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AirPollutants,TheirTypesandClassification
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AirPollutants,TypesandClassification
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CONTENTS
Introduction
GaseousPollutants
SulfurDioxide
NitrogenOxides
Ammonia
CarbonMonoxide
VolatileOrganic
Compounds
Ozone
PersistentOrganic
Pollutants
AirborneParticles
OtherNotes
Airpollutantscomeintheformofgasesandfinelydividedsolidandliquidaerosols.
Aerosolsarelooselydefinedasanysolidorliquidparticlessuspendedintheair(1).
Airpollutantscanalsobeofprimaryorsecondarynature.
Primaryairpollutantsaretheonesthatareemitteddirectlyintotheatmospherebythesources
(suchaspowergeneratingplants).
Secondaryairpollutantsaretheonesthatareformedasaresultofreactionsbetweenprimary
pollutantsandotherelementsintheatmosphere,suchasozone.
Possiblyoneofthemostimportantcharacteristicsofairpollutantsistheirtransboundarynature
theycaneasilytravelandaffecttheareasfarawayfromtheirpointsoforigination.
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AirPollutants,TheirTypesandClassification
GaseousAirPollutants
RenownedauthorJeremyCollsidentifiesthefollowingthreemaintypesofgaseousairpollutants:
(2)
Sulfurdioxide(SO2)
Oxidesofnitrogen(NOx=NO+NO2)
Ozone(O3)
Sulfurdioxideandnitricoxide(NO)aretheprimaryairpollutants,andozoneisasecondary
pollutant(thoughtherearenegligibledirectemissionsofthegasitself).
Nitrogendioxide(NO2)isbothaprimaryandsecondaryairpollutant.
Otherimportantgaseouspollutantsare:ammonia,carbonmonoxide,volatileorganiccompounds
(VOCs)andpersistentorganicpollutants(POPs)whichwediscussbelow.
AirPollutants:SulfurDioxide(SO2)
Sulfurdioxideisacolorlessgaswithapungent,suffocatingodor.Itisadangerousairpollutant
becauseitiscorrosivetoorganicmaterialsanditirritatestheeyes,noseandlungs.(3)
AnthropogenicSourcesofSulfurDioxideEmissions
Sulfuriscontainedwithinallfossilfuels,andisreleasedintheformofsulfurdioxide(SO2)
duringfossilfuelcombustion.Fossilfuelcombustionaccountsforalmostallanthropogenic
(humancaused)sulfuremissions.(4)
Sulfurcontentsinfossilfuelsrangebetween0.1%and4%inoil,oilbyproductsandcoal,and
upto40%innaturalgas(5)(whenimmediatelyextractedfromthewellhowever,thesulfuris
efficientlyremovedduringtheprocessingofgasbeforedistribution(6)therefore,combustion
ofnaturalgasisnotamajorsourceofsulfuremissions(7)).
Historically,theuseofcoalindomesticheatingwasamajorsourceofsulfurdioxideemissions
(atleastintheUK),butithasdeclinedsubstantiallyovertime.(8)
OverthelastseveraldecadestheindustrialuseofcoalintheUKhasalsodeclined,whereas
theuseofoilandnaturalgashasgraduallyincreased.(9)
IntheUK,thesulfurdioxideemissionsdeclinedsignificantlysince1970,thankstothe
introductionoflowsulfurfuels,theswitchfromcoaltogasandincreasedenergyefficiency.
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AirPollutants,TheirTypesandClassification
(10)
Thistrendispossiblytrueforotherindustrializedcountriesaswell,
thoughtheUSasthemostimportanteconomyintheworldisstilla
largeconsumerofenergyderivedfromcoal.
Belowisabreakdownofallthesignificantsourcesofsulfurdioxide
emissions(basedonsourcesoftheUKemissions)(11):
EnergyProduction
Electricpowergeneration
SayNoToCoalPhoto:
SayYesToCleanEnergy.org
Petroleumrefining
Othercombustion
Commercialandresidentialuse
Combustionforindustryuse
Productionprocesses
Extractionanddistributionoffossilfuels
Transport
Roadtransport
OtherTransport(suchasaviation,ships,trains).
Currently,themostimportantsourcesofsulfurdioxideemissions(asaresultoffossilfuel
combustion)areelectricpowergeneratingplants.
Forexample,asof1998,66%ofallsulfurdioxideemissionsintheUKcamefrompower
plants.Incontrast,transportcontributionsofsulfurdioxideemissionsareamongthesmallest
ones.(12)
Thebiggestsulfurdioxideemitters:US,ChinaandRussia.(13)
Infact,youmaybesurprisedtolearnthatjustoneSiberiancityinRussiaNorilskproduces
1%ofthetotalglobalemissionsofsulfurdioxide.In2007,Norilskwasconsideredtobeoneof
themostpollutedplacesonEarth.(14)
NaturalSourcesofSulfurDioxideEmissions
Therearealsosignificantsulfuremissionsgeneratedbynaturalsources.
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Themainnaturalsulfuremissionscomeinthereducedformsofsulfurcompoundssuchas
(15):
hydrogensulfide(H2S)
carbondisulfide(CS2)
carbonylsulfide(COS)
andintheorganicformsof:
methylmercaptan(CH3SH)
dimethylsulfide(DMS)(CH3SCH3)
dimethyldisulfide(DMDS)(CH3SSCH3)
Mostofthesecompoundsgetoxidizedtosulfurdioxideortosulfateaerosolsinthe
atmosphere.(16)
Marinephytoplanktonproducedimethylsulfide(DMS)whichisthenoxidizedtoSO2inthe
atmospheredecayprocessesinsoilandvegetationproduceH2S(asoneofsulfur
compounds)andSO2isemittedintotheatmospherebyvolcanoes.(17)
Around90%ofallnaturalsulfuremissionscomeintheformofDMS.(18)
Mostrecentlythenaturalsourceshavebeenbyfarsurpassedbyanthropogenicsources.
Naturalsourceshavebeenestimatedtoproducearound24%ofallsulfurdioxideemissions,
whereashumancausedemissionsmadeuparound76%.(19)
EffectsofSulfurDioxideEmissions
Sulfurdioxidefoundintheairproducesfollowingeffects(20,21):
Irritateseyes,nose,throat
Damageslungswheninhaled
Aspartofacidrain:
acidifieslakesandstreams
destroysplantandfishlifeinlakesandstreams
maydepletemineralnutrientsinthesoil
maycausereductionofforestandagriculturalyields
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corrodesmetals
damagessurfacesofbuildings.
AirPollutants:NitrogenOxides
AuthorAndrewFarmerpointsoutthatoxidesofnitrogenareproducedbycombustionofallfossil
fuelsincludingcoalandgasfiredpowerstationsandmotorvehicles.(22)
Whereasfuelitselfcanproducesomenitrogen(forexample,oilandcoalcontainaround0.51.5%
ofnitrogen,andnaturalgascontainslessthanthat(23)),mostofnitrogenoxides'productioncomes
fromthereactionofatmosphericnitrogenandoxygenwithinthecombustionchamber.(24)
Thetwomainnitrogenoxidesarenitricoxide(NO),ornitrogenmonoxide,andnitrogendioxide
(NO2)thesumofwhichisequaltoNOx.
Nitricoxide(NO)isacolorlessgas.(25)
Nitrogendioxide(NO2)isagasofreddishbrowncolorwithadistinctsharp,bitingodor.(26)
CombustionoffuelsalwaysproducesbothNO2andNO.
Butalmost90%oftheNOXcombustionproductisintheformofNOwhichisthenoxidizedto
nitrogendioxide(NO2)intheair(27,28).
Therefore,onlyasmallpercentageofNO2foundintheatmosphereisdirectlyemittedthereinthis
form.Theresthasbeenformedasaresultofchemicalreactionsintheatmosphereitself.(29)
AnthropogenicSourcesofNitrogenOxideEmissions
Roadtransport(motorvehicles)isbyfarthelargestcontributorofnitrogenemissions(in
contrast,itcontributesaverysmallproportiontosulfurdioxideemissions,asdiscussed
above).
BusPollutioninGuatemala
Photo:DoronLaor
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Forexample,basedon1998UKfigures,roadtransportcontributednearlyhalfofallnitrogen
emissions,followedbycontributionsfromelectricpowergeneratingplantswhichonly
contributedaround20%oftotalnitrogenemissions.(30)
Belowisabreakdownofthesignificantsourcesofemissionsofnitrogenoxides(basedon
sourcesoftheUKemissions)(31):
Roadtransport
OtherTransport
EnergyProduction
Electricpowergeneration
Petroleumrefining
Othercombustion
Combustionforindustryuse
Productionprocesses
Extractionanddistributionoffossilfuels.
NaturalSourcesofNitrogenOxideEmissions
Nitricoxide(NO)isalsoemittedbysoilsbutthereisverylittledataavailablefortheproper
assessmentofthisarea.
SomeestimatessuggestthatthesoilproductionofNOintheUKmaybearound25%ofits
productionfromfossilfuelcombustion.(32)
EffectsofNitrogenDioxide(NO2)Emissions
Wheninhaled,nitrogendioxidebecomesaseriousairpollutantwhichmay(33):
Causepulmonaryedema(accumulationofexcessivefluidinthelungs)
Bepartofacidrain(destroyingfishandplantlifeinlakes,damagingsurfacesofbuildings
etc)
Contributetophotochemicalsmog.
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AirPollutants:Ammonia
Ammoniaisacolorless,pungent,hazardouscausticgascomposedofnitrogenandhydrogen.
AmmoniaemissionsarealsogroupedasNHywhichisasumofNH3andNH4.(34)
SourcesofAmmoniaEmissions
Agricultureisbyfarthebiggestsourceofammoniaemissions.
Livestockfarmingandanimalwasteaccountforthebiggestpercentageoftotalammonia
emissionswhichareduetothedecompositionofureafromlargeanimalwastesanduricacid
frompoultrywastes.(35)
BasedonJeremyCollstableofglobalammoniaemissions,belowisabreakdownoftheir
majorsources:
Livestockcontributesmorethan50%ofallemissions
Fertilizerapplication
Oceans
Vegetation
Biomassburning
EffectsofAmmoniaEmissions
Exposuretoveryhighconcentrationsofgaseousammoniaintheairmayresultinlung
damageandevendeath.(36)
AirPollutants:Carbonmonoxide(CO)
Carbonmonoxideisacolorless,odorlessgaswhichishighlytoxictohumans.
Thecombustionofcarbonbasedfuelsproducescarbondioxide(CO2).
Butnotallsuchcombustioniscomplete,andthisleadstotheproductionofcarbonmonoxide(CO).
(37)
Motorvehiclesandindustryareamongthelargestanthropogenicsourcesofcarbonmonoxide
emissions.(38)
EffectsofCarbonMonoxideEmissions
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Carbonmonoxideisthemostcommontypeoffatalpoisoninginmanycountriesaroundthe
world.(39)
Exposurestocarbonmonoxidemayleadto(40):
Toxicityofthecentralnervoussystemandheart
Severeeffectsonthebabyofapregnantwoman
Headachesanddizziness
Problemswithgettingoxygensuppliedtosomebodypartswhichmaybelifethreatening.
AirPollutants:VolatileOrganicCompounds(VOCs)
Volatileorganiccompounds(VOCs)aredefinedasorganiccompoundswhicheasilyevaporateand
entertheatmosphere.
VOCsmayincludeawiderangeoforganicairpollutants,frompurehydrocarbonstopartially
oxidizedhydrocarbonstoorganiccompoundscontainingchlorine,sulfur,ornitrogen.(41)
Historically,thedefinitionofVOCsdidnotincludemethanecompounds(nonmethaneVOCs:
NMVOCs)sincetheatmosphericconcentrationofmethanewasconsideredtobeastablenatural
background.Butitwasultimatelyrecognizedthatmethaneisalsoananthropogenicairpollutant
thatcomesfromintensiveanimalandriceproduction.(42)
Thoughsomeofthesecompoundscanhavedirecttoxiceffects,theyhavebeengroupedtogether
becauseoftheirroleinozoneformation.(43)
AnthropogenicSourcesofVolatileOrganicCompounds
ThemajoranthropogenicsourcesofVOCsinclude(44):
SolventUse(includingpaints,adhesives,aerosols,metalcleaningandprinting)
Roadtransport(emissionsfromfuel/petroleumuse)
Productionprocesses
Extractionanddistributionoffossilfuels
Forexample,intheUKthebiggestemissionsofNMVOCsareduetosolventuseandroad
transport.(45)
JeremyCollspointsoutthatsubstantialNMVOCemissionsoccurduringthefollowing
processes(46):
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Painting(evaporationofsolvents)
Oilproduction(flaringandventingofgas)
Oilrefining(flaringandfugitiveemissions)
Distributionofoilorrefineryproducts(evaporationfromstorage,displacementlosseswhen
ventingtanks)
Drycleaning(finaldryingofclothes)
Productionofalcoholicdrinks(breweriesanddistilleries)
Arablefarming(cropgrowing,silagemanufacture,sludgespreading)
NaturalSourcesofVolatileOrganicCompounds
NotalotisknownaboutthenaturalemissionsofVOCs.
ButweknowthatforestsaretheprimarynaturalsourcesofVOCemissions.(47)Andtropical
forestsareestimatedtoproduceabouthalfofallglobalnaturalnonmethaneVOCemissions.
(48)
PlantssynthesizemanyorganicmoleculesandreleasesomeVOCs(includingarangeof
terpenes)intotheatmosphere.(49)
Intotal,around1000differentcompounds(withsomeofwhichthemselvesbeingfamilieswith
thousandsoftheirownmembers)areknowntobeemittedbynaturalsources.(50)
EffectsofVolatileOrganicCompounds
VOCsmayproducethefollowingeffects(51):
Somearomaticcompoundssuchasbenzene,tolueneandxylenearepotentialcarcinogens
andmaycauseleukemia
Contributetosickbuildingsyndromeindoors
Asfacilitatorsinozoneformation,VOCsmayindirectlycontributetorespiratoryproblems
andotherozonerelatedproblems
AirPollutants:Ozone(O3)
Ozone(O3)isacolorless,poisonousgaswithasharp,cold,irritatingodor.(52)
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Ozonecanbefoundin(53,54):
thestratosphere,oneoftheupperlayersoftheatmosphere,whereitoccursnaturally,and
thetroposphere,thelowestlayeroftheatmosphere,whereitoccursbothnaturallyandas
aresultofhumangeneratedemissions.
Thenaturalstratosphericozoneisconsideredtobeofbeneficialnatureitkeepsharmful
excessiveultravioletsunlightfromreachingthesurfaceoftheEarth.
Ozonewhichisformedinthetroposphereasaresultofanthropogenicemissionsofprimary
pollutants,hasnegativeeffectsonhumansandthenaturalenvironment.Andfromthispointofview
itisanairpollutant.
Thishumancausedozoneinthetroposphereisasecondarypollutantbecauseitisproducedbythe
reactionofprimarypollutants,nitrogenoxidesandhydrocarbons[includingVOCs],inthepresence
ofsunlight.(55)
Thetroposphericozoneisthemaincomponentofthephotochemicalsmog.
SmoginLosAngeles
Photo:BobTravis
Aphotochemicalsmog(ofbrownyellowcolor)isaproductofthechemicalreactionbetween
sunlight,nitrogenoxidesandVOCs,whichresultsintheformationofozoneandairborneparticles.
(56)
Theprocessofozoneformationmaytakeseveraldaystocomplete,andozoneitselfmayturnoutto
befarfromthesourcesoforiginalprimarypollutantemissions.(57)
EffectsofOzoneasanAirPollutant
Ozoneinthetropospherecanhavethefollowingnegativeeffectsonanimals(including
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AirPollutants,TheirTypesandClassification
humans)andthenaturalenvironment(58,59):
Irritationoftherespiratorysystemcausingcoughing,throatirritationandanuncomfortable
sensationinthechest
Susceptibilitytorespiratoryinfections
Compromisedlungfunctionharmingthebreathingprocesswhichmaybecomemorerapid
andmoreshallowthannormal
Inflammationanddamagetotheliningofthelungs
Aggravationofasthma
Reductioninagriculturalyields
Interferencewithphotosynthesisandsuppressionofgrowthofsomeplantspecies
AirPollutants:PersistentOrganicPollutants(POPs)
Persistentorganicpollutantsarecompoundswhichareresistanttodegradationandpersistentin
theenvironment,withhalflivesofyearsinthesoilorsedimentanddaysintheatmosphere.(60)
Suchcompoundsmayincludedioxins,furans,polychlorinatedbiphenyls(PCBs)andorganochlorine
pesticidessuchasDDT.(61)
Theyenterthefoodchainsviatheprocessofbiomagnification,getaccumulatedinhumanand
animaltissue,andarecapableoflongrangetransportthroughbeingattachedtoairborneparticles.
(62)
SourcesofPersistentOrganicPollutants
SomePOPsareusedaspesticides.(63)
Othersareusedinindustrialprocessesaswellasintheproductionofgoodssuchassolvents,
polyvinylchlorideandmedicines.(64)
EffectsofPersistentOrganicPollutants
Exposuretopersistentorganicpollutantstakesplacethroughdiet(specifically,consumptionof
animalfats),environmentalexposureoraccidents.(65)
POPsmayleadto(66):
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AirPollutants,TheirTypesandClassification
Deathandillnessincludingdisruptionofendocrine,reproductiveandimmunesystems
Neurobehavioraldisorders
Cancers
PleasenotethatwhenPOPsarepresentintheatmosphereintheformofaerosols,theymaybe
classifiedasairborneparticles(seebelow)ratherthangaseouspollutants.
AirborneParticlesasAirPollutants
Airborneparticlespresentonemoretypeofairpollutants.
Theyaretinyfragmentsofsolidorliquidnaturesuspendedintheair(aerosols).
Particlesmaybeprimarywhenemitteddirectlyintotheatmospherebysources,orsecondary
whenparticlesareformedintheatmospherethroughtheinteractionofprimaryemissions.(67)
Solidparticlesbetween1and100m(micrometres)indiameterarecalleddustparticles,while
solidparticleslessthan1mindiameterarecalledfumes,orsmoke.(68)
AnthropogenicSourcesofAirborneParticles
Anthropogenicparticlesaccountforaround10%ofthetotalamountofparticlesinthe
atmosphere.(69)
Fossilfuelcombustionisoneofthemainprocesseswhichcausesvastamountsofparticlesto
beemittedintotheatmosphere.(70)
Themajoranthropogenicsourcesofairborneparticlesare(71,72):
Roadtransport
Powergeneratingplants
Productionprocesses(suchasdustblownawaybywindsfromconstructionsites)
NaturalSourcesofAirborneParticles
Mainnaturalsourcesofparticlesare(73):
Erosionofsoilbywindwhichgeneratesdustparticlesthattravelaroundtheglobe
Evaporationofdropletsofseawaterresultinginseasaltcrystalsbeingsuspendedintheair
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Volcanoes
Forestfires
Livingvegetation
EffectsofAirborneParticles
Particleslessthan10mindiameterareofbiggestconcerntohumanandanimalhealthas
theycanbeeasilyinhaledandgettrappedintherespiratorysystem.(74)
JeremyCollsalsonotesthatparticlesofthissizehaveverylowgravityrelatedsedimentation
ratesandmaythereforeremainintheatmospherefordaysbeforebeingwashedoutbyrainor
attachedtovegetationorbuildings.(75)
Airborneparticlesmaycause(76):
Asthma
Lungcancer
Cardiovascularproblems
AirPollutants:OtherNotes
Mostrecently,climatescientistshavealsostartedrecognizinggreenhousegasessuchascarbon
dioxideasimportantairpollutants.(77)
Writtenby:
IrinaGrayofTropicalRainforestAnimals.com
PublicationDate:
April2008
IrinaGray&TropicalRainforestAnimals.com
Findouthowtociteandmakereferencestothisarticle!
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