalt aggregates. Note that the two quarries that were chosen for analysis were
considered to be typical examples. The production of both these types of coarse aggregates
commences with the use of explosives to blast the rock from the quarry faces into medium
size boulders and rocks. Diesel powered excavators and haulers then remove the rubble and
dump it into electric crushing and screening equipment. Finally diesel powered haulers move
the final graded products into stockpiles. As part of this study two coarse aggregates quarries
(basalt and granite/hornfels) were
audited for energy consumption and total productivity over a six-month period. This
information was taken from fuel, electricity and explosives invoices, and site sales figures.
The fuel, electricity and explosives data was used to calculate the amount of CO2 produced
per tonne of aggregate produced at each site. Using the emission factors presented in Table 1,
CO2 emissions per tonne of granite/hornfels was found to be 0.0459 t CO2-e/tonne. CO2
emissions per tone of basalt was found to be 0.0357 t CO2-e/tonne. These figures include the
average contribution from transport from the quarry to the concrete batching plants.
Fig. 2 below shows the contribution of each energy source. Electricity is
responsible for the majority of CO2 emissions for each type of aggregate. This labels the
crushing process as the most significant part of the coarse aggregates production process
from an environmental perspective. On-site blasting, excavation and hauling, in addition to
off-site transport comprise less than 25% of the total emissions for coarse aggregates. It
should be noted that while the explosives have very high emission factors, they contribute
very small amounts (<0.25%) to the overall emissions, since such small quantities are used.
To achieve significant environmental improvements in the production of aggregates, the
crushing process needs to be targeted. Intelligent placement of explosives during the initial
blasting process can reduce the demand on the electrical crushing equipment by blasting the
rock into smaller fragments prior to crushing. Maintenance of crushing equipment is another
way to lower electricity demands. Clearly the replacement of old, inefficient machinery will
lead to lower energy demands.

45 | P a g e

Fig. 2: (a) Basalt and (b) Granite/Hornfels CO2 emissions breakdowns

3. Emissions due to Fine Aggregates

The fine aggregates investigated in this study begin as raw sand, which is strip-mined by
excavators and loaded into haulers. The haulers dump the sand where it is washed into a
pumpable slurry which is piped to the grading plant. Electric vibrating screens filter the sand
into standard grades, which are then stockpiled. One fine aggregates quarry was audited for
energy consumption and total productivity over a six-month period. The amount of CO2
released during the production and subsequent transport of one tonne of concrete-sand was
found to be 0.0139 t CO2-e/tonne. This is 40% of the figure for basalt coarse aggregate, and
30% of the figure for granite coarse aggregate. The lack of a crushing step explains the
difference between the emissions of fine and coarse aggregates.
Fig. 3 below shows the contribution of each energy source to the CO2
emissions associated with fine aggregates. Diesel and electricity contribute almost equally to
the CO2emissions from the production and transport of fine aggregates. The diesel is nearly
all consumed by the strip mining and on/off-site transport operations. The efficiency of these
processes is largely dictated by the quality of the machinery being used. The replacement of
ageing excavators and haulers will lead to greater fuel efficiency, and hence lower CO2
emissions. Electricity is consumed by the pumping and grading equipment. The emissions
associated with these processes are largely fixed. Savings could be made by periodically
relocating the screening plant closer to the source of the slurry, but the emissions associated
with moving the equipment would need to be assessed

46 | P a g e

Fig. 3: Fine aggregates CO2 emissions breakdown

before this course of action was taken. In general, the sand mining process is fairly well
established, and intentionally or otherwise, is already organized to generate minimal CO2.

4 . Emissions due to Cement, Fly Ash, GGBFS and

Admixtures
The environmental impacts associated with cement production have been investigated
thoroughly in recent times [3,69]. Decomposition of limestone is an essential process in
Portland cement production which takes place in the cement kiln. The chemical reaction for
this process is

CaCO3 CaO+ CO2. This process releases 0.5 ton of CO2 for every ton of

CaO produced. The high energy consumption of the kiln produces additional CO2 emissions
which are added to obtain the total emissions due to Portland cement manufacture. All of the
figures for cement production in Australia lie around 0.8 t CO2-e/tonne, which is within the
range of the other figures from around the world, which vary from approximately 0.7 t CO2e/tonne to 1.0 t CO2-e/tonne [3, 10, 11]. The most recent and extensively researched figure
was found to be that presented by Heidrich et al. in 2005 [8], which was adopted. The final
emission factor that was used for cement in this project was 0.82 t CO2-e/tonne, which
include transport of cement to concrete batching plants. A part of the CO2 emissions due to
decomposition of limestone is re-absorbed from the atmosphere by concrete due to a
chemical reaction called carbonation. The free lime, Ca(OH)2, in the pores of the concrete
reacts with the atmospheric CO2 and produces CaCO3. This chemical reaction,

Ca(OH)2

+ CO2 CaCO3 + H2O, is what is commonly described as the carbonation of concrete.

Sometimes it is mistakenly referred as the reaction process involved in the hardening of
concrete. Hardening of concrete is an entirely different reaction involving hydration of
cement which does not have any CO2 implications. The carbonation of concrete structures
only occurs near the surface of concrete. For a typical concrete structure, the carbonation
depth would be about 20 mm from the surface after 50 years. Further, the major part of the
CaO in cement is tied up as part of the hardened concrete in the form of calcium silicate
47 | P a g e

hydrates which are not available for carbonation. Therefore, re-absorption of CO2 by
concrete during its lifetime would only be a very small proportion, and is not considered in
the calculations . Further discussions and estimates of CO2 uptake by concrete can be found
in Pade and Guimaraes [14]. The figures for the two Supplementary Cementitious Materials
(SCMs) considered in this study were also sourced from Heidrich et al. [8]. The emission
factor adopted for fly ash was 0.027 t CO2-e/tonne. The emission factor adopted for GGBFS
was 0.143 t CO2-e/tonne. Both fly ash and GGBFS are by-products of industries (burning
coal and producing steel respectively) which would operate regardless of the production of
these useful materials. So the emissions quoted here are based purely on activities conducted
subsequent to initial production, including capture, milling, refining and and transport (100
km) processes. Concrete often contains admixtures to enhance early age properties, such as
the workability and strength development characteristics. In this study, four different
admixture types were considered, for which a large manufacturer supplied the typical figures
presented in Table 2.

It can be seen that the CO2 emissions associated with the manufacture of concrete admixtures
are very small. The total volume of admixtures included in a typical mix design is generally
less than two litres per cubic metre. Hence, the contribution to the total emissions per cubic
metre of concrete is negligible. As a result of this, the CO2 emissions generated by
admixtures can justifiably be omitted from the calculations of total CO2 emissions of
concrete.

5. Emissions Due To Timber

48 | P a g e

In the last 30 years, natural forest cover has reduced by 11% 2 Logging for timber is one of the
two main activities responsible for this deforestation, the other being clearance for
agriculture. There are two critical implications of deforestation. One is the loss of biodiversity
in the world, the loss of habitats and species forever. The other is a reduction in the earth's
capacity to absorb CO2. This drop of absorption capacity is proving critical at a time of
increased CO2 emissions, leading to global warming and worldwide climatic instability.
Although timber is theoretically a renewable resource, it can only be considered as such if it
comes from sustainably managed woodland. The use of certified sustainable timber is a very
positive mechanism for moving towards sustainability creating an economy that fosters the
conservation of forest resources.

6.2 FIELDS OF CONSTRUCTION LIKE MULTISTOREY

BUILDINGS, HIGHWAYS ETC.
49 | P a g e

6.2.1. BUILDINGS
The materials used to build homes require energy consumption during their extraction,
production and transportation. This energy consumption has associated CO2 emissions
known as the embodied CO2 of the materials . Table 1 shows the embodied CO2 of a typical
home and relates that to the total CO2 emissions in the UK. It shows that the construction of
our homes accounts for some 3% of our annual CO2 burden. The embodied CO2 of homes is
less significant than the energy consumption and CO2 emissions during their life times.
Domestic dwellings account for 29% of UK energy consumption (see Fig.1).. Construction
materials and products were selected to meet the thermal design criteria. Choices in low
impact, low embodied energy materials were considered after thermal requirements had been
met.
.
6.2.2. HIGHWAYS
Civilization also produces waste products. Disposal issue of the waste products is a
challenge. Some of these materials are not biodegradable and often leads to waste disposal
crisis and environmental pollution.

Traditionally soil, stone aggregates, sand, bitumen,

cement etc. are used for road construction. Natural materials being exhaustible in nature, its
quantity is declining gradually. Also, cost of extracting good quality of natural material is
increasing. Concerned about this, the scientists are looking for alternative materials for
highway construction, and industrial waste product is one such category. If these materials
can be suitably utilized in highway construction, the pollution and disposal problems may be
partly reduced.The following table presents a partial list of industrial waste materials that
may be used in highway construction:
Roads are typically constructed from layers of compacted materials, and
generally its strength decreases downwards. For conventional materials, a number of tests are
conducted and their acceptability is decided based on the test results and the specifications.
This ensures the desirable level of performance of the chosen material, in terms of its
permeability, volume stability, strength, hardness, toughness, fatigue, durability, shape,
viscosity, specific gravity, purity, safety, temperature susceptibility etc., whichever are
applicable. There are a large number tests suggested by various guidelines/ specifications;
presently the performance based tests are being emphasized, rather than the tests which
50 | P a g e

estimate the individual physical properties. The tests and specifications, which are applicable
for conventional materials, may be inappropriate for evaluation of non-conventional
materials, such as industrial wastes. This is because the material properties, for example,
particle sizes, grading and chemical structure, may differ substantially from those of the
conventional materials. Thus for an appropriate assessment of these materials, new tests are
to be devised and new acceptability criteria are to be formed. However, with the advent of
performance based tests, it is expected that the performances of the conventional as well as
new materials can be tested on a same set-up and be compared health and safety
considerations should be given due importance handing industrial waste materials [1, 9].
6.2.2.1 Suitability of industrial wastes as highway material
Limited information is available on suitability of individual industrial wastes for its
utilization in highway construction. The following table (Table-2) summarizes the advantages
and disadvantages of using specific industrial wastes in highway construction.

CHAPTER-7

HAZARDOUS WASTES
51 | P a g e

7.1 TYPES OF HAZARDOUS WASTES

We mainly consider the following waste types:
1. Household wastes (collected waste, waste collected for recycling and composting and
waste deposited by householders at household waste disposal sites); this accounts for
89% of MSW;
2. Household hazardous wastes;
3. Bulky wastes derived from households;
4. Street sweeping and litter;
5. Parks and garden wastes;
6. Non-hazardous trade wastes collected by local authorities (this component
7. Tends to be limited; Strange, 2002);
8. Wastes from institutions, such as schools, etc.
In the UK, taking into account all waste arisings, 430 million tonnes of waste was
generated in 2000/01. Approximately 7% of this (28.8 million tonnes) was MSW
(Office of National Statistics, 2003; DEFRA 2003).

52 | P a g e

Fig.7.1

Wastes production in U.K(2000/2001)

Municipal solid waste consists of many different materials.Its composition is variable

from place to place and time to time, depending on a range of factors. Household waste
reflects population densityand economic prosperity, seasonality, housing standards and
presence of waste minimization initiatives (for example home compositing). The makeup of commercial waste will be influenced by the nature of commerce in a local area
(strange, 2002). The most common components of MSW are: paper and cardboard
(33%);garden waste and other organic matter (21%); plastics (13%); food wastes (11%)
(vegetable and animal matter, oils and fats); fabrics (5%); glass (4%); metals from
containers and packaging (4%); Figure 8.1.1 provides an illustrative breakdown of
materials in MSW collected from domestic dwellings (House of Commons, 2001)

53 | P a g e

Fig.7.2 TYPICAL BREAKDOWN OF MATERIALS IN MSW BY WEIGHT

7.1.1 Drywall
Drywall comprises about 15 percent of the waste stream and weighs about one pound per
square foot of living space. Drywall manufacturing plants are gradually adding the
technology for recycling construction site wastes.
7.2.2 Cardboard
Cardboard packaging doesn't add much to the weight of your debris. But it can account for up
to 30 percent of the volume and, if unconsolidated, can send your dumpster to the landfill
long before it's necessary. Pulling out cardboard is almost always worth the effort.

54 | P a g e

7.3.3 Wood
Wood waste makes up 40 to 50 percent of what comes off a residential jobsite. Ground-up
wood can be used for mulch, composting, animal bedding, landfill cover, as an industrial fuel
source, and in "new" building products.

Construction and demolition is responsible for creating 21% of the hazardous waste in the
UK.
About 10% of national energy consumption is used in the production and transport of
construction products and materials, and the energy consumed in building services
accounts for about half of the UKs emissions of carbon dioxide

7.2 EFFECTS OF WASTES ON CLIMATE

The wastes are affecting the climate in many ways, these are harmful for human beings.

7.2.1 Noise levels

Quantitative data are provided on recorded incremental noise levels close to waste
management facilities. This information is of good quality.
1. Composting +7 to +32 dBA increment recorded.
2. Materials recycling facility +15 to +20 dBA increment recorded.
3. Landfill +5 to +10 dBA increment recorded
4. Gasification/ pyrolysis +5 dBA increment recorded.
5. Typical incremental noise levels associated with other sources are as follows (data
of good quality; derived from Environment Agency, 2003):
6. Noise level associated with conversation at 1 metre c.+20 dBA increment
7. Noise level associated with office activity: c.+25 dBA increment
55 | P a g e

8. Noise level associated with vacuum cleaner at 3 metres c.+35 dBA increment

It has been found that management of MSW currently contributes less than 2.5% to UK
emissions to air (data quality mostly moderate; in some cases good, and in some cases poor),
and less than 0.5% to UK emissions to water (data quality poor). The exceptions to this are
emissions to air of methane (where MSW processing and disposal accounts for 27% of UK
total emissions) and cadmium (MSW management accounts for 10% of UK total emissions).
Studies have been carried out to investigate whether the occurrence of certain birth
defects (known as congenital anomalies) might be explained by the presence oflandfill sites.
There is some evidence to suggest that these defects occur slightly more often in children
born to mothers living close to a landfill site. We cannot yet say whether the landfills cause or
contribute to this apparent clustering of birth defects. Factors which include the mothers
health and the childs genetic make-up are known to be causes of birth defects, but even so,
the majority of birth defects are of unknown origin. Increases in some respiratory diseases
have also been observed in people living very close to composting facilities. The probable
calculated health effects of some key pollutants emitted to air from waste management
operations. While the numerical estimates are of moderate or poor quality, we found that the
probable health effects of these emissions are verysmall in comparison to those of other
common hazards to health.
It is found found that relatively reliable information exists for emissions to air from
MSW combustion processes such as incineration and landfill gas flares/engines. Information
on emissions to water and groundwater is of less good quality, because of the assumptions
which need to be made to estimate these emissions. We alsoneed more information on
emissions to air and water from composting MSW.
Emissions to air from landfill differ from emissions from processes in the
timescale over which emissions take place. Emissions from processes other than landfill
occur at approximately the same time as the treatment of the waste. Emissions from landfill
take place over a much longer timescale. Landfill gas generation rates are likely to be greatest
during and immediately following the operational lifetime of the site (typically 20 30 years
56 | P a g e

from starting to fill the site). During this time, landfill sites must be managed and regulated to
ensure that emissions to air are controlled at acceptable levels in the local context.
7.2.2 Comparison of emissions to air between waste management options
The following comparisons can be drawn between estimated emissions to air from
different waste management options:
! Incineration generates the greatest emissions of oxides of nitrogen, followed by
pyrolysis/gasification and landfill with energy generation (information of moderate or good
quality).
! The greatest emissions of particulates per tonne of MSW probably arise from composting,
but the data are of poor quality and cannot be wholly relied upon. Incineration is the next
most significant source of particulates (information of moderate quality). Transport of waste
is probably not a significant source of particulates.
! Emissions of sulphur dioxide per tonne of waste processed are similar for all combustionbased processes (information of moderate or good quality). Transport of waste is not a
significant source of sulphur dioxide.
! Emissions of hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride are higher from combustion
processes. Of the MSW treatment/disposal facilities studied, incineration is the most
significant source of hydrogen chloride.
! Emissions of VOCs are probably more significant from landfill, composting and MBT than
from combustion processes; however, we have found no data to enable us to establish the
significance of VOC emissions from composting and MBT. Methane emissions, and hence
global warming impacts, are greatest from the landfill options (information of moderate
quality), although emissions from home composting and poorly run composting operations
may also be significant.
! Emissions of metals show a mixed pattern between the different combustion processes. The
available information suggests that emissions of metals to air are generally lower from
anaerobic digestion than from other options (information of moderate quality).
! Reported emissions of dioxins and furans per tonne of waste from incineration of presorted wastes are higher than emissions from other options. This information, however,
comes from a single plant, and may reflect the abatement at this particular facility. Mass burn

57 | P a g e

incineration is the next most significant source, with other combustion sources resulting in
lower emissions (information of moderate or good quality).
! Emissions to air from MSW incineration in the UK have changed considerably over the
past 20 years, in response to increasingly strict legislation on emissions. For example,
emissions of dioxins per tonne of waste from MSW incineration have decreased by 99.8%
over this period. This change was driven by increasingly stringent limits on emissions from
MSW incineration plant set in European directives. To comply with the new emissions limits,
MSW incineration facilities were fitted with upgraded abatement plant, or otherwise
were shut down.
! Materials Recycling Facilities provide an opportunity for materials in the waste stream to
be recycled. Reprocessing materials in this way could result in increases or decreases in
emissions at locations remote from the MRF itself. These complex issues lie outside the
scope of this report, which focuses on the potential emissions and effects associated with the
facility itself.
! The likelihood and significance of emissions under non-standard operating conditions vary
from one type of facility to another. We recommend that further work should be carried out to
investigate these emissions.
7.2.3 Solid residues
Solid residues from the treatment of MSW are handled in three main ways and these emit
gases to climate as follow:
! Disposal to landfill
Any biodegradable component of the residue will degrade within the landfill. Its degradation
will generate landfill gas and landfill leachate, which may subsequently be emitted to air,
sewer or groundwater.
Land spreading
Spreading of compost or digestate from anaerobic digestion to land may be considered an
emission from MSW treatment to land. The effect of substances contained in materials spread
to land depends on the quantity and availability of any such substances. These are controlled
through the application of standards such as British Standard BS PAS 100. This sets limits for
human pathogens; potentially toxic elements (e.g. heavy metals); physical contaminants (e.g.
glass, metal and plastic); substances toxic to plants; and weeds
58 | P a g e

! Re-use
Some ash and char residues from thermal treatment processes can be re-used. Again, the
potential exists for trace constituents of these substances to be leached out and potentially
impact on receptors.
7.2.4 Health effects of emissions to air
On a national scale, approximately 5 hospital admissions per year are estimated to arise due
to emissions to air from treatment and disposal of MSW. Similarly, emissions from treatment
and disposal of MSW are estimated to result in approximately one death being brought
forward nationally every two years.
7.2.5 Environmental Effects
The issue of greatest concern relates to emissions of greenhouse gases. Emissions of methane
from landfill of MSW are a particular concern, together with emissions of carbon dioxide
from all MSW management facilities. Emissions of methane from commercial-scale
composting of MSW may also be significant. Waste incinerators contribute to local air
pollution. This contribution, however, is usually a small proportion of existing background
levels which is not detectable through environmental monitoring (for example, by comparing
upwind and downwind levels of airborne pollutants or substances deposited to land). In some
cases, waste incinerator facilities may make a more detectable contribution to air pollution.
Because current MSW incinerators are located predominantly in urban areas, effects on air
quality are likely to be so small as to be undetectable in practice. Emissions to air from MSW
treatment and disposal also contribute to secondary effects on a regional scale, such as the
generation of ozone and secondary particulates. Emissions from MSW facilities account at
present for less than 1% of UK emissions of the primary pollutants such as oxides of nitrogen
and sulphur dioxide. MSW processing probably contributes on a similar scale to secondary
pollution. The effects are not likely to be significant in the context of other sources of
emissions to air.

59 | P a g e

CHAPTER-8 LIFECYCLE OF BUILDING

8.1 ADVERSE EFFECT OF BUILDING

Buildings have a profound effect on our environment. They consume precious material
resources and energy, and produce other wastes that are potentially damaging to the natural
environment. A building's lifecycle begins when raw materials are extracted from the earth,
followed by manufacturing, transport and use, and ends with waste management including
recycling and final disposal.

Fig.8.1 CO2 EMISSIONS BASELINE COMPARISON OF BUILDING

Fig.8.2 CO2 EMISSIONS LIFE CYCLE BALANCING

60 | P a g e

CO2 emissions occur at every stage of a buildings life cycle.

CO2 balancing may be attained by using long-lasting CO2 sink materials and products.
(Source: THE CENTER FOR MAXIMUM POTENTIAL BUILDING SYSTEMS AUSTIN,
TEXAS)
It is estimated that two-thirds of all CO2 emissions produced throughout the life-cycle of a
given building result from the production of energy for such purposes as air-conditioning and
heating, lighting and electricity, and water supply, and drainage.
In the U.S., one-sixth to two-thirds of the environmental impact nationwide is due to wood
and mineral extraction, water and energy, and the processing and manufacturing phases of the
life cycle within the construction industry. Currently the built environment accounts for
around 47% of greenhouse gas emissions in the UK (Construction accounts for 1.5%).
According to a survey and analysis of CO2 emissions in Japan, those from construction
activities, including production of building materials, constitute 37% of the total.
This shows that energy-saving is crucial. Conversely, reducing the amount of energy used in
the actual construction and demolition of buildings will yield fewer results in terms of
emissions reductions. However, if the life cycles of buildings were extended to twice their
present length, it would have the same effect as reducing construction-related energy
consumption by half. Therefore, making buildings more durable is important

Fig.8.3
61 | P a g e

A variety of energy-saving technologies were applied by (Obayashi Corporation) and it

designed a super-energy-efficient building, which consumes only one-fourth of the energy for
air-conditioning and lighting of ordinary buildings. Though construction costs for this
building were 20% higher than normal, since electricity expenses are 75% lower, the initial
extra costs were recovered in eight years, and CO2 emissions were also reduced by 73%.
(Source: Obayashi Corporation)

8.2 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ON SITE AND OFF SITE

CONSTRUCTIONS

In this chapter we will discuss on research report of STOCKHOLM ENVIRONMENT

INSTITUTE

Breakdown of GHG Emissions in the UK (2001), (Source: Stockholm Environment Institute,

2007, Resources and Energy Analysis Programme.)
8.2.1 The Carbon Footprint of Constructing an On-Site House
To calculate the carbon footprint of an on-site construction house the assumptions and results
have been divided into the three sections of construction, maintenance and energy
performance.
Construction:
Four key components have been taken into account in considering the carbon dioxide
emissions of constructing a new home in the UK. These being:
Material and product requirements of the building the home
Contingency ordering (assumed to be an extra 10% of the final house)
Over-ordering (considered to be 10% of the final house)
62 | P a g e

 Waste (considered to be 10% of the final house)

The total carbon footprint of building a new house is nearly 56 tonnes. Therefore, to build a
new house emits the same level of carbon dioxide as nearly five UK residents. For
comparative purposes, we can now consider the GHG emissions for m2 of floor space. The
average floor space of a new build house is 85.5 m2, equating to 0.66 tonnes of GHG
emissions per m2 of floor space. Assuming that a house does last for 70 years, then the
carbon dioxide emissions from the construction of house equate to 0.83 tonnes a year.

Maintenance:
The GHG emissions from the maintenance of the average house are 0.14 tonnes per
person.

Energy Performance:
63 | P a g e

The average person in the UK emits 2.8 tonnes of carbon dioxide from the energy use in their
home. With an average household occupancy of 2.5, this equates to a household carbon footprint
of 7 tonnes.
8.2.2 The Carbon Dioxide Emissions of an Off-Site Manufactured House
Construction:

In terms of the material requirements per m2 the OSM house does require fewer materials. To
produce the 10 m2 house requires 1.8 tonnes of materials. There are also fewer materials used
in the design. There is also less waste, over-ordering and contingency due to the fact that the
houses are made in a factory. To produce a conservative estimate it is assumed that 15% of
the weight of the house is generated as waste. For this case the GHG emission equates to 0.25
tonnes per m2.
Maintenance:
With no specific figures of the maintenance requirements of the OSM house, the UK average
is assumedas with the on-site construction house. The GHG emissions from the maintenance
of the average house are 0.14 tonnes per person.
Energy Performance:
While fewer materials are required to construct an OSM house, it will still need to achieve a
high level ofenergy performance. There is also the issue that the more features required the
greater the weight of the structure. The renewable energy technology alone would mean
64 | P a g e

increased weight. However many of the additional features are not the heavy construction
materials that the OSM has avoided, such as concrete, mortar and bricks. Again, to produce a
conservative estimate it is estimated that a 20% increase in weight is required to achieve a
high level of energy efficiency
Comparison of Results and Conclusions:
The OSM house clearly outperforms the onsite construction house in terms of its GHG
emissions.
The OSM house that achieves 2006 Building Regulations and produced in the UK has 17%
lower emissions. If the OSM house was to achieve Code Level 4 then the reduction would be
over 30%.
Other elements of the design also offer practical solutions to the reducing GHG emissions.
The reusability of the design ensures that the materials can either be recycled or the building
itself can be transported to a new location.

CHAPTER-9 CONTROL OF GREENHOUSE

GASES EMISSIONS
65 | P a g e

9.1 ALTERNATE CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

9.1 Aircrete:
Durox System uses aircrete blocks, making it suitable for use in external solid
and cavity wall as well as party walls and partitions. Thanks to larger block sizes and fastersetting thin joint mortar, Durox System offers increased productivity and faster speed of
build. In addition, the benefit of a reduced mortar joint means improved air tightness and
enhanced thermal performance.
Aircrete construction can also provide a high level of thermal mass, which means the
temperature of a building can be optimised all year round and will require much less energy
to heat and cool the structure compared to other lighter construction methods such as timber.
This has a direct impact on the amount of CO2 emitted over the lifetime of the building
because the need for mechanical heating and cooling is reduced, which has massive
environmental benefits.
Durox System is not just about the blocks. It is a total solution that has been designed
to take advantage of traditional masonry construction with a modern twist, combining the use
of blocks with a new, glue like mortar and specially designed accessories.
Unlike traditional methods of masonry construction, where a large amount of mortar is
required to construct a wall, with thin joint blockwork much less mortar is required, allowing
the user to mix batches in-situ, using a powdered mortar mixer. A special serrated mortar
applicator or scoop has been designed to make it easier for blocklayers to apply the correct
amount of mortar. Due to the quick-setting properties of the mortar there is no limitation to
the height that Durox System blockwork that can be built in a day, speeding up the
construction process dramatically.

66 | P a g e

9.2 Bamboo Construction

Fig.9.1

Bamboo is a woody evergreen plant traditionally grown in South-East Asia, and now grown
across India and the Himalayas, North-East Australia, and South-West America. It grows in
diverse climate zones, and can spread rapidly, unless prevented or deliberately cultivated. It
has traditionally been regarded by Chinese society as a symbol of longevity, and within India
as a sign of friendship.
It is a highly useful plant, consisting of about 1000 species, and has a wide variety of uses,
from garden design through to interior decoration and ornamental display, use as food from
the shoots, as paper by early civilization, right through to use as a timber source for the
building industry.
Bamboo in Building and Construction?

Bamboo is used by some American building and construction companies exclusively, who
prize it as the strongest type of wood for construction, as well as being the most durable,
resilient and long-lasting. It can be used in conjunction with steel to create mortice's and
tendon joints, which give a secure locking ability to a wooden frame made entirely of

67 | P a g e

bamboo timbers. A bamboo house looks beautiful and if cared for properly, with regular
attention to the finishings and exterior surfaces, can last for a long time. Bamboo can
withstand heat and humid climates the traditional climates of Asia, and suppliers boast that
bamboo houses can withstand hurricanes if well constructed.
While it should not be disregarded as a building material, those looking to plan and design a
house made from sustainable materials. should regard bamboo as a potential component of
the proposed house, and not as the principal material. Certainly bamboo can complement the
house's interior, as an untreated pipe cover for instance, or as ceiling or floor trimmings.
Check what bamboo products are available from a local environmentally-responsible building
materials supplier.
The nature of bamboo as a living material can greatly complement a sustainable house. Using
bamboo as a living plant and as a tree, both within the house as well as the garden is an
option.

9.3 Wood Frame Construction

Fig.9.2
Although housing with wood frames is very common in many parts of the world (America,
for example), it's not often found these days. Yet it's a very durable form (the oldest standing
timber building in the U.K. dates from the 12th century). It's a good, sustainable resource (at
68 | P a g e

least European softwood is), but all too often wasted. It's estimated that 2.5 million tonnes of
wood each year is wasted in the U.K. from construction alone, and 3,000 tonnes of re-usable
timber is burnt or put in landfills every single day.

Construction
You can buy pre-packaged wood frame homes, or you can construct on your site. In this
country the wood frames are often brick-covered, although that's not necessary - many
different materials will do the job. But the more wood you use instead of something else
returns a lot to the environment - 0.8 tonnes of carbon dioxide for each cubic metre, in fact.

9.4 Environmentally-Friendly Engineered Masonry Blocks

Fyfestone has developed a new generation of environmentally-friendly engineered masonry

blocks, in response to increasing global demands for more sustainable methods of
construction
Enviromasonry, 440 x 215mm x 100mm format, meets the growing demand for aesthetic
replica natural stone products, whilst achieving an A rating in sustainable construction, as
certified by the Building Research Establishment's (BRE) Environmental Profile Scheme.
Certified for External Cavity wall construction and internal partition walls, Enviromasonry
is ideal for all commercial construction projects.
Manufactured using specially selected secondary recycled aggregates and replacement
cement in ISO 14001 compliant factories, Enviromasonry minimises the damaging and
wasteful impact that manufacture can incur yet shows how it is possible for specifiers to
achieve a Green Guide to Specification A rating and meet the highest standards of
sustainability in design and construction, without having to use alternative construction
techniques

9.5 Ferroconcrete Tile Roof

69 | P a g e

Fig.9.3
Fig.10.6. shows a ferroconcrete tile roof. Ferroconcrete tile can be made locally using thin
galvanised iron (GI) wires and microconcrete. The tile size is about 1.25 m0.55 m. These
tiles can be supported on wooden rafters. The energy/m 2 of such a roof is 158 MJ.
ferroconcrete tile roof is the least energy roof.

9.6 Stabilised Mud Block (SMB) Filler Slab Roof

Fig.9.4
RC solid slab is very commonly used for the floor slab as well as roof slab construction. A
portion of the material below neutral axis in a solid slab can be replaced by filler material
such as SMB. Use of such filler material can result in reduction in dead weight of RC slab,
savings in cost as well as energy of the roof/floor system. Fig.10.7.1 shows the ceiling of a
SMB filler slab roof. The total energy content of the materials constituting SMB filler slab is
590 MJ/m2 of plan area of the slab. This is a floor slab designed as per IS 456 code for a span
of 3.6 m. There will be variations in energy content for different spans of the slab. Use of
SMB filler in RC slab leads to about 20% reduction in energy content.
9.7 Reinforced Concrete (RC) Ribbed Slab Roof

70 | P a g e

Thin RC slab of thickness 5060 mm is supported on small RC beams. Spacing of RC

beams will be in the range of 0.751 m and the size of beams will depend upon the roof/floor
span. This type of roof/floor slab can have an energy content of 491 MJ/m2 of slab area, for
3.6 m span. RC ribbed slab roof system consumes about two-thirds of energy of RC slab
roof/floor. This is another efficient way of reducing energy of RC solid slab.

9.8 Using Lime

Fig.9.5
Lime has been used in building techniques for over 5,000 years. Archaeological evidence
shows it to have been in existence for this time frame due to its resilience, durability, and
water resistant qualities.
Also, lime as a building material is undergoing a revival of interest and application amongst
those who favour a more natural solution to building needs. Lime, gypsum and clay are
particularly suited to the construction of straw bale houses or earth ships, where these natural
materials seal the straw or rubber creating a strong and solid, yet breathable wall
The forms that lime can be used in are as follows:

Lime putty

Lime mortar: this is lime putty mixed with sand. This can be used to bed in masonry,
and is also used in pointing or rendering brickwork, and for general plastering use.

71 | P a g e

Lime wash: this is lime putty diluted in water. This is used to paint internal and
external walls. A pigment can be added to create a colour wash.

9.2 TECHNIQUE OF CARBON OFFSETTING

At Carbon Footprint, our belief is that climate change will only be addressed if each and
every one of us takes responsible steps to reduce their CO2 emissions.

Fig.9.5
We do realise that for some individuals, businesses and organisations, avoidance of all CO2
emissions will be almost impossible in this case, Carbon Offsetting plays a vital role.

9.2.1 What is Carbon Offsetting ?

Each of our everyday actions consume energy and produce carbon dioxide emissions, e.g.
taking holiday flights, driving our cars, heating or cooling our homes. Carbon Offsets can be
used to compensate for the emissions produced by funding an equivalent carbon dioxide
saving somewhere else.

9.2.2 How do I Carbon Offset ?

The process of Carbon offsetting involves two steps :
1. First a calculation of your carbon footprint. For individuals, you can do this on-line with
calculator. Organisations can also use various techniques for calculations of their carbon
footprint.
2. The second step involves buying carbon offset credits from emission reduction projects.
Such projects will prevent / have already prevented or removed an equivalent amount of
carbon dioxide elsewhere in the World. As CO2 emissions are distributed across the World, it
72 | P a g e

does not matter whether you make the reduction in Manchester or Mumbai the positive
effect on the environment will be the same.

9.2.3 Types of carbon offset:

9.2.3.1 Certified Carbon Credits
These products derive from international climate exchanges, are fully traceable and 'retire'
Carbon Offsets made by Companies that would otherwise be traded on to other Companies to
help them to meet their emissions targets. By retiring these credits we encourage industry to
take active steps to reduce their emissions, rather than relying on efforts of others. well also
be encouraging Companies that save CO2 to continue their efforts.

9.2.3.2 Voluntary Carbon Credits:

These products include our international tree planting programmes, Trees reduce CO2 by a
process known as carbon sequestration i.e. trees breathe in CO 2 and exhale harmless
Oxygen.ean energy fund. Trees have further benefits of providing sustainable ecoenvironments. They provide a habitat for wildlife, encourage biodiversity, and beautify the
landscape. In developing countries, they also support community sustainability by
encouraging sustainable land management & build wealth creation.

9.3 CONCEPT OF GREEN BUILDING

A zero carbon home is one with zero net emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) from all energy
use in the home. The definition encompasses all energy use in the home (including energy
for cooking, TVs, computers and other appliances) rather than just those energy uses that are
currently part of building regulations (space heating, hot water, ventilation and some
lighting). It means that over a year there are no net carbon emissions resulting from the
operation of the dwelling. This could be achieved either through steps taken at the individual
73 | P a g e

dwelling level or through site wide strategies. So it will not be necessary for each dwelling to
have its own micro generation capacity where development level solutions would be more
appropriate.
Here are given some methods by which we can build a green house (zero carbon) :
1. An all electric house, with electric resistance heating or a heat pump. A large area of solar
cells or wind turbine.
2. Gas (oil or lpg )heating with a solar water heating system and a renewable electricity
system. Renewable energy system generates more than the house consumes the net surplus
offsets the co2 emission of gas.
3. A wood fired heating system and renewable electricity system.

Other methods may include:

1.Timber and aluminium clad windows and doors.

2.Solar spaces and conservatories .
3.Natural paints and wood finshes.
4.Ultra efficient water systems and water saving taps and fittings.
5.Natural insulation and rain water harvesting systems.
Here's a list of simple things we can do immediately
These will start to reduce our contribution to global warming. The items in this list will cost
us no money at all and will in fact save our money.

Sign up to a green energy supplier, who will supply electricity from renewable
sources (e.g. wind and hydroelectric power) - this will reduce your carbon footprint
contribution from electricity to zero

74 | P a g e

Turn it off when not in use (lights, television, DVD player, Hi Fi, computer etc. .Turn
down the central heating slightly (try just 1 to 2 degrees C)

Turn down the water heating setting (just 2 degrees will make a significant saving)

Check the central heating timer setting - remember there is no point heating the house
after you have left for work

Fill your dish washer and washing machine with a full load - this will save you water,
electricity, and washing powder

Fill the kettle with only as much water as you need

Unplug your mobile phone as soon as it has finished charging
Defrost your fridge/freezer regularly
Do your weekly shopping in a single trip
Hang out the washing to dry rather than tumble drying it
Go for a run rather than drive to the gym

9.3.1 Solar water heating

Solar water heating systems use heat from the sun to heat water. The technology is widely
available and well developed.
The Solar Water heating systems can provide nearly all your hot water during the summer
months and about 50% all year round. The average domestic system can reduce you carbon
emissions by about 400kg per year.

Fig.9.6

75 | P a g e

For domestic hot water there are three main components: solar panels, a heat transfer system,
and a hot water cylinder. Solar panels - or collectors - are fitted to your roof. They collect
heat from the sun's radiation. The heat transfer system uses the collected heat to heat water. A
hot water cylinder stores the hot water that is heated during the day and supplies it for use
later. The panels work throughout daylight hours, even if the sky is overcast and there is no
direct sunshine.
A south facing roof is ideal for installation of a solar water heating system to ensure
receiving direct sunlight for the main part of the day. You may also need space to locate an
additional water cylinder.
The typical installation cost for a domestic flat plate collector system is 2,000 - 3,000.
Evacuated tube systems will cost 3,500 - 4,500. Solar water systems can also be used for
larger applications such as heating a swimming pool.

9.4 ECO-FRIENDLYCONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

With sustainability of the buildings the hot topic of the moment, a key issue to consider is
climate change. Climatic change will have an increasing impact on the way every person on
the earth lives, so it is vital that when specifying MMC (Modern Method of Construction)
that we should carefully consider the materials used in the build. Taking into account all the
issues , before product selection can be finalised, there needs to be a thorough assessment of
the availability of local labour and the skill sets required to complete the construction process
as swiftly as possible. Similarly, in keeping with the issue of sustainability, we need to
consider the cradle-to-grave requirements of the construction method, i.e. were raw materials
obtained from local sources, does the manufacturer use recycled products or by-products and
what is the environmental impact generated in the production process.

Conventional construction whilst it has its place, has a number of disadvantages:

76 | P a g e

1. The process of obtaining, processing and using the raw materials is very costly in
terms of CO2 emissions hence the carbon footprint of a commercial building is
substantial. These raw materials are also being increasingly costly and difficult to
obtain.
2. The product is inherently hand-made and with a world in shortage of construction
skills, use of conventional materials leads to inconsistency and poor quality.
3. The process is time-consuming and weather dependant to a major extent.
4. Conventional forms of construction are not thermally efficient the buildings
exchange a lot of heat with their environment requiring energy-intensive heating /
cooling to moderate external temperature.
5. Construction using conventional methods results in a process that is generally
difficult to keep safe, given the current level of skills shortage among workers, the
inherent danger in the nature of the construction site and the materials used.
Modern methods of construction, which has been in the use in America, Europe and
Australasia for the past 100 years utilize various materials but share the same objectives:
1. Use materials that came from sustainable resources and have a low embodiedenergy level.
2. Through intelligent modular design, aim to reduce material wastage and permit
maximized off-site fabrication.
3. Maximum off-site fabrication in a controlled factory environment results in a better
quality end product.
4. Utilizing efficiency obtained through intelligent design and maximum off-site
construction results in reduced delivery periods.
5. The end product is engineered and the fit, together with the selection of
materials provides a thermally efficient envelope.
In essence, modern methods of off-site construction results in:
Improved
Reduced

QUALITY

delivery TIME
77 | P a g e

 Reduced
Higher
Better

COST to the end-user, primarily through saved time

levels of SAFETY through better controls

PERFORMANCE of the end product

Reduced

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

In this chapter we will discuss some techniques which are environment friendly.

9.4.1 Brick Construction:

Fig.9.7
Bricks are blocks of clay that have been hardened through being fired in a kiln or dried in the
sun. Over time, kiln-fired bricks have grown more popular than sun-dried bricks, although
both are still found worldwide. Bricks have been in continual use for around 5000 years, and
brickwork from this time still stands in the Middle East, a testament to its durability.
The Roman Legions first brought bricks to Britain, using mobile kilns to construct roads,
aqueducts and buildings across the country. Bricks were especially favoured in the 18th and
19th Centuries, although their use has declined over the last 50 years due to the increased
availability of cement and concrete.
9.4.1.1 Manufacture of Bricks
In the past, bricks came in many different shapes and sizes, but today's modern bricks tend to
be a standard size of around 8" x 4" x 2". They demonstrate a wide variety of textures,
colours and finishes from yellows, reds and purples, to smooth, rough and rustic. These are
due to the mineral variations found in the clay, and the method of manufacturing.
78 | P a g e

Bricks are traditionally handmade by mixing clay with enough water to form a mud that is
then poured into a mould of the desired shape and size, and hardened through fire or sun.
Adobe bricks, very fashionable in parts of the USA, are still made in this way with a mixture
of clay and sand (and sometimes manure and straw) being poured into a form, and then
removed and dried in stacks outside in the sun.
Compressed Earth Blocks (CEBs) were developed in the 1950s and are similar to adobe
bricks, except they are more compact and uniform. They are created from soil that is more
sand than clay, and compressed using a manual or motorised machine to produce a variety of
block shapes, including hollow designs for insulation. CEBs are highly energy efficient using
up to 15 times less energy than a fired brick. They are durable, ecological, inexpensive, and
utilise low technology. For this reason they are increasingly used in developing countries as a
sustainable building technology.
Modern methods of brick making are highly mechanised and automated procedures whereby
clay is extruded in a continuous column, wirecut into bricks, and hydraulically pressed to
ensure resistance to weathering. The bricks are then dried and slow fired at around 1000 1200 C. In more recent times, recycled glass and other waste materials have been introduced
into this process. These materials have been found to reduce firing times, temperatures and
toxic emissions, improve brick strength and durability, and reduce waste going to landfill.
9.4.1.2 Brick Laying
Bricks are laid flat in rows called courses, exposing either their sides (stretcher) or ends
(header). The pattern of overlap created by the course is called a bond. There are several
different kinds of bonds, including Stretcher (most common), Herringbone, English, Basket
and Flemish. With all bonds, the vertical joints between each course of bricks must not line
up or the structure will be weakened.
Bricks are usually held together by mortar, though some bricks such as CEBs can be dry
stacked. Mortar consists of sand, a binding agent (traditionally lime but these days more often
cement) and water, which is then mixed to a thick paste. It is applied to a brick, which is then
placed onto another brick and allowed to dry. Pointing refers to the visible edge of the mortar
between the bricks, which is finished with a special trowel to provide a decorative look to the
brickwork.

79 | P a g e

When building a structure, a bed of mortar is laid on top of the foundation, and the structure's
ends are built up first. A string is then stretched between these ends to ensure each row of
bricks stays level. Two layers of brick are used to create a stronger structure, with a gap left
in between for insulation purposes. A wide range of structures including arches can be built
using bricks.
Bricks as a Sustainable Building Material
Bricks are a versatile and durable building material, with good load-bearing properties, high
thermal mass and potential low energy impact. In the case of simple earth bricks such as
adobe and CEBs, they measure high on the sustainability index, being made from locally
available (and abundant) materials of clay, sand, and water, using low technology
compression equipment, solar energy or kilns. While modern methods of brick construction
have a much lower sustainability index, the UK brick industry has developed a strategy to
minimise its environmental impact and increase its energy efficiency and use of renewable
energies. Overall, bricks are a good example of a sustainable building practice and are
currently gaining in popularity around the world.
9.4.2 Earth and Construction
Earth construction is the practice of building with unfired, untreated, raw earth. It has been
successfully used around the world for over 11,000 years, and it is estimated that around half
the world's population today live and work in earth buildings.

9.4.2.1 Types of Earth Building

The techniques and methods for earth construction vary with culture, climate and resources,
but within the sustainable building movement they can be categorized as:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Cob Building
Rammed Earth
Light Earth or Straw Clay
Earthbags
80 | P a g e

5. Earth Bricks
6. Earthen Floors
7. Earth plasters and finishes

Building with Earth, For the Earth

Earth is one of the most abundant, basic building materials. It is low technology, easily
worked with simple tools, and yet can be used by anyone to construct walls, floors and roofs
of advanced architectural design. Earth buildings are highly durable, have good humidity
regulation and sound insulation, and are non-toxic, non-allergenic and fireproof. They
provide excellent thermal mass and insulation when built with thick walls, and when used
with passive solar design. Earth buildings have very low embodied energy, and low
environmental impact, especially when the material is sourced on site. As a building material
and methodology, earth is the ultimate sustainable solution.

9.4.3 Heating and Sustainability

Fig.9.8
The biggest issue facing house designers and builders in the modern age is how to ensure the
construction accords with the worldwide need to exist within limits of sustainability. This
involves ensuring that all resources used are made from renewable resources, instead of
eating away at the eventually limited worldwide supply of the fossil fuels that we use to

81 | P a g e

create gas and electricity, and that the emissions from the building can be minimised, and to
aim for a zero emission target, or a non-carbon contribution.
9.4.3.1 Sustainable Heating Systems: Some Options

There are several options for installing, or even replacing, a more ecological heating system
within a building. Some of the most common are as follows:
9.4.3.1.1 Solar Heating
There are two types of solar panel heating systems, which are based on different
technologies. Solar Water Heating systems, also known as Solar Thermal systems, just
supplies hot water. Solar Photovoltaic or Solar PV systems generate only electricity. Using
the resource of the sun's energy, we have the technology to heat our water supply within our
houses. Some municipal swimming pools in the UK are now harnessing this technology to
keep swimmers warm in the water in winter. This advance greatly reduces our dependency
upon imported fossil fuels, and improves the crucial diversity of energy supply, is
immediately and readily available - except for those dark, dreary winter months - as well as
curbing urban air pollution.
But the second system, Photovoltaic, is an expensive technology, which would take
generations of savings off electricity bills before it paid for itself. Also, at times the solar
system needs connection to an electrical system to boost power, storage of power within this
system are not fully developed yet, and in the UK the heat from the sun is insufficient to give
year-round energy to the system. Most experts are recommending combining a photovoltaic
system with a secondary source, such as the wood pellet stove, to provide all year cover of
electricity.

9.4.3.1.2 Wood Pellet Stoves

Another possibility is the installation of a Wood Pellet stove. These have been developed and
manufactured in Nordic countries, and rely upon softwood pellets - typically made of
manufactured wood by-products, such as sawdust. This is an effective exchange of fossil
fuels in favour of bio-fuel (see our page on this site : www.sustainablebuild.co.uk/bio82 | P a g e

energy), and encourages continued replanting of forestry. There are environmental issues
however in doing this, such as habitat loss. Also, it is yet unknown what the emissions
contribution is from burning chemically complex non-softwood pellets. This could have
environmental and health hazards.

9.4.3.1.2 Ground Source Heat Pumps (GSHP)

This is a system that utilises the natural solar heat that exists stored within the ground. A
high-quality ground loop and heat pump system collects the heat, converts it to energy, then
can store or utilise it as energy. This is innovative, and a literally ground-breaking technology
and here in the UK is in operation in parts of Scotland. However, it is both an expensive
system to install, and has a natural limit in that only a maximum of 70% of the necessary
heating energy for a building can be obtained this way.
It is probable that anyone considering which sustainable type of heating system for an
environmentally-friendly building would opt for a combination of the systems mentioned
above. Bear in mind that it is our imperative need to halt harm to our environment and the
fragile eco-system we live within, and developing and using systems such as these to heat and
power our lives are crucial, as well as examples of tremendous human ingenuity.
9.4.4 Using Locally Sustainable Materials

Fig.9.9
Sustainable building is an essential aspect of widening efforts to conceive an ecologically
responsible world. A building that is sustainable must, by nature, be constructed using locally
83 | P a g e

sustainable materials: i.e. materials that can be used without any adverse effect on the
environment, and which are produced locally, reducing the need to travel. There are key
criteria that can be used to judge whether a material is sustainable or not:

To what extent will the materials used in this building cause damage to the
environment? When using locally sustainable materials it is essential that those
materials are renewable, non-toxic and, therefore, safe for the environment. Ideally,
they will be recycled, as well as recyclable.

To what extent will a building material contribute to the maintenance of the

environment in years to come? Alloys and metals will be more damaging to the
environment over a period of years as they are not biodegradable, and are not easily
recyclable, unlike wood, for example.

To what extent is the material used locally replenishable? If the material is locally
sourced and can be found locally for the foreseeable future, travelling will be kept to a
minimum, reducing harmful fuel emissions.

The Golden Oldies are often the Greenest!

Often, old materials and building methods are more sustainable than new ones. Wattle and
Daub (a system of building using compressed mud and straw) and Thatched Roofing are two
examples of sustainable building methods that are rarely seen today. Practitioners of such
methods can still be found via an internet search.
Experiment and Enjoy!
Building using sustainable materials is immensely rewarding. It requires ingenuity and
creativity, whilst at the same time providing a sense of well being and contributing to a better
environment, now and for future generations What are you waiting for?

9.4.5 Minimising the Use of Resources

84 | P a g e

Fig.9.10
To construct a building, lay the foundations, build walls, or even doing the weekly shopping,
we use resources, be they brick, stone, wood, cardboard or plastic wrapping. Recently a UK
Government minister angered the food industry by suggesting that supermarket shoppers
could protest the amount of plastic used in food presentation, by unwrapping it and leaving it
at the till!
In the construction industry, as well as what the materials are delivered in, be they crates,
protective wrapping or pallets, as well as the fuel and energy resources used in the delivery, a
general over-estimation of materials needed, combined with wastage and breakages, results in
a surplus of materials and therefore the overuse of valuable resources. How can we find
solutions to this exaggerated depletion of our resources, and build and live according to the
principles of sustainable development, wasting little or nothing, and conserving resources,
using renewables where possible?
Stay Local
The first principle in building, and shopping and consuming too, is to source local products.
Once you know the structure you want to construct, and have consulted with an architect, the
local planning authority, and found a green builder (or are planning to do it yourself), put into
practise the increasingly popular principle of finding local suppliers. This may be a local
quarry that supplies stone, a local brick factory, or a supplier of wood and wood products
from a sustainably-grown forest. This may seem to be an impossible ideal, but the more often
85 | P a g e

we set ourselves these targets, then pressure is brought upon suppliers to source locally, and
not just to rely on imported products.
The recent television programme 'It's not easy being green' illustrated this point very clearly.
In restoring an old farmhouse in Cornwall, the family involved wanted to use local Cornish
slates for the roof, but prohibitive cost meant it was much cheaper to buy overseas imported
slate. We as consumers ultimately have great power - purchasing power, which we can use to
influence the availability of products. Local products ultimately provides local employment,
and secure local economies. The BedZed Housing Development in the London Borough of
Sutton was planned and built upon the (at the time, brave) decision to only use materials from
within a 35 mile radius.

Reducing Packing Materials

This principle is harder to put into practise, but allows you to see instant results, when you
aren't faced with a pile of packaging to dispose of. It is easier to experience during the weekly
shop, by choosing food that doesn't come wrapped in layers of plastic, or better, choosing
shops or markets that choose not to sell food in this overly clinical way.
Paper and some plastics, and glass, can be recycled, but as consumers if we can influence the
suppliers and producers not to use unnecessary resources in the first place, then we will
succeed. Another option is to only use suppliers who use packing materials made of recycled
products.
One way of monitoring your households consumer purchasing and wastage on a weekly basis
is to monitor your weekly rubbish output. How much can you reduce this ? By composting
food scraps (see detailed instructions for guidance) the household weekly waste can often be
halved. Of course, another option is to leave the packing materials at the store, and to leave
the supplier to deal with it !
Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
This simple phrase does help to drive home the message. Seeing images, common now in
many environment-related documentaries, and daily in the media, of environmental

86 | P a g e

destruction due to the depletion of resources - forests, landscapes, habitats, in order to

package and provide, also reinforces the crisis we are in.
Recycling one glass bottle, or asking for locally made products to use in our home, really
does start to make a difference. If we really now begin to minimize the use of resources, we
will slowly begin to see and feel the difference to our planet - after all, it is our home.
9.4.6 Non Toxic Paints

Fig.9.11
All paints contain three main components: pigment (colour), a binder (holds the paint
together) and a carrier (disperses the binder). With many modern paints these ingredients are
made using toxic chemicals that are harmful to both the environment and human health.
Cadmium, lead and chromium are frequently used in pigments; and petrochemicals, solvents,
benzene, formaldehyde and other volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are used in binders and
carriers. Toxic chemicals are also used in modern paints as preservatives, stabilisers,
thickeners and driers.
VOCs are organic (carbon based) chemical compounds that evaporate easily in the
atmosphere, and are known to be a major contributor to global climate change. Many of them
are highly toxic and linked with numerous health problems such as respiratory disease,
asthma, dizziness, headaches, nausea, fatigue, skin disorders, eye irritation, liver and kidney
damage and even cancer. Modern chemical paints continue to emit VOCs many years after
their application.
87 | P a g e

Increasing concerns about the impact of chemical paints on health and the environment have
led to a growing market in non-toxic paints. Environmental regulations have forced
conventional paint companies to significantly reduce their VOC content, and most of the
large paint companies now offer one or more varieties of non-toxic paints. However, many of
these still contain VOC solvents, chemical pigments and fungicides.
Eco Labels for Paints
Non-toxic paints are often called Low-VOC, No-VOC, VOC-Free, odourless, odourfree and green, natural or organic paints. There are no set standards for defining these labels,
and they are widely misused for marketing purposes. To help consumers make informed
decisions on their paint purchases, various ecological labels have been developed by different
countries to indicate that the paint has fulfilled certain environmental requirements, in
accordance with respective government regulations. These eco-labels can be found as logos
on paint cans, and include the European Eco-Label, Blue Angel in Germany, and Green Seal
and Greenguard in the USA. In the UK, VOC labels are used, and indicate the content of
VOCs using one of five classifications: Minimal (0-0.29%), Low, Medium, High and Very
High (VOC content greater than 50%).
Low-VOC paints tend to use water as a carrier instead of petrochemical solvents, and so their
emissions are minimal. Many conventional paints have achieved relatively low VOC levels.
No-VOC or VOC-Free paints may still contain very low levels of VOCs in their pigments or
additives. Although reducing VOC content is a move in the right direction, it is questionable
whether either of these paint types can be considered non-toxic.
Natural Paints
Natural paints are the only true non-toxic paint since they contain no VOCs, and are
made from natural ingredients such as water, vegetable oils, plant dyes, and natural minerals.
The main binders used in natural paints are: linseed oil (from flax seeds), clay, lime, and milk
protein. Lime and milk paints give an authentic period look, and are often used in antique
restoration projects. Chalk is used as an extender to thicken paint; turpentine (distilled from
pine trees) is used as a solvent; essential oils from citrus fruits (d-limonene) are used as a
solvent and fragrance; and natural mineral and earth pigments are used as colorants.
The main benefits of natural paints are:
88 | P a g e

Non-toxic - no hazardous fumes or harmful effects on health. This is significant for

allergy sufferers and chemically sensitive people who are unable to tolerate chemical
paints.

Environmentally Friendly - use renewable resources; are biodegradable, can even be

composted.

Micro-Porous - allow walls and surfaces to breathe, preventing condensation and

damp problems, and reducing associated indoor allergens. They are also less prone to
paint flaking, peeling and blistering.

On the downside, natural paints can be more expensive because they are made on a smaller
scale, although this situation is changing as they become more popular. Natural paints can
also take longer to dry (sometimes up to 24 hours or more) and there is less of a colour range
to choose from. Natural mineral pigments tend to produce paints that come in pastel shades
only, and this has led some natural paint companies to use synthetic pigments to create a
more extensive range of colours.
Paints for a Sustainable Future
Unlike conventional paint companies, natural paint suppliers are committed to
making sure their materials derive from sustainable sources and are manufactured in an
environmentally friendly way. They aim to minimise pollution, energy and waste throughout
the life cycle of their products. Natural paint companies give thought to the recyclable
packaging of their products, and they also declare their product ingredients so that consumers
know exactly what they are using. Because natural paints are non-toxic, they are completely
safe and this makes them the obvious choice for any consumer concerned with protecting the
earth and its people for future generations.
9.4.7 Passive Design

89 | P a g e

Fig.9.12
Passive solar design is a technique that uses the heat of the sun to regulate a building's
temperature without using other energy sources. It is one of the ultimate forms of sustainable
building design as if 100% successful, the buildings design and construction incorporates
enough means to allow solar energy in, without recourse to other energy: environmentallydamaging energy, such as fossil fuels.
Ultimately, the successful use of passive solar design depends upon both the correct
understanding of the sun's movements, and the best use of materials and their sitting in order
to capitalise on the solar energy.
3 Levels of Passive Solar Design

Architects refer to 3 levels or strategies of passive solar design: direct, indirect, and isolated.
The direct strategy is the specific use of windows and shutters and other design features,
which capture what is known as a short cycle of solar energy. Indirect passive solar design
makes greater use of solar energy, with whole walls, water tanks, and earthed roofs being
examples of this - the building's structure acting as insulation, with a slow-release of heat
capability. Isolated solar design refers to the capturing of solar energy and slow-releasing it
through the building. Various techniques and structures such as solar stoves and chimneys
have been designed and built for this purpose.
Passive Solar Design in Your Building's Plan
90 | P a g e

Passive solar design is a wonderful technique of energy use and conservation, but it can be
very tricky to get right and to be the most effective form of energy capture. It demands a
creative and flexible approach.
The building's location is clearly crucial. In many locations, too much exposure to the sun
and the use of large windows and glass doors can leave houses being too hot and
uncomfortable during the day. A clear appraisal of the site to be built upon needs to be
undertaken, with regard given to location factors, such as other buildings or trees, which will
provide shade for all or part of the day.
Then, armed with this information, the designer and those who will live in or use the building
should look at the range of materials available with which to construct the building adobe
walls, for instance, absorb solar energy well and release it slowly. The walls of a building are
referred to in solar design as thermal mass the mass of material that absorbs and insulates.
The type and size of windows, as well as their location, should be very carefully considered.
The shape of the building, as well as the external environment that will surround the
completed project, are important factors to consider as well.
Sustainable and Creative Building Design
To fully understand this concept, and to decide how it could be adapted to work best for any
new build, is to visit examples of buildings built with passive solar design as a definite design
point.
Try to find buildings in the nearby location to where you intend to build, and assess the use of
solar energy through the day. How long does the sun shine in the height of summer, and in the
winter?
Does summer heat create humidity? If so, this has a different effect on building temperatures
and conditions. Passive solar design also incorporates temperature cooling issues within a
building can a building cool day and night, or will air-conditioning have to be installed?
Above all, find an experienced architect or construction engineer who has specific experience
in this field. It is an important, perhaps a crucial part of planning a sustainable-built
construction.

91 | P a g e

9.4.8 Photovoltaics

Fig.9.12
Photovoltaics are cells made from glass and steel that convert light into electricity. Inside the
core of the cell are components known as photodiodes, which feed the incoming solar rays
into semiconductors, which react with the sunlight, thus converting to electricity. This is an
extremely effective way of harnessing power from the sun, and using a plentiful and
renewable resource as an energy source, instead of relying on environmentally-damaging and
limited fossil fuels.
Worldwide Applications of Photovoltaics

The worldwide use of photovoltaic systems is increasing annually, with Germany, Japan and
the US leading in research and use of. As an example, in Germany at the end of 2005, there
was a total of 1,429,000 PV wattage capacity (KWp) (combining both off-grid system an on
grid figures). In contrast, for the same period in the UK, the figure was 10,877 KWp.
The first large-scale use of photovoltaic systems as a power source was in powering satellites
orbiting the globe. Other commercial uses include roadside breakdown assistance telephones,
remote sensing systems, and the protection of underground pipeline systems, by powering
cathodes that prevent corrosion of the pipes metal surface. The public probably first became
aware of the application of photovoltaics through their use in powering personal calculators,
92 | P a g e

pioneered in the 1970's. A recent, very useful and innovative gadget on the market is a
photovoltaic mobile phone (and Ipod, laptop etc) charger these portable, fold-out devices
are worth the investment, and really show that there are alternatives to our increasing gadgetdriven energy consumption in the Western world.
Photovoltaics in a Sustainably-Built Construction
The CIS Tower in Manchester, an office complex housing the Innovative and ethical Cooperative Bank and financial services, is covered in photovoltaic cells, and is the largest PV
project in the UK. The project cost 5.5 million pounds in 2005, and is estimated to generate
180,000 Kwh per year, which is fed directly into the National electricity grid. This gives
enough power to run approximately 73 homes all year round; all their energy needs met
through harnessing the sun.
On this kind of scale, photovoltaics is a significant contributor to energy collection, storage,
and use. However, on a small-scale, per building level, the costs are prohibitive, and storage
of converted electricity becomes a problem. The cost per unit is equally a prohibitive factor,
and unlike the small household wind turbines, recently on the market at DIY stores, it is not
possible to simply buy a unit, attach it, and connect up to the National Grid, or use the power
exclusively in the home. This situation is changing however, due to concerns over depleted
fossil fuels and the growing interest in alternative and renewable energies, so check with your
local Energy Saving Trust (EST) or green architect or building suppliers.
Houses in remote areas of the UK, where it is difficult to get cables to, are sometimes given
financial help to design and erect a photovoltaic system, but these examples are few.
Photovoltaics can play a part in the make-up and powering of a sustainably built building:
however they are expensive, and might be best considered as part of a wide package of
renewable energy sources, that could also include passive solar design, and energy from
wind, as two examples.
9.4.9 Sustainable Sewage Design

93 | P a g e

Fig.9.13
Sewage, also called blackwater, is a complex mixture of contaminants containing pathogens,
toxic chemicals, heavy metals, debris, nutrients, nitrates and phosphates. It is wastewater
from both domestic and industrial sources, from faeces and urine, to bleach and cleaning
products, paint, solvent and oils - everything that is flushed down a toilet or poured down a
drain.
Most homes in the UK are connected to the mains sewers, whereby sewage travels through a
system of pipes to be collected by an industrial treatment plant. It is then treated with
chemical and mechanical processes to remove contaminants and separate sludge from liquid.
The liquid is discharged into the nearest large body of water or reused, and the sludge is
incinerated or partially used in agriculture as a controlled fertiliser.
In the UK there are strict government regulations and standards related to sewage collection
and treatment, but still 300 million gallons of raw or partially treated sewage is discharged
directly into the sea, destroying aquatic life and posing significant risks to human health.
Worldwide sewage dumping is an even bigger problem. This environmental threat, combined
with the energy intensive processes of conventional sewage plants, has facilitated the
development of sustainable sewage systems.
Ecological Sewage Systems
Ecological or biological sewage systems are based on natural ecosystems that use ecological
processes for water purification and nutrient recycling. Their exact design is dependent on
94 | P a g e

location, climate and population, but all involve wastewater being passed through a managed
or constructed environment where a diversity of plant and animal organisms transform the
waste in the water. Aquatic plants such as water hyacinths, reeds, rushes, lilies, and
duckweeds, break down toxic chemicals, nitrates and phosphates through their root microbes,
and bioaccumulate heavy metals in their stems and leaves. These plants are an integral part of
an ecologically-engineered whole system that provides an oxygenated environment in which
bacteria, fungi, snails, fish and aquatic invertebrates can thrive and also play their part in the
water purification process. There are two main types of ecological sewage systems:
constructed reed beds, and solar aquatic systems

Sewage: A Valuable Resource

Ecologically designed sewage systems are a good example of sustainable design. They are
energy-efficient, inexpensive, effective and environmentally friendly, and can be applied at
any scale, from a single home to a large city. Yet this technology fails to realise the full
potential of sewage as a resource. Although sewage contains contaminants, it also holds
nutrients that can be used to improve soil fertility, along with the ability to produce natural
gas. Technologies such as biogas plants that maximise sewage as an energy and nutrient
source need to be developed on a global scale. It's time that sewage was viewed as a valuable
resource, and not just a problem to be treated.

9.4.10 Space Usage in Sustainable Design

95 | P a g e

Fig.9.14
Within the field of sustainable design, space, or the use thereof, is paramount. Sustainability
in building design means can the building be wholly constructed from renewable resources,
and can it support a system within itself that aims to use renewable resources, such as biofuel or solar power? If the initial design of a potential new build is planned in an
environmentally and energy-efficient way, then the construction and operation of the building
will follow in the same manner.
In the design plan, careful consideration will be given to the internal space within a building how will the space inside be used, and how can it be used most efficiently and healthily,
within the remit of sustainability. Human well-being is also at the heart of sustainable design,
and so the health of the buildings users is a priority. Studies have shown that ventilation and
air circulation affect buildings users, so this is a key issue in the internal design - how will air
be refreshed and cleansed? Will the space appear stuffy, cramped and claustrophobic to its
occupants? Or could it be spacious, open plan, and energised, thus health-giving or healthmaintaining for its users?

Other Key Areas to Consider

Light
The extensive use of glass, both as vertical and horizontal or angled windows, allows a
greater amount of light to penetrate the building. Using natural daylight, when possible, to be
the only or main source of lighting, has been shown to create more conducive conditions for
human productivity. The less we are boxed in with closed walls, the less we work well. The
more we are able to see and relate to our external surroundings, and feel there is some
transparency between inside and outside, the better we function.
Insulation & Heating
Getting the temperature right is crucial, no matter what fills the space: if it is too hot or too
cold, it is un-productive space. An under floor heating & cooling system may be an option.
This removes radiators and obtrusive fans or other space-consuming hardware. If the light is
good, a solar heating system should definitely be considered, or a combination of systems.
See our page on heating system options for more ideas.

96 | P a g e

Energy-Efficient Materials and Design Factors to Consider

Here are some examples of materials and design choices that could be considered in a
sustainable design:

Recycled flooring and/or carpeting made from recycled components

Using ecologically-friendly cleaning materials

Energy efficient light bulbs

Recycled gypsum wall boards, which can create a smart wall system

A green 'living' roof: literally a turf-based garden upon the roof

9.4.11 Sustainable Lighting

Fig.9.14
Lighting accounts for around 15% of the energy bill in most homes, and around 25% in
commercial buildings. It is supplied by electrical power plants using fossil fuels, and is
97 | P a g e

responsible for a significant percentage of carbon dioxide emissions, a leading cause of

global climate change. Because of this, the building industry has targeted lighting as a key
element in sustainable design, and there is now a global movement to develop and implement
lighting solutions that meet people's needs and concerns, and address environmental
regulations.
Daylighting Design

The most sustainable lighting is natural daylight. It is not only a free renewable resource but
it also has well-documented health benefits. Careful architectural design is required to
maximise natural light in a building while maintaining indoor temperature regulation and
reducing direct light glare. The strategic placement of windows, skylights, light shafts,
atriums and translucent panels in harmony with other building components, such that light is
reflected evenly throughout internal spaces, is known as daylighting design.

Sunlight Transportation Systems

An emerging new technology is that of sunlight transportation. Natural sunlight is collected
on roof panels and transported into a building via fibre optic cables for distances up to 15
metres. These sunlight-piping systems can be used in combination with solar panels to
integrate natural and artificial light systems, so that there is always light in the home
Energy Efficient Light Bulbs
The sustainable building industry is primarily focused on energy efficient lighting solutions.
Standard light bulbs, known as incandescent bulbs, are known to be highly inefficient.
Electricity is passed through a metal (tungsten) filament that heats to over 2000 Celsius and
glows to give off light. Only 10% of the electrical energy is converted to light; 90% is wasted
as heat. Halogen bulbs are similar but instead have a small pocket of halogen gas that reacts
with tungsten to produce light. They burn brighter, use less electricity and last twice as long
as a standard bulb, but are still inefficient compared with other forms of bulbs.
Energy efficient light bulbs use significantly less energy than incandescent bulbs, and also
last longer. There are two main kinds: Compact Fluorescent Lights and Light Emitting
Diodes.
98 | P a g e

Compact Fluorescent Lights (CFL)

These are small versions of full fluorescent lights, and consist of a glass tube coated with
phosphor, filled with gas and a small amount of mercury. Electricity jumps off electrodes on
the end of each tube, and excites the mercury molecules to emit ultraviolet light. This excites
the phosphor coating, which emits visible light that shines out of the tube. CFLs give off the
same amount of light as incandescent bulbs, but they are up to 80% cooler, are 4 times more
energy efficient (to replace a 60-watt incandescent, you only need a 15-watt CFL), last 10
times longer (up to 20,000 hours), and are responsible for the emission of 70% less carbon
dioxide.
CFLs come in many different configurations and wattages, and are suitable for all lighting
purposes. Although more expensive to buy than a standard bulb, they easily recover their
costs in energy savings. On the downside, they contain trace amounts of mercury, which is
hazardous to health and the environment. Care needs to be taken to ensure the glass tube
doesn't break and that the bulbs are disposed of safely.

Light Emitting Diodes (LED)

LEDs are small, solid light bulbs that are lit by the movement of electrons in a solid semiconductor material as electricity is passed through it. This is also called 'solid state lighting',
because it uses a solid material, as opposed to gas (CFL) or filament (incandescent). LEDs
are extremely energy efficient, lasting over 100 times longer than incandescent bulbs, and up
to 10 times longer than CFLs. They have low heat generation, low power requirements, and
are highly durable because there is no filament or tube to break.

99 | P a g e

LED is a relatively new technology, and currently the bulbs are most suitable for track and
recessed lighting, where a pointed light is required rather than radiated light. They are
more expensive than CFLs, but energy savings over their lifetime means their cost is
soon recouped. Because their power inputs are minimal, LEDs are readily combined with
solar panels to provide reliable, energy efficient lighting day and night

9.4.12 Wind Generators

Fig.9.15
Wind generators are generating a lot of interest right now, due to a high street DIY chain
offering the first small wind generator commonly available for the home. We understand the
argument that we need to dramatically reduce the emissions from the fuel and carbon we use,
and wind as well as solar is one of the energy sources in plentiful supply, that we are learning
to use.
Most of us has seen, or may live close by, one of the dozen wind farms established in barren,
exposed parts of the UK - the Scottish Borders, and on Exmoor, are examples. Current plans
to site up to 500 turbines on moorland on the Scottish Island of Lewis are provoking
controversy.
One of the first areas to exploit the potential of wind farms was California, on America's
windy east coast. 3 huge wind farms, San Gorgino, Altamont Pass, and Tehachapi, in 1995
contributed 30% of the world's wind-generated electricity. In 2004, 4,258 million kilowatt

100 | P a g e

hours of electricity was generated by wind in California, 1.5% of the State of California's
total. It may not sound so much, but that is enough to power the City of San Francisco.
Once thought ugly, and the focus of initial community opposition, these farms with their
huge, towering generators; new white megaliths on the land, are often now tourist attractions.
We need them to contribute an increasing part of our energy needs, within a package of
energy providers, as the public learns to wean itself off dwindling and polluting fossil fuels.
But how do they work, and how much energy can they really contribute to our national grid
system?
Harnessing energy from wind
Wind generators work by having their turbine blades, usually 3, rotate in the wind, turning a
copper coil inside a magnetic field, which in turn creates an electrical current. Clearly the
stronger the wind the faster the blades will turn, hence the importance of siting the generator
in a high, exposed place, where wind is continuous, or as continuous as can be expected.
Electricity created inside this unit, the current, can then be fed through the system directly
into the grid, via a grid tie inverter, which converts the currents voltage.
Contributing energy
How much energy can this system really provide? And could it ever be enough to become the
sole source of energy? At the moment, the total amount of energy harnessed and converted
into usable power from wind turbines is low - estimates vary but it is probably below 3% of
the total energy amount used within the UK. The solution to increase that amount is to build
more wind farms, and plans are underway to do just that in the UK, as mentioned above on
Lewis, and in the region of the Solway Firth, as well as in other areas, including off the North
Sea off the North Norfolk and Northumbrian coastlines.
Suitable for home use?
Media reports about the small wind turbines that DIY stores are now selling are implying that
this is just a craze and an effort to be seen to be green, following the lead of several
politicians who are publicly declaring their intention to install them.
The most important aspect to consider is if your property is exposed enough to utilize enough
wind. What really is worth considering first is a green energy audit for your home - if you are
101 | P a g e

embarking on a self-build, then environmental considerations will be built in to your design

and remit for the property. If you already have a property, and are looking for environmental
improvements, possibly including a small, energy-generating turbine, then seek advice from
an expert. Grants from local authorities are available which can offset the cost of these
products, but only with certain types, and fitted by certain installers.

9.4.13 Biomass Roofing

Fig.9.16
Biomass roofing is the use of plant materials to build roofs. People from around the world
have always used whatever vegetation was locally available and abundant to build their roofs.
This cultural and environmental diversity has led to a wide range of roofing materials and
styles, from the simple and ephemeral to the more durable and complex.
The Different Types of Biomass Roofing
Although hundreds of different plants have been used to roof houses, these can be classified
into two main types: thatch and wood tiles.
Thatch
Thatch is one of the oldest forms of roofing, dating back thousands of years. It is found in
almost every country, from savannah grasses in Africa to coconut palm fronds in the
Caribbean to banana leaves in the Amazon. It was the predominant roofing material in Britain
102 | P a g e

up until the 19th Century and thatched cottages remain a hallmark of the English
Countryside.
All sorts of plants have been used for thatching in Britain: oats, reeds, broom, heather,
bracken and various grasses. But today only three main thatching materials are used: water
reed, wheat reed and long straw.
Water Reed is the most popular thatching material. Both water reed and wheat reed (actually
a straw but cut with a binder and combed to give the appearance of reed) give a compact and
even texture when applied to a roof. This is in contrast with long straw (wheat straw that has
been threshed so that the ears and butts are mixed up together), which gives a shaggy,
rounded appearance. The lifespan of thatch is around 30 to 50 years, although this varies
widely depending on the skill of the thatcher, the pitch of the roof, the local climate
conditions and the quality of the materials.
The technique for thatching is basically the same for all materials: first the thatch is fastened
together in bundles about 25 inches in diameter. Each bundle is then laid down with the butt
end facing outwards, secured together to the roof beams, and pegged in place with wooden
rods. Successive layers are added on top of each other, working from the bottom of the roof
up towards the top, with a final layer used to reinforce the ridgeline.
Thatch roofs can withstand high winds and heavy rains, provide good thermal insulation and
are easy to repair. Thatch is light and needs only a simple support structure, and is flexible so
can be used for any roof shape. On the downside, thatching is labour intensive and a certain
level of skill is required. The materials can be expensive as reeds are increasingly imported
from Europe to keep up with demand. Like all biomass materials, thatch is flammable which
means that building restrictions may apply and home insurance can be high.
Wood Tiles: Shingles and Shakes
Wood tiles have been used since medieval times in Britain. They are traditionally made by
hand-splitting logs into small wedge shaped pieces, but today most are manufactured by
machine. There are two basic types: shingles, which are sawn, and shakes, which are split.
Shakes are thicker and have a more rustic, rough look, whilst shingles are thinner and
smoother. Both come in a variety of lengths and are made from the heartwood of unseasoned
wood. Hardwood is best, with cedar being the most popular, although any straight-grained
103 | P a g e

wood can be used. Split bamboo can also be used to create Spanish-style tiles, and are
popular in some countries, but bamboo has the disadvantage of decaying fast in wet
conditions unless chemically treated.
Wood tiles are laid from the bottom of the roof to the top, with each row overlapping the
previous one. A cap is placed at the roof ridge. Typically tiles are nailed onto wood strips
spaced a few inches apart between the roof beams, to allow air to circulate and prevent decay.
Wood tiles last between 25 - 50 years. Like thatch, they give good insulation and are flexible
so can cover any roof shape. They are highly resistant to wind, heavy snow and hail, but must
be regularly cleaned of vegetative debris. They are also flammable, and building regulations
may prohibit their use in urban areas.
Is Biomass Roofing Sustainable?

The recognised need to use renewable resources has led to a revival of traditional, natural
building methods, along with a growing market for biomass roofing. Thatch and wood tiles
are not only aesthetically appealing, but are durable and biodegradable. But their
sustainability value is diminished if the materials have been imported or produced and treated
with chemicals. Biomass roofing is only a true sustainable solution if the materials are
obtained from a local, renewable source, and are grown, harvested and manufactured in an
environmentally sensitive way.

104 | P a g e

9.4.14 Compost Toilets

Fig.9.17
Composting toilets (also called biological, dry or waterless toilets) are systems that treat
human excrement through biological processes, turning it into organic compost material that
can be used to fertilise the soil. They are small-scale, complete sewage processing systems
not connected to the mains sewage system. The Chinese have been using composting toilets
for hundreds of years, but it is only since the 1960s that they have become popular in the rest
of the world.

Types of Composting Toilets

There are hundreds of different composting toilets, ranging from simple DIY designs to
advanced high-tech commercial models. They can be classified as:

Self-contained
- where the toilet and composting container are one unit.

Remote
- where the toilet is located separately from the composting site.

Batch
- where waste is collected and composted in two or more sealed containers, mounted
on a rotating carousel. When one container is full it is replaced with an empty one.
105 | P a g e

Continual process
- where waste is composted slowly in a single container, and compost is harvested
from the bottom on an ongoing basis.

Sustainable Advantage of Composting Toilets

All composting toilets require some form of management to ensure that they remain clean,
hygienic and odour free. And all need to have compost material removed at regular intervals.
But these are minor inconveniences compared to the advantages of composting toilets. They
protect groundwater, surface water and soil from sewage pollution, prevent the accumulation
of hazardous pathogenic waste, and solve the problem of disposing sewage sludge to landfill.
They save huge quantities of water in a world where water is an increasingly scarce resource,
and require very little infrastructure. They are low-impact, low-maintenance and can also
adapt to any situation, even in places where it is difficult or inappropriate to establish a mains
toilet system such as hard rocky soils, high water tables, near springs or in an
environmentally sensitive area.
Composting toilets are an excellent example of sustainable design. They provide a safe and
effective way to reduce resources and prevent pollution, whilst saving money and energy for
the household and the community. At the same time they produce a valuable end-product that
can be used to fertilise the soil. Once these remarkable benefits are understood they are likely
to become even more popular.

9.5 RECYCLING OF WASTES

Throwing things away is a waste of the energy and resources taken to make the product.
Reducing the number of things that need to be thrown away, reduces the amount of materials
which have to be quarried and mined.
106 | P a g e

Fig.9.17
Reduce:
We should all, avoid products with excessive packaging

Extra energy used in the production of the packaging

The extra volume and weight will have been transported (by lorries, aircraft, ships

etc.)
The packaging will be thrown out and will need to be collected from your home by a

large waste disposal truck

Packaging then takes more space at land fill sites
Easy to recycle
1.concrete (often recycled and reused at the site)
2. steel and other metals
3. pallets
4. packaging and paper products

5.

fluorescent tubes

Re-use:
Everyone should try and re-use products for as long as feasibly possible. It is amazing how
often people buy certain products and use them only once or twice, even though they can be
re-used may times.
Reusable materials
wood beams, joists, studs, baseboards

interior windows

cabinets and cupboards

bathroom fixtures

railings

light fixtures

brick

ceiling grid and tile

doors and casings

furnishings
107 | P a g e

 replant trees, shrubs

Recycling uses less energy and produces less pollution than making things from scratch.
For example: Making Aluminium cans from old ones uses one twelfth of the energy to make them
from raw materials.
For glass bottles, 315kg of CO2 is saved per tonne of glass recycled after taking into
account the transportation and processing
Making bags from recycled polythene takes one third the Sulphur Dioxide and half
the Nitrous Oxide, than making them from scratch.
Another form of recycling is composting household and garden waste.

Why compost?

Fig.9.18

It helps fertilize soil, making plants and vegetables grow better

Using home made compost will minimise depletion of peat bogs
Reduces the number of refuse collections needed
Reduces the strain on land fill sites

What can we compost?

Garden waste (fallen leaves, grass cuttings and prunings)
Kitchen waste (such as raw vegetables, fruit, crushed egg shells, tea leaves and tea
bags)
In addition try, shredded paper and cardboard.

108 | P a g e

Gifting items to charity is also an excellent form of recycling. Charities not only sell old
clothes, but would also appreciate other house hold items, such as books, music CDs, videos.
etc. As well as saving the planet against global warming you will also be helping others.

CHAPTER-10

CONSTRUCTION WASTES
MANAGMENT

109 | P a g e

10.1 WHY CONSTRUCTION WASTE MANAGEMENT

Better management of our waste can significantly reduce emissions of greenhouse gases to
the atmosphere. By encompassing the principles in the waste hierarchy we can turn waste
materials into resources to be valued, reducing the need for increasing extraction of raw
materials and fossil fuels.
It is increasingly important that we act to reduce the impact of climate change, and one way
we can all help is to reduce the amount of waste we produce and the amount of energy we
use. Emphasising this important link between waste management, greenhouse gas emissions
and climate to the general public is central to raising environmental awareness.
Need of managing construction wastes:
No one enjoys throwing materials away. But with all of the aspects of home building that
require management today, why do we need to add waste? Construction waste management
can enhance a builder's operation, as well as the image of the entire home building industry.
Cost - Even though your disposal costs represent only about 0.5 percent of a home's total
construction costs, consider that waste management costs could represent as much as five
percent of your profit on a home. Waste reduction can reduce your material purchases;
recycling can reduce your total disposal costs.
Efficiency - You pay twice for materials wasted on your jobs sites -- once for the original
purchase and again when the usable material is hauled off for disposal. It's not difficult to find
useful building materials "hidden" within the six-foot-high sides of site dumpsters.
Resource Conservation - Roughly 80 percent of a home builder's waste stream is recyclable.
Home builders can do their part to conserve natural resources and landfill space by looking at
their waste stream and seeing resources instead of refuse.
Liability - The general contractor bears some responsibility for any waste generated at
jobsites. It is important that you protect your company from any potential liability resulting
from unauthorized or illegal disposal of wastes, particularly potentially hazardous wastes.

110 | P a g e

Marketing - Builders who make the effort to build resource efficient homes should take
credit for their work. Distinction in the marketplace can lead to positive press and home sales.

Here are some important generalizations about residential construction waste.

By weight or volume, wood, drywall and cardboard make up between 60 and 80

percent of jobsite waste.

Vinyl and metals are generated in small quantities, but have good recycling value.

Cardboard waste is increasing on most jobsites as more components, such as

windews, appliances, cabinets and siding, are shipped to builders over long distances.

Most wood waste is "clean" -- unpainted, untreated and recyclable. This usually
includes dimensional lumber, plywood, OSB and particle board without laminates.

Brick, block and asphalt shingle waste are insignificant in volume, but can be
important in terms of weight.

For most builders, the largest share of waste that could be considered hazardous is
generated from painting, sealing, staining and caulking.

Drive-by contamination (waste placed in a container by a party other than the builder
or subcontractor) can be as much as 30 percent of the total volume hauled from a site.

The construction sector uses over 420 million tonnes of material resources and
converts 6,500 hectares of land from rural to urban use each year.

Approximately 13 million tonnes of construction and demolition waste is material

delivered to sites but never used.

Annually, 90 million tonnes of construction and demolition waste is generated the industry produces three times the waste produced by all UK households
combined.

Construction and demolition is responsible for creating 21% of the hazardous

waste in the UK.

111 | P a g e

About 10% of national energy consumption is used in the production and

transport of construction products and materials, and the energy consumed in
building services accounts for about half of the UKs emissions of carbon dioxide.

Climate change is making flood management an increasingly important factor in

deciding where to locate new development. Presently, 1.85 million houses and
185,000 commercial properties are at risk from flooding, figures that are likely to
increase under planned future development.

"Typical" Construction Waste Estimated for a 2,000 Square Foot Home

MATERIAL
Solid Sawn Wood
Engineered Wood
Drywall
Cardboard (OCC)
Metals
Vinyl (PVC)**
Masonry***
Hazardous materials
Other

WEIGHT

Volume

(in pounds)
1,600
1,400
2,000
600
150
150
1,000
50
1,050

(in cubic yards)*

6
5
5
20
1
1
1
11

If we do not recycle or reuse the construction wastes and deposit these in landfill the it is not
economical and it is harmful for the environment.
The following example shows the estimated landfill savings derived from C&D recycling
and/or reuse: (The Homestead Habitat for Humanity (HHFH))
Item

Waste Tons

Diverted Tons

No
Recycling/Reuse
Tons

of

C&D 100 100

0
112 | P a g e

Waste
Landfill cost per
ton ($50)

$5000

$0 cost savings

With
Recycling/Reuse
Tons

of

C&D

Waste

100

Wood

45

45

Drywall

15

15

Cardboard

Metals

35

35

Other

mixed

waste
Landfill cost per
ton ($50)

$1750

$3250

cost

savings

As we have seen in the last chapter that it is beneficial to manage construction wastes
the amount of material sent to the landfill and avoid landfill disposal costs. Burying
gypsum board (drywall), paint and other waste materials on your construction site is
not an acceptable method of disposal. These materials will contaminate the soil and
ground water. They may also cause differential ground settlement which will give rise
to structural problems in the future.

113 | P a g e

The following is a list of potentially hazardous materials which require proper

disposal when a building is to undergo demolition and during
construction.

1.Wood
Wood waste makes up 40 to 50 percent of what comes off a residential
jobsite. Ground-up wood can be used for mulch, composting, animal
bedding, landfill cover, as an industrial fuel source, and in "new"
building products.
The American Forest and Paper Association publishes the National Wood Recycling
Directory, a listing of recycling sites that accept wood waste, including construction debris.
2. Drywall
Drywall comprises about 15 percent of the waste stream and weighs about one pound per
square foot of living space. Drywall manufacturing plants are gradually adding the
technology for recycling construction site wastes.
An alternative is to cut drywall waste into small pieces and stack them in uninsulated wall
cavities in closets, basements, and garages.
3. Cardboard
Cardboard packaging doesn't add much to the weight of your debris. But it can account for up
to 30 percent of the volume and, if unconsolidated, can send your dumpster to the landfill
long before it's necessary.
4. Asbestos
Great care needs to be taken in the removal of this product. When any suspect material is
found, tests should be performed to confirm its composition. Several companies are listed in
the Yellow Pages for testing and/or removal of asbestos.
114 | P a g e

Oil Storage Tanks

Before a building is demolished, it and its surrounding areas should be checked for evidence
of storage tanks - fill caps, vents, etc. It is recommended that the tank is decommissioned
prior to demolition of the building. Several companies are involved in decommissioning of
storage tanks and are listed in the Yellow Pages under "Oil Reclaiming."
PCB Containing Equipment
This is more of a concern with commercial/industrial premises, and especially buildings
constructed before 1973. PCB disposal and storage still can be an expensive problem.
However, there are several companies listed in the Yellow Pages under "Waste Reduction and
Disposal Service - Industrial" that will handle PCB containing waste.
Chemical Storage
Commercial and Industrial buildings should be checked for any abandoned chemicals. These
chemicals should be properly disposed of through a licenced waste disposal company.
Several companies that handle waste chemicals are listed in the Yellow Pages under "Waste
Reduction and Disposal Service - Industrial".

10.2 MANAGING CONSTRUCTION WASTES

WASTE MANAGEMENT ACTION PLAN

Introduction
A Waste Management Action Plan (Way-MAP) makes construction activity more
environmentally friendly by reducing the amount of waste sent to landfills. Existing landfill
space is quite limited in most urban centres and numerous environmental problems including
water contamination and gas emissions are associated with landfills. The environmental and
economic advantages which occur when wastes are diverted from landfills include:
115 | P a g e

conservation of raw materials and energy, reduction in the cost of waste disposal, and in most
cases any additional costs of waste management go towards employing a person on site
instead of paying for materials to fill up a hole in the ground. Add to that the efficient use of
materials on site and public relations value of a clean site where wastes are managed in an
environmentally sound way, and it becomes difficult to ignore the importance of sound waste
management.
Key Principles
The main focus of this Way-MAP is to reduce waste generation on site. With careful
planning, many wastes can be avoided. Any wastes which are generated are to be handled in
the most environmentally sound way, according to the 3R hierarchy of REDUCE, REUSE,
and RECYCLE.
REDUCE
REUSE
RECYCLE

Recycling of Materials

Virtually all the materials generated on a construction site can be recycled. However each
government will have different opportunities to recycle wastes depending on local economic
and environmental conditions.
Wastes must be kept clean and separated to maintain their reusability or recyclability.
Separation can occur after a mixed bin of wastes is taken away from a construction site;
however, the efficiency of recycling and the value of materials is increased if wastes are
separated at source.
The major types of construction materials are listed below, organized roughly according to
market value for the recycled product.

116 | P a g e

Material

Market Value

Recycled Products

asphalt shingles

low

paving material, currently few recycling facilities exis

gypsum wallboard

low

new wallboard

wood

low

fibre or fuel

insulation

low

difficult to recycle, possible to reuse

plastic

medium

plastic feedstock

bricks and blocks

medium

road base/backfill

building materials

medium-high

reuse

cardboard

low

cardboard fibre

metals

high

new metals

liquid wastes (paints and solvents)

variable

refined and remixed into new products

Choose

strategy

for

each

phase

of

construction.(Burnaby

City

Hall)

We should have a good idea of what waste materials will be generated and what kind of
system will be set up to deal with the various waste materials. At each stage of construction,
there are specific ways to REDUCE, REUSE and RECYCLE the wastes which are produced.

Phase 1- LANDCLEARING

Materials Produced: soil, wood, vegetation

Action: REDUCE: Minimize disruption to existing vegetation and soils. Limit the use
of

large

machinery

which

damages

soils

and

vegetation.

REUSE: Excavated soils and trees can be used for final landscaping of site. Mulch
vegetation on site for landscape materials if possible. Send trees for processing as
lumber or pulp.
Personnel Involved: site superintendent, landscape architect, landclearing contractor,
waste haulers.

Phase 2- EXCAVATION

117 | P a g e

Materials Produced: soil, contaminated soil

Action: REDUCE: Limit the amount of excavation needed in order to limit soil
disturbance.
REUSE: Excavated materials can be used as backfill or landscaping. If contaminated
soils are a possibility, hire an engineering consultant before you start.
Personnel Involved: site superintendent, excavation contractor, architect, soils
consultant.

Phase 3 FOUNDATION WORK

Materials Produced: wood, metal concrete

Action:

REDUCE:

Cut

forms

carefully

and

carefully

order

concrete.

REUSE: Specify reusable forms. (e.g. oiled ship lap) Utilize excess concrete brought
to site for parking stops etc. Sell used forming lumber to other sites.
RECYCLE: Sell rebar for scrap. Send waste wood to a processing facility.
Personnel Involved: site superintendent, forming contractor, waste haulers.

Phase-4 FRAMING
Materials Produced: wood
Action:
REDUCE: Use advanced framing techniques which require 10-15% less wood by
having larger spans between studs and using 2 or 3 studs in a corner instead of 4.
Design using standard sizes to reduce cutting waste. Use prefab wall, roof and floor
systems. These systems mean that most of the waste is produced in a central location
where it can more easily be recycled and there is less waste on site for the general
contractor

to

haul

away.

REUSE: Pile end cuts for use as bridging and backing. Organize a central cutting area
so that all reusable cuttings can be easily piled and located when needed. Use timber
118 | P a g e

which has been recovered from demolished buildings. Used timbers cost
approximately 50% of the cost of new and are available at some old building material
supply

stores.

RECYCLE: Send wood to recycling facility to make chips for pulp, composite wood
products, fuel pellets etc. Wood can also be ground for landscape material or compost.
Another way to get rid of wood scraps is to give it away as firewood to employees or
local residents.
Personnel Involved: site superintendent, designer, framing subcontractor, site
labourers, waste haulers.

Phase-5 METAL WORK - HVAC WIRING

Materials Produced: metal
Action:

REDUCE:

Measure

and

cut

carefully.

REUSE: Use second-hand materials (e.g. Used circuit breaker boxes from used
building material supply stores). If materials are cut in a central location and reusable
cuttings stored in a separate pile it makes it easy for a tradesman to locate a small
piece

for

repair.

RECYCLE: Send scrap materials to be remelted.

Personnel Involved: site superintendent, metalwork sub-contractor, site labourers,
waste haulers.

Phase-6 PLUMBING
Materials Produced: metal, plastics, waste solvents
Action: REUSE: Fixtures from old buildings can be reused where appropriate.
RECYCLE: Used fixtures, scrap metals and plastics.
Personnel Involved: site superintendent, plumbing sub-contractor, site labourers,
waste haulers.

Phase-7 INSULATION
119 | P a g e

Materials Produced: various

Action: REDUCE: Use prefab wall systems with insulation already included, or use
blown in batt/cellulose in walls.
REUSE: Use scrap insulation to insulate attic or as sound proofing on interior
walls. (Care should be taken to ensure insulation does not interfere with future electrical
work.)
RECYCLE: Special insulation made from recycled materials (e.g. use cellulose
insulation with recycled content where appropriate, or blown in mineral fibre).
Personnel Involved: designer, site superintendent, insulation contractor.

Phase- 8 DRYWALL

Materials Produced: gypsum wallboard, cardboard mud boxes

Action:

REDUCE:

REUSE:

Use

Design
scraps

using

standard
for

sizes.
patches.

RECYCLE: Send materials to a recycling depot. (In some major centres, drywall is
banned from landfill disposal.)
Personnel Involved: designer, drywall contractor, site superintendent site labourers,
waste haulers.
Phase-9 PAINT
Materials Produced:paint solvents
Action: REDUCE: Avoid atmospheric pollution by using paints without
formaldehyde or petroleum derivatives.
REUSE: Use leftover paint as undercoating on next job. RECYCLE: Send excess
paints and solvents to a recycling plant. Send non-recyclable liquid wastes to a proper
disposal facility for incineration. Send empty paint cans for recycling.
Personnel Involved: designer, site superintendent, painter, hazardous waste hauler.
120 | P a g e

Phase-10 EXTERIOR FINISHING

Materials Produced: wood, brick, masonry, vinyl, stucco
Action: REDUCE: Cut and measure carefully. Design using standard sizes. Store
materials carefully to prevent damage.
REUSE: Salvage bricks and blocks from demolition projects. Broken bricks and
blocks can be used as backfill in some cases.
RECYCLE: Send vinyl and aluminum siding, and rubble from recycling facilities.
Personnel Involved: site superintendent, sub-contractor, waste haulers.
Phase-11 ROOFING
Materials Produced: asphalt shingles, cedar shakes, cement tiles
Action:

REDUCE:

Store,

measure

and

cut

materials

carefully.

REUSE: Use concrete tiles as fill.

RECYCLE: Send asphalt shingles to a local recycling facility if one exists.
Personnel Involved: site superintendent, roofing sub-contractor.
Phase-12 DEMOLITION
Materials Produced: various
Action: REDUCE: Favour renovation over demolition where appropriate.
REUSE: Strip home of fixtures, hardwoods, large dimension timbers, and anything
else of resale value.
RECYCLE: Salvage metal plumbing, ducting and other non- reusable appliances.
Separate non-reusable wood for grinding for chipping for fibre. Send concrete to be
crushed and recycled as road base.
Personnel Involved: demolition contractor, waste haulers, site labourers, designer,
recycling companies.

121 | P a g e

Miscellaneous

Branches and trees from brush clearing can be stored separately and chipped on-site.
Chipped land-clearing debris and yard waste can be used in landscaping substrates,
compost bulking agents, soil amendments, and in temporary land stabilization projects
in a manner that poses no threat to surface or ground water.

Rock, brick, ceramics, concrete, and asphalt paving fragments are virtually inert and
can be used as clean fill.

Never use asphalt shingles, gypsum wallboard, oriented strand board, particleboard,
pressure treated lumber, painted lumber, or other treated wood as a soil amendment or
in a fill condition.

Excess brush and yard waste can be brought to a permitted DEP facility.

Old nickel cadmium batteries from portable power tools should not be thrown away
with other solid waste.

Cabinets, light fixtures, bathtubs, sinks, mortar mix, hardware, nails, screws, and
plumbing fittings and supplies may be donated to the organizations listed below.

NEW METHODS
ON-SITE--

It is possible to grind up all wood waste and drywall and apply it to the site

just before seeding or sodding the lot. Many states or localities, however, will require
evidence that this approach does not harm soil or water quality. You will need to
check with state and local solid waste agencies to determine the acceptability of this
method. If all wood waste and drywall could be handled in this way, containment,
transport, and landfilling costs would be eliminated for up to 65 percent of job-site
waste. If cardboard can be included, it would be even higher. A low-speed, low-noise,
mobile grinding unit is best suited for job-site service. Large production builders may
consider purchase of the equipment. Smaller builders will have to arrange service
with a hauler or waste processor interested in this method of waste management.
CLEAN-UP--

In Portland, Oregon; Chicago, Illinois; and Wilmington, North Carolina;

builders are being serviced by haulers that charge by the square foot, do not require
122 | P a g e

roll-off containers, and recycle more than 50% of job-site waste. The clean-up
services time their pick-up of waste to relate to the various stages of construction,
allowing wood, cardboard, drywall, or other materials to be substantially separated by
the building process. The builder knows waste disposal costs up front, can determine
the level of service required (number of job site visits and degree of clean-up), and
saves money while someone else determines what can and cannot be recycled. So far,
clean-up services have been most effective in areas that have relatively high disposal
costs and established recycling markets for common construction waste materials.

10.3 DONATION TO ORGANIZATIONS

As we have discussed some practices of construction waste management. There are some
government and non-government organization which are working for the concern of
environment ,we can take help of these organizations to reduce our carbon footprint and can
do a good for the environment.
These organizations will help us in the following ways:

Transportation of Hazardous Waste Generated by Construction Contractors .

Guidance on Environmental Concerns Associated with Building Demolition .

Managing Used Fluorescent Lamps, High-Intensity Discharge Lamps, and PCB

Ballasts.

Managing Lead-Contaminated Waste.

Residential Paint Waste Disposal: Summary for Contractors, Landfill Operators and
Residents .

Treated Wood: Use, Disposal and Alternatives for Business.

Guidance on the Removal, Transport, and Disposal of Category I Asbestos-containing

Materials such as Floor Coverings and Asphalt Roofing Materials

Guidance for the Removal, Transport, and Disposal of Category II Asbestoscontaining Materials, such as Transite Shingles and Siding
123 | P a g e

MPCA Pre-Demolition Environmental Checklist and Guide

Notification of Intent to Perform a Demolition

In this chapter we have mentioned some organization which can help us, in the management
of wastes.
1. Building Materials Reuse Association (BMRA) :BMRA is a non-profit educational
organization whose mission is to facilitate building deconstruction and the
reuse/recycling of recovered building materials.
2. Construction Waste Management Database: The Construction Waste Management
Database contains information on companies that haul, collect and process recyclable
debris from construction projects. Created in 2002 by GSA's Environmental Strategies
and Safety Division to promote responsible waste disposal, the Database is a free
online service for those seeking companies that recycle construction debris in their
area.
3. Directory of Wood-Framed Building Deconstruction and Reused Building Materials
Companies, 2005 :This is a directory of companies involved in wood-framed building

deconstruction, dismantling and reused building materials, with an emphasis on those

that use, resell, and/or re-manufacture salvaged wood. Published by the U.S. Forest
Products Laboratory.
4. Lead Safe U.S.A.: The National Association of the Remodeling Industry (NARI)
offers information about the dangers of lead-based paint and dust during the
remodeling process.
5. Oikos: Construction Site Waste Management: This site provides useful
information about types and quantities of construction waste and disposal costs in the
construction industry. Also available are publications and brochures that can be
helpful to builders in developing jobsite waste management plans.
6. Steel Recycling Institute: The Steel Recycling Institute (SRI), a unit of the American
Iron and Steel Institute, is an industry association that promotes and sustains the
recycling of all steel products. Information about construction and consumer steel
recycling.
7. Minnesota Sustainable Design Guide : It provides strategies for the diversion of
80% of demolition debris and 75% of construction waste (both by volume) from
landfills through salvage, recycling and/or recovery.
Building items can be donated to or purchased from re-stores. Most accept and re-sell
usable items such as: windows; paint; lamps; flooring; cabinets; doors; etc. These
124 | P a g e

stores are also good resources for small jobs that need building and home decorating
materials at economical prices.
Donation Opportunities
The following organizations may be interested in your unused construction materials:

The Reconstruction Center, New Britain, CT (860) 597-3390

Habitat for Humanity in Bridgeport (203-333-2642), New Haven (203-785-0794), or

Hartford (860-541-2208).

Buildings Material Exchange, Bridgeport, CT., Bill Kruppenbacher at (203) 3353452.

New Haven Preservation Trust, New Haven, Ed Franquemont at (203) 562-5919.

125 | P a g e

CHAPTER-11

NEED OF AN HOUR-SAVING
THE PLANET

11.1 TIPS TO REDUCE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY

FOOTPRINT

11.1.1 Tips to Reduce Your Primary Footprint

1. Holidays
Don't go by air
2. Electricity
Sign up to renewable energy
3. Gas
Try using solar water heating - this can reduce your gas bill by up to 70% over a year.
4. Travelling around
Use public transport as much as possible. Find out about your local bus services and then use
it.
5. Car Share
Sign up to a car share scheme to reduce your travel footprint.

11.1.2 Tips to Reduce Your Secondary Footprint

126 | P a g e

When you buy goods - consider where they have been made and the materials and
processes used to make them. Items that have high emissions in the manufacture or delivery
should be avoided when ever possible. Things such as:1. Bottled water
Tap water is safe to drink in most European and North American countries, yet people still
insist on buying bottled water. If the bottle is labelled as being from volcanic springs - you
can bet that it has probably been imported from some distance. Imagine the carbon footprint
of the flight / shipping of the water! And that's before adding in the emissions due to making
the bottle and / or recycling it.
2. Food and drink from far distances
When you go to the supermarket, look at the label to identify which country the food is from.
There is no need to buy New Zealand apples in the UK in the autumn - but people do!
Think twice about buying a bottle of wine from the other side of the world - you may be able
to find much more local wine, which will have travelled far fewer miles.
Better still try growing your own fruit and vegetables in your own garden. Planting an apple
tree will not only provide you with lots of fruit, with zero carbon footprint, but the tree itself
with breathe in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere - making these fruit effectively carbon
negative!
3. Meat eating
Reduce your consumption of meat, especially red meat.
4. Clothes from far off lands
Check the clothes labels before you buy. If they come from more than 1000 miles away, keep
looking!
5. High packaged items
Avoid goods and services that have unnecessary packaging! Need we say more?
127 | P a g e

11.2 CARBON OFFSET PROJECTS

'Carbon offset projects' is useful but sometimes misleading shorthand. It
includes 'Emission Reduction Projects' (schemes that drive the uptake of new technologies
that reduce greenhouse gas emissions beyond 'business as usual') and forestry projects which
absorb CO2 already in the atmosphere. All these programmes can be used to 'offset' or
compensate for the emissions being produced by an individual or a business. The reason the
shorthand can be misleading is that it can generate a sense that the projects have no value in
and of themselves - and that's not the case at all.

Fig.11.1
Project Types
The following are the types of projects:
These projects make use of renewable resources such as wind,
Renewable Energy

hydro or solar energy. Technology harnessing these energies can

replace power generation through fossil fuels, leading to reduced
emissions.
Using energy more efficiently is important in the transition to a

Energy Efficiency

low-carbon future. Projects such as those promoting the use of

energy efficient light bulbs help to save emissions back at the
power station.

128 | P a g e

Methane is a potent greenhouse gas - 21 times more powerful

Methane Capture

than CO2. Sources include animal husbandry, landfill sites and

coal mines and projects capturing these emissions have clear
environmental benefit.
Trees absorb CO2 to produce wood and release oxygen back into

Forestry

the atmosphere. We work with well-managed, long-term forestry

which make a real contribution to local communities and
biodiversity.

The SELCO solar project has recently won the Ashden Award for Outstanding Achievement,
and it is a good example for how sustainable development and carbon reduction can work
together.

11.3 CARBON CREDITS

Carbon credits are a key component of national and international emissions
trading schemes that have been implemented to mitigate global warming. They provide a way
to reduce greenhouse effect emissions on an industrial scale by capping total annual
emissions and letting the market assign a monetary value to any shortfall through trading.
Credits can be exchanged between businesses or bought and sold in international markets at
the prevailing market price. Credits can be used to finance carbon reduction schemes between
trading partners and around the world.

There are also many companies that sell carbon credits to commercial and individual
customers who are interested in lowering their carbon footprint on a voluntary basis. These
carbon offsetters purchase the credits from an investment fund or a carbon development
company that has aggregated the credits from individual projects. The quality of the credits is
based in part on the validation process and sophistication of the fund or development
company that acted as the sponsor to the carbon project. This is reflected in their price;

129 | P a g e

voluntary units typically have less value than the units sold through the rigorously-validated
Clean Development Mechanism.

11.4 RESPONSIBILITY OF MANKIND

With a few calculations you can determine your carbon footprintthe
impact you have on the environmentat the touch of a button.
Using a carbon footprint calculator you can find your own carbon footprint by piecing
together indicators such as what kind of car you drive, how much electricity or heat you use
and how many people live in your house. The less impact you have on the environment, the
lower your score will be.
. According to the Climate Crisis carbon calculator, using anywhere around 567 kilograms of
carbon emissions per month is considered to be average.
Average may not sound like such a bad diagnosis, but it does mean Im contributing to the
growing global warming crisis.
To reduce that carbon footprint, the average person could reduce their emissions by 5443
kilograms a year by not driving; reduce all their home energy emissions by switching to
carbon neutral energy or reduce their emissions by anywhere from 0.39 pounds to 0.64
pounds per mile by not flying.
Sustainability co-ordinator Maryam Adrangi said your carbon footprint calculation has a lot
to do with the products you buy and the foods you eat.
Even if you arent travelling thousands of miles to get your grapes, those grapes are
travelling.
Try looking as those tags that say where your food is coming from and actually looking into
the way things are produced, she said.

130 | P a g e

Adrangi said we havent grown up in a way that makes us engaged with where products come
from.
The system is set up in a way that were detached from that, she said.
Adrangi said were more likely to pick up on habits such as buying energy-saving light bulbs
but there are plenty of other things we dont even think about adding up in our carbon
footprints. For instance, each person is contributing a what is called a phantom load of energy
as long as their appliances are plugged in, even though they might be turned off.
You can actually get a voltmeter and actually find out how much energy that is using, she
said.
Helen Joy, environmental consultant for Carbon Footprint, a British company which strives to
educate the public and help them reduce their carbon dioxide emissions, said there are many
common-sense behavioral changes students can make to reduce their carbon footprints.
For instance, using public transport: by not using your car and using public transport, you
are saving on both the fuel needed to run the vehicle as well as producing less carbon
emissions, she said. Even better, if just getting around campus, you could walk or use a
bike, which creates no emissions whatsoever. If you do need to use a car, try to run several
errands in the same trip. A trip to the supermarket, library and mall can help cut down on
numerous individual trips, Joy said.
Its also important to switch off lights and electrical equipment when not in use.
Electrical equipment still uses power when left on standby, so make sure you actually switch
if off, she said.
Also change your light bulbs to energy-saving bulbs and pull out cell-phone chargers from
the plug when theyve finished chargingotherwise they will continue to use power. Joy
said personal actions can lead to influencing actions in business practices as well.
Lifestyle choices can make a greater impact than that of your personal footprint. Should you
and the rest of your university start trying to shop in a more eco-friendly manner, i.e.
purchasing organic and packaging free products, ideally locally produced, you can have a

131 | P a g e

demand impact on local stores encouraging them to make eco-friendly purchasing and
procurement changes, which will in turn affect their suppliers, she said.
Five simple ways to decrease your CO2 impact:
1. Open your blinds.
Try to use natural light during the day or work in a room with other people so you can share a
light source.
2. Turn off your computer. Turn on your energy saver.
You can customize the energy settings on your computer to decrease your energy use. Try
turning off your screen saver: it uses just as much energy as if you were using the computer.
3. Power down.
If you plug all your things into a power bar, its really easy to unplug it all at once when you
leave the house to get rid of your phantom load.
4. Clean your fridge.
Lots of energy goes into this appliance. Cleaning out the contents and vacuuming the cords
help ensure it runs as efficiently as possible.
5. Try DIY home maintenance.
Find online how-tos to learn how to clean out your vents, bleed your radiators and weather
strip your windows. This will make your heating and air-conditioning more energy efficient.

REFERENCES
[1] Jnsson , Bjrklund T, Tillman A-M (1998): LCA of Concrete and Steel Building
Frames. Int J LCA 3 (4) 216224
[2] Schuurmans A, Rouwette R, Vonk N, Broers J, Rijnsburger H, Pietersen H (2005): LCA
of Finer Sand in Concrete. Int J LCA 10 (2) 131135
132 | P a g e

[3] Humphreys K, Mahasenan M (2002): Toward a Sustainable Cement Industry. Substudy 8,

Climate Change. World Business Council for Sustainable Development
[4] Commonwealth of Australia (2004): Australian Greenhouse Office Factors and Methods
Workbook. Australian Greenhouse Office
[5] Cuevas-Cubria C, Riwoe D (2006): Australian Energy: National and State Projections to
202930. Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics
[6] CIF (2003): Cement Industry Environment Report, Cement Industry Federation
[7] Collins F, Sanjayan J G (2002): The Challenge of the Cement Industry Federation towards
the Reduction of Greenhouse Emissions, Towards a Better Built Environment Innovation,
Sustainability, Information Technology. Proceedings of the International Association of
Bridge and Structural Engineers Symposium, Melbourne
[8] Heidrich C, Hinczak I, Ryan B (2005): SCM's potential to lower Australia's greenhouse
gas emissions profile, Iron and Steel Slag Products: A Significant Time of Scarcity.
Australasian Slag Association Conference, Sydney
[9] John VM (2003): On the sustainability of concrete. UNEP Industry and Environment, pp
6263
[10] Gartner E (2004): Industrially interesting approaches to 'low CO2' cements.
Cement and Concrete Research 34, 14891498
[11] Josa A, Aguado A, Heino A, Byars E, Cardim A (2003): Comparative analysis of
available life cycle inventories of cement in the EU. Cement and Concrete Research 34,
13131320
[12]

Office

of

Housing

internet

site

(2005):

http://hnb.dhs.vic.gov.au/ooh/

oohninte.nsf/frameset/Ooh?Opendocument, accessed 9 August 2005, last updated 20 July

2005
[13] Personal communication with John MacDonald, DesignInc Melbourne Pty Ltd, 15 July
2005
[14] Pade C, Guimaraes M (2006): The CO2 Uptake of Concrete during a 100 year
Perspective, Proceedings of Advances in Cement and Concrete X Sustainability. Davos,
Switzerland, July 2006, Engineering Conferences International, pp 114119
[15] Mroueh, U. M. and Wahlstrm, M., By-products and recycled materials in earth
construction in Finlandan assessment of applicability, Resources, Conservation and
Recycling, No. 35, 2002, pp. 117129
[16]. Sherwood, P. T., Alternative materials in road construction, Thomas Telford
Publications, London, 1995.
133 | P a g e

[17]. http://www.tfhrc.gov/hnr20/recycle/waste/, last accessed on 15th March 2004.

[18]. Javed, S., Lovell, C. W., Leonard and Wood., W., Waste foundry sand in asphalt
concrete,
Transportation Research Record, TRB, National Research Council, Washignton, D. C., No.
1437, 1994. pp.27-34.
[19]. Hawkins, G. J., Bhatty, J. I and OHare, A. T., Cement kiln dust production,
management anddisposa, Portland Cement Association, PCA, R&D No. 2737, 2003.
[20]. B. S. Hamad, Rteil. A. A. and Mutasseem, E. F., Effect of used engine oil on properties
and
hardened concrete, Construction and Building materials, No. 17, 2003, pp. 311-318.
[21] Okagbue, C. O. and Onyeobi. T. U.S.,Potential of marble dust to stablise red tropical
soils for road construction, Engineering Geology, No 53, 1999, pp. 371-380.
[22]

http://www.highways.gov.uk/aboutus/corpdocs/building_better_roads/02.htm

last

accessed on 4th March, 2004

[23] Nunes. M. C. M., Bridges. M. G., and Dawson. A. R., Assessment Of Secondary
Materials For Pavement Construction: Technical And Environmental Aspects, Waste
Management, Vol. 16, Nos 1-3, pp. 87-96, 1996.
[24] Block, Marilyn R. 2007. Effective Implementation of ISO 14001. Milwaukee: ASQ
Quality Press.
[25] Bogdonoff, Sondra and Jonathan Rubin. 2006. A Primer for Maine: Regional
Greenhouse Gas Initiative. Orono, Maine: Margaret Chase Smith Policy Center.
[26] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2007. Climate Change 2007: The
Physical Science Basis Summary for Policymakers. Geneva: IPCC Secretariat. Available at
www.ipcc.ch
[27] Kollmuss, Anja and Benjamin Bowell. 2007. Voluntary Offsets for Air-Travel Carbon
Emissions. Tufts Climate Initiative. Accessed March 19, 2007:
http://www.tufts.edu/tie/tci/pdf/TCI_Carbon_Offsets_Paper_Jan31.pdf
[28] Layard, Richard. 2006. Happiness: Lessons from a New Science. New York: Penguin
Books.
[29] Pulling the Plug on Standby Power. 2006. The Economist. March 9.
[30] U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration. (accessed 2007) Fuel
and Energy Source Codes and Emission Coefficients.
www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.html

134 | P a g e

[31] Utah State University, Forestry Extension. 2007. Heating with Wood: Species
Characteristics and Volumes.
http://extension.usu.edu/forestry/HomeTown/General_HeatingWithWood.htm
[32] Mroueh, U. M. and Wahlstrm, M., By-products and recycled materials in earth
construction in Finlandan assessment of applicability, Resources, Conservation and
Recycling, No. 35, 2002, pp. 117129
[33] Sherwood, P. T., Alternative materials in road construction, Thomas Telford
Publications, London, 1995.
http://www.tfhrc.gov/hnr20/recycle/waste/, last accessed on 15th March 2004.
[34] Javed, S., Lovell, C. W., Leonard and Wood., W., Waste foundry sand in asphalt
concrete, Transportation Research Record, TRB, National Research Council, Washignton,
D. C., No. 1437, 1994. pp.27-34.
[35] Hawkins, G. J., Bhatty, J. I and OHare, A. T., Cement kiln dust production, management
and disposa, Portland Cement Association, PCA, R&D No. 2737, 2003.
[36]

B. S. Hamad, Rteil. A. A. and Mutasseem, E. F., Effect of used engine oil on

properties and hardened concrete, Construction and Building materials, No. 17, 2003, pp.
311-318.
[37] Okagbue, C. O. and Onyeobi. T. U.S.,Potential of marble dust to stablise red tropical
soils for road construction, Engineering Geology, No 53, 1999, pp. 371-380.
[38]

http://www.highways.gov.uk/aboutus/corpdocs/building_better_roads/02.htm

last

accessed on 4th March, 2004

[39] Nunes. M. C. M., Bridges. M. G., and Dawson. A. R., Assessment Of Secondary
Materials For Pavement Construction: Technical And Environmental Aspects, Waste
Management, Vol. 16,Nos 1-3, pp. 87-96, 1996.

135 | P a g e