FE Review

Geotechnical Engineering
January, 2016

Soil Properties and

Classification

Definition of Soil
An assemblage (or system) of particles
that vary in size, shape and chemical
composition

Particle shapes
Cohesionless soil (sand and gravel)
Spheroid shape (tiny pebbles)

Cohesive soil (silt and clay)

Flat platelets (confetti of plastic wrap)

Size of Particles
Gravel
4.75mm to 75mm
Sand
0.075mm to 4.75mm
Silt and clay smaller than 0.075mm
4.75mm = No. 4 sieve (4 openings/inch)
0.075mm = No. 200 sieve (200 openings/in.)

Grain Size (sieve) Analysis

Quantifying Gradation
Uniformity Coefficient
Cu = D60/D10

Coefficient of Gradation (curvature)

Cc = D302/ (D60 x D10) Where,
D60 = Diameter at which 60% of grains are passing
D10 = Diameter at which 10% of grains are passing
D30 = Diameter at which 30% of grains are passing

Principles of Foundation Engineering

2011 Cengage Learning Engineering. All

Rights Reserved.

1-9

Soils with Fines (-200 sieve)

Moisture line (increasing)

Solid
State

Non-plastic
State

SL,(s)

Plastic
State

LL,(l)

PL,(p)

SL = Shrinkage Limit
PL = Plastic Limit
LL = Liquid Limit

Liquid
State

Atterberg Limits

PI (Ip) = Plasticity Index = LL - PL

Unified Soil Classification System

Primary Descriptions
G = Gravel, S = Sand, C = Clay, M = Silt
Secondary Descriptions
P
= Poorly Graded
W
= Well Graded
L
= Low Plasticity
H
= High Plasticity
O
= Organic soil
Pt
= Highly organic soil (peat)

Principles of Foundation Engineering

2011 Cengage Learning Engineering. All

Rights Reserved.

1 - 14

A soil has 3 phases

Solids

Voids
Filled with air and/or
water

Idealized Phase Diagram

Vv

Va

Air

Vw

Water

Ww
Wt

Vt
Vs

Solids

Ws

Soil Properties

Void Ratio:
Porosity:
Moisture Content:
Deg. of Saturation:

e = Vv/Vs
= Vv/Vt
= Ww/Ws
S = (Vw/Vv) X 100

Helpful Relationships
Specific Gravity: Gs = solid mineral/ w
= e/(1+e)
e = /(1- )
(Gs) () = (S) (e) (S as decimal)

Unit Weight:
t = Wt/Vt (lbs./ft.3), sometimes called
density
Consider the 1 cubic foot box

Unit Weights
d = Ws/Vt
m = (Ws + Ww)/Vt
sat = (Ws + Ww)/Vt
@ S = 100%
Buoyant (effective) unit weight:
b = sat - w (w =62.4pcf)
Relative Density:
Dr = [(emax-e)/(emax-emin)] X100
d = ((w) (Gs))/(1+e)
m = ((w) (Gs)(1+ ))/(1+e)
Dry unit weight:
Moist unit weight:
Saturated unit weight:

Verifying Compaction
Determine the in-place unit weight (dry density) and
compare it to a sample compacted under consistent
laboratory conditions

Proctor Test
Start with dry soil samples
Add some water and compact the soil in a mold
of known value with a consistent amount of
energy and measure the dry unit weight
Repeat the process incrementally adding water
and plot the dry density vs. moisture content

MDD = Maximum Dry Density = Dry Unit

Weight at the peak of the curve
OMC = Optimum Moisture Content =
moisture content corresponding to MDD

In-place Density Determination

Methods
Drive Sleeve Method
Sand Cone Method
Nuclear Gauge

Procedure
Measure the in-place total density and moisture
Calculate the in-place dry density
Compare the in-place dry density with the MDD
Determine if specified % density has been met
(90%, 95% etc.)

In-place Density Report

Permeability and Groundwater

Flow

Flow Net Rules

Flow Velocity Through Porous Media

Face Velocity; v = Q/A = ki (also known as Darcy Velocity, Hydraulic Velocity or Specific Discharge
Seepage Velocity; vs = v/n (n = porosity)

Shallow Foundations 1
Bearing Capacity

The Purpose of Foundations

P

P = foundation load (lbs)

B
qs = soil pressure (lbs/ft2)

Individual Column Footing

Continuous Wall Footing

qs = soil pressure = P/Af

qs = soil pressure = W/B

P = Concentrated foundation load,

point load (Kilopounds = 1000
pounds, Kips)

W = Continuous foundation load,

wall/strip load (Kips/lineal foot)
B = Width of footing (ft)

Af = Area of footing (ft2, B x L)

P = 100 K
B = 5 ft, L = 5ft, Af = 5 x 5 = 25 sq. ft.
qs = 100 K 25 sq. ft. = 4 K/sq. ft.

W = 9 kip/lin. ft. = 9 K/ft

B = 3 ft
qs = 9 K/ft 3 ft = 3 K/sq. ft.

Pressure from Point Loads (Boussinesqs Equation)

Pressure from Applied Distributed Loads

The 60 degree Method

Pressure from Applied Distributed Loads

0.28
Applied Stress from Uniform
Circular Load

Pressure from Applied Distributed Loads

Applied Stress from Uniform

Infinite and Square Footings

Reaction of Soil Under Load

1. Shear Failure (bearing capacity)
Based on soil strength

2. Settlement (compression/consolidation)
Based on soil compressibility
Stress- strain

Strength Parameters Cohesionless Soils

Cohesionless soil strength based on
intergranular friction
Particles must slip over each other (two pieces
of coarse sandpaper)

Strength Parameters Cohesive Soils

Strength based on inter-granular attraction
(stickiness), like two pieces of plastic wrap
The strength parameter for cohesive soil is
Cohesion, C, lbs/ft2
Cohesion is determined in the laboratory
(unconfined compressive strength)
C = q; q = unconfined compressive strength
Soils can have strength from both C and
S = C + tan

Bearing Capacity Failure

P

B
B

Rotational failure
Soil along the failure surface resists failure

Types of Bearing Capacity Shear

General Shear
Sudden failure, medium dense soil

Local shear
Not as sudden, irregular, loose soil

Punching shear
Not rotational, but vertical
Very loose soil

Principles of Foundation Engineering

2011 Cengage Learning Engineering. All

Rights Reserved.

3 - 54

Terzaghi Meyerhoff Bearing Capacity

Equation
To determine the ultimate bearing capacity (continuous footing,
general shear)
qu = CNc + qNq + 0.4 BN where;
C = Cohesion
q = Soil stress at footing level = Df ;
Df = depth of footing, = unit weight of soil
Nc, Nq, N = Bearing capacity factors based on
Equation is similar for square footings

For individual column footings (square or round), apply shape

factors to Nc and N

Principles of Foundation Engineering

2011 Cengage Learning Engineering. All

Rights Reserved.

3 - 56

Principles of Foundation Engineering

2011 Cengage Learning Engineering. All

Rights Reserved.

3 - 57

Water Table Effects

Case 2
If 0 < d < B . . . make
1 modification to
equation
In 3rd factor, =
= b + d/B x (m - b)

Case 1
If 0 < D1 < Df . . . make
2 modifications to equation

Case 3
If d B . . . no modifications

q = D1m + D2b

Water table is at a depth greater

than or equal to the footing width.
No effect on failure zone

In 3rd factor, = b

Consolidation and Foundation

Settlement

Why do Footings Settle?

1. Loaded foundation causes increase in stress
within underlying soils (pavg)
2. Soil reacts to increased stress by compressing
3. As soil compresses, the ground above
deflects and the footing settles

Two Modes of Settlement

1. Consolidation (long term) settlement
Applicable to cohesive soils (clay and silt)
Primary mechanism is dissipation of pore water
pressure (plastic settlement)
Void ratio decreases as pressure increases
Since soil has very low permeability, water
escapes very slowly, thus compression (and
settlement) occurs very slowly (long term)

Consolidation States
Normally consolidated
Soil element is currently at the highest pressure
that it has ever been at (p0 = pc, where pc is preconsolidation pressure)

Over consolidated
Soil element has, in the past, experienced a higher
pressure than it has currently (pc > p0)

Two Modes of Settlement

(continued)
2. Immediate (short term) settlement
Applicable to cohesionless soils (sand)
Primary mechanism is reorganization of soil
particles
High permeability, soil drains quickly; little or no
soil water pressure
Soil is modeled as an elastic medium (spring) with
an elastic soil modulus (Es)

Consolidation Test

Consolidation Equation
(Normally Consolidated)
Sc = Cc Hc
1+e0

p0 + pavg
log
p0

Sc = Calculated settlement
Cc = Compression index (virgin curve)
Hc = Thickness of soil layer
e0 = Void ratio before load is applied
P0 = Average in-situ soil pressure
pavg = Average pressure increase from load

Consolidation Equation
Over-consolidated where p0 + pavg < pc
Sc = CR Hc
p0 + pavg
(eq. 5.82)
log
1+e0
p0
Over-consolidated where p0 < pc < p0 + pavg
Sc = CR Hc
pc Cc Hc
p0 + pavg
log
log
+
1+e0
p0 1+e0
pc
CR = Swelling or Recompression Index
pc = Pre-consolidation pressure

Virgin Curve

Approximation

Recompression Curve
Approximation

Combined Stress and Mohrs

Circle

Lateral Earth Pressure and

Retaining Walls

Vertical Stress (Pressure)

P

Lateral Pressure

Lateral Earth Pressure; Typical Applications

Basements

Retaining Walls

Sea Walls

Three Soil States

1. At Rest state
2. Active state
3. Passive state

At Rest State

Soil is not moving . . . at rest

v (pv)
h (ph)
h = vK0

m = 110 lbs/ft3
= 30o

10
Rigid Pipe

Calc. lateral earth pressure on pipe

K0 = 1 sin =1- sin 30 o = 0.50

K0 = Coefficient of Earth v = pv = md = (110pcf)(10) = 1100 psf

pressure at rest
h = ph = v K0 = (1100psf)(0.5)
= 550 psf
For cohesionless soil;
K0 = 1 sin

Lateral Stresses on Walls

Vertical and horizontal stresses
increase with depth
z
@ z=0, v = (m)(0) h = (K0)(0) = 0
d

@ z=d/2, v = (m)(d/2) h = (K0)(m)(d/2)

@ z=d, v = (m)(d) h = (K0)(m)(d)

Unyielding, Smooth Wall

Lateral Stress Diagram

Horizontal stress varies linearly with
depth creating a triangle stress
diagram
h

P
h @ z=h
b

h/3

The total force P (per lineal foot of

wall) equals the area of the
diagram; P = (b)(h)
Where; h = depth of the wall
b = h at bottom of wall
b = (K0)(m)(h)

P = (K0)(m)(h)(h)
= (K0)(m)(h2)
P acts at the centroid of the stress
Diagram (1/3)(h)

Example
m = 110lbs/ft3
sat = 120 lbs/ft3
b = 57.6 lbs/ft3
10

P
h/3

h @ 10

K0 = 0.45
Calc. lateral soil force against the
unyielding wall
h @ 10 = (v @ 10)(K0)
= (m)(10ft)(K0)
= (110 pcf)(10)(0.45) = 495 psf
P = bh (area of diagram)
P = (495 psf)(10 ft) = 2,475 lbs
(per lineal foot of wall)

A Wrinkle in the Example (water table @ 3 ft.)

3

10

h @ 0 = v @ 0 = 0
h @ 3 = v @ 3 (K0) = 110 pcf(3)(0.45) = 149 psf
h @ 10 = v @ 10 (K0) = {(3)(110)+(57.6)(7)}(.45) = 330
psf

h @ 3 = 149 psf

h @ 10 = 330 psf

Water pressure
10 = 7(62.4 pcf)
= 437 psf

Total lateral force, Ptot = area of both stress diagrams

3

P1

149 psf

P2

7
330 psf

P3
437 psf

P1 = (149 psf)(3) = 224 lbs/ft of wall (fow)

P2 = (149 psf + 330 psf)(7) = 1676 lbs/fow
Total lateral soil force = P1 + P2 = 224 + 1676 = 1900 lbs/fow
P3 = (437 psf)(7) = 1530 lbs/fow
Total lateral force = P1 + P2 + P3 = 1900 + 1530 = 3430 lbs/fow
Compare with no WT case, Ptot = 2475 lbs/fow (nearly 40% higher)

Common Stress States for Wall Design

Active

Passive

Soil

Soil

Wall moves away from soil

(soil is a causing force)

Wall moves toward soil

(soil is a resisting force)

Active State
Failure Wedge

45o + /2
Ka = coefficient of active earth pressure = tan2 (45o - /2)
Calculate lateral pressure the same as for At Rest state,
but substitute Ka into the analysis

Passive State
Failure Wedge

45o - /2
Kp = coefficient of passive earth pressure = tan2 (45o + /2)
Calculate lateral pressure the same as for At Rest and
Active states, but substitute Kp into the analysis

Example

m = 110 lbs/ft2

= 30 degrees
H1 = 10ft

H2 = 3ft

Will wall translate to the left

(failure)
Pp > Pa not to fail
Ka = tan2 (45o /2) = 0.33
Kp = tan2 (45o + /2) = 3.0

Generally, active pressure will work to cause failure

while passive pressure works to prevent failure

Pressure Diagrams

Pa
Pp
p @ 3 = v @ 3 (Kp)
= 110 pcf(3)(3.0) = 990 psf

a @ 10 = v @ 10 (Ka)
= 110 pcf(10)(0.33) = 363 psf

Pp = (990)(3) = 1485 lbs/fow

Pa = (363)(10) = 1815 lbs/fow

Pa > Pp
Causing force is greater then resisting force and wall will fail

Slope Stability

Rshear = SL = cL
Rfriction = W (cos ) (tan )
Tff = Rtotal = cL + W (cos ) (tan )
Tmob = W (sin )

Rshear = SL = cL
Rfriction = W (cos ) (tan )
Tff = Rtotal = cL + W (cos ) (tan )
Tmob = W (sin )

Rshear = SL = cL
Rfriction = W (cos ) (tan )
Tff = Rtotal = cL + W (cos ) (tan )
Tmob = W (sin )

Acknowledgements
Some information presented in this review has
been obtained from sources noted within and
also from;
Foundation Engineering, Braja M. Das, 7th Edition
Test Masters Review
Learn Civil Engineering

All information included herein is used strictly

for academic purposes