British Food Journal

Emerald Article: Consumer perception of the nature and quality of

home-made and commercial dairy ice cream
John A. Bower, Irene A. Baxter

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To cite this document: John A. Bower, Irene A. Baxter, (2000),"Consumer perception of the nature and quality of home-made and
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Consumer perception of the

nature and quality of
home-made and commercial
dairy ice cream

Consumer
perception

821

John A. Bower

Department of Business and Consumer Studies, Queen Margaret

University College, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK, and

Irene A. Baxter

Food Science Australia, North Ryde, NSW, Australia

Keywords Taste, Food, Consumer perceptions, Confectionery
Abstract An important consumer opinion of some food products relates to the perception of
``home-made quality''. This study examined consumer perception of this aspect in dairy ice cream
along with product knowledge and consumption habits and influences. A questionnaire was
delivered followed by tasting of commercial products and home-made formulations. All of the
participants (n = 105) consumed dairy ice cream and 62 per cent named it as their most frequent
type of ice cream, with sensory quality being the most important reason influencing choice.
Product knowledge was relatively high with 74 per cent of respondents claiming to know two out
of three product characteristics. Consumer opinion was divided on a pre-stated preference for
``home-made'' or ``commercial'', with 56 per cent being in favour of the home-made form, which
was valued because of an assumed superior taste, quality and a more intimate knowledge of
ingredients. Commercial quality also required ``good taste'', but its convenience value was very
important. On blind tasting, the degree of liking for both forms was usually high, but correct
identification (home-made vs commercial) levels were low. Subjects with previous experience of
home-made ice cream had a more positive attitude to it, and had more success in distinguishing it
from the commercial form. Generally, home-made quality was viewed as a desirable feature of
dairy ice cream.

Introduction
In common with many other foods ice cream as a product has changed to meet
the demands of the consumer in respect of health awareness and the desire for
luxury or indulgence foods. Quality must not be compromised as a result of any
such changes, and while this may be a difficulty when making fat-free ice
cream (Hatchwell, 1994), luxury products of higher fat content are likely to
retain or improve the original quality. Commercially produced ice cream occurs
in a number of forms or grades, ranging from economy and standard to
premium or ``super premium''. In the UK there are no legal definitions for these
classifications beyond a minimum for fat (5 per cent) and for milk solids non-fat
(7.5 per cent; MSNF). However, it is recognised by the ice cream industry that
economy products will meet these minimums, whereas other grades exceed
them and achieve certain ``typical'' fat levels. Thus, a typical standard ice cream
has a minimum of 8 per cent fat, and both it and the economy form are based on

British Food Journal,

Vol. 102 No. 11, 2000, pp. 821-837.
# MCB University Press, 0007-070X

BFJ
102,11

822

milk plus non-dairy or vegetable fat rather than cream. Additionally, these
lower priced brands tend to have the maximum permissible overrun (air
introduced to the product giving it a lighter texture), in levels of 100 per cent to
130 per cent (Kirk and Sawyer, 1991). In contrast, premium and super premium
grades have higher fat content and lower levels of overrun. Specific values
depend on UK (e.g. Varnum and Sutherland, 1994) or wider European accounts
(e.g. Joachimsthaler and Taugbol, 1993). Thus, premium ice creams contain
between 10-16 per cent dairy fat with an overrun of 70-100 per cent, while super
premium ice cream has a higher dairy fat content (typically 16 per cent to 18 per
cent) and an overrun at 45 per cent to 30 per cent or less. Beyond the basic
formulation a wide range of other ingredients are possible. Some commercial
products contain added emulsifiers and stabilisers, both of which impart the
desirable characteristics of ``body'' and smooth, creamy textures to the product,
while stabilisers also confer resistance to heat shock thus preventing ice crystal
problems (Carnell, 1996). Soft scoop ice cream tends to have higher levels of
these additives (Varnam and Sutherland, 1994) and may have more air
incorporated.
More recently some manufacturers have moved towards a more natural
quality base, especially in the case of ``luxury ice creams''. These are of
premium or higher grade and use natural ingredients (Joachimsthaler and
Taugbol, 1993) and are marketed on the basis of being ``traditional''.
Home-made ice cream recipes or formulations do not vary widely in fat
content. They tend to be of the rich variety, equivalent to a premium or super
premium. They do not use artificial additives, and typically include egg yolks
as the emulsifier, and milk or skimmed milk powder as a source of MSNF to act
as the stabiliser. Home making procedures may not involve machine mixing
and overrun levels are low, although domestic mixers are now widely available.
Such variation in process, and ingredient type and level, particularly fat
content, have a marked effect on sensory properties and consumer
acceptability. Optimum levels of fat and sugar in vanilla ice cream for overall
flavour and texture preference have been quoted as close to those found in
premium ice creams (that is  14 per cent butterfat, and high sugar levels)
(Guinard et al., 1996; McCandlish et al., 1992). The flavour and textural
properties of ice cream are influenced by the fat, sugar and MSNF content,
which determines the success of the product in the market (Stampanoni
Koeferli et al., 1996).
Differences in the perceived quality between home-made and commercial ice
cream have been discussed in the literature. In 1977, Rubenstein and Bush
(1977) lamented that home-made ice cream was becoming rare due to increased
commercial manufacture, with a consequent lowering of quality. This
distinction is also described by connoisseurs and in specialist texts (e.g. Poole
and Partington, 1980; Passmore, 1992) and in cookery texts (e.g. Smith, 1993;
Berry, 1995). Common criticisms relate to the commercial form being ``over
processed'', in respect of it being ``too refined'', and ``non-natural'', in that it
contains too many additives, etc. Other deficiencies relate to the sensory

aspects in general or more specific features of a technical nature, e.g. the use of
high overrun, which can be perceived as a negative feature, resulting in the
product being ``full of air''.
Consumers are assumed to react to this distinction, but a specific
comparison of home-made and commercial forms does not appear to have been
published. There has been a shift to the luxury/premium end of the market in
recent years (Corporate Intelligence 1997; Scottish Enterprise, 1998). These
products had a 23 per cent share of the take home market in 1997 (Corporate
Intelligence, 1997), and were described as the fastest growing category of this
market (Blenford, 1997). Target consumers for luxury/premium ice cream are
adults in general (The Grocer, 1992), with some brands aimed specifically at the
25-45 year old, more affluent (socio-economic groups ABC1), sophisticated
adult (Euromonitor, 1994; McRitchie, 1992; Cool, 1995). More recent information
includes younger adults (18-34-year olds) in the target market (Hardcastle,
1999). The emphasis is on ``high quality'' to satisfy the desires of the consumer
who is willing to pay more (Joachimsthaler and Taugbol, 1993; Hardcastle,
1999).
Quality perception for ice cream is based presumably on factors which apply
to foods in general, although many such factors have not been studied
specifically for ice cream products. These include intrinsic features, such as the
visual sensory properties of the product, extrinsic factors such as price and
brand name, packaging, and experience factors such as ``taste'' (Oude Ophuis
and Van Trijp, 1995; Piggott, 1994; Cool, 1995). Other influential factors include
the consumer's judgement of the freshness of the product, and ``credence
quality attributes'' such as the naturalness and exclusiveness of the product,
and consumer perception of the production method (Wandel and Bunge, 1996).
The influence of ``home-made'' as a factor in food choice does not appear to
have been examined in detail, beyond a recognition of its higher quality level in
bakery goods (Poulsen et al., 1996; Jennings, 1998), and that consumers find
some manufactured products with very uniform sensory properties to be
unattractive (Lightbody, 1990). With the increased sales of luxury ice cream
products (Scottish Enterprise, 1998), any possible negative perception of the
commercial form may have changed. Previous work at the University College's
Food Industry Forum had intimated that local consumers' knowledge of
ingredients in ice cream in general was low (Gallacher, 1994). Taste
experiments showed that consumers could readily recognise differences in
sensory features in commercial ice cream products which vary in fat level and
form (soft scoop vs normal; standard vs premium). A more recent survey found
that many Scottish consumers purchase local (i.e. Scottish) dairy ice cream
because they believe it to be ``home-made'' in concept, but a specific home-made
vs commercial comparison was not performed.
The objectives of this study were initially to ascertain the perception of ice
cream nature (as level of product knowledge), consumption habits and
influences for ice cream choice in a sample of local consumers. A second
objective was to establish how these consumers perceive and distinguish the

Consumer
perception

823

BFJ
102,11

824

quality of dairy ice cream in the context of a home-made vs. commercial

comparison, and to relate this perception to the level of product knowledge,
consumption habits (frequency, experience of home-made), and demographic
differences (age, social class), identified in objective one. These objectives
would be met by delivery of a questionnaire survey and by actual tasting of
commercial and home-made forms.
Materials and methods
Consumer subjects
Consumers were recruited mainly from students and staff at Queen Margaret
University College, Edinburgh, Scotland. A small number of additional adults
were recruited by use of the departmental Food Industry Forum consumer
database, which is used to recruit local residents for occasional ad hoc tests.
They were included primarily to increase the numbers of older respondents, as
due to the predominance of students, the sample was likely to have a bias
towards young adults. Luxury ice creams tend to be expensive, thus working
older adults (over 25 years) would be the typical target consumers. Although
less affluent, younger consumers also form part of the target market, and they
appear to be responding to the ``indulgence'' character of the premium or super
premium products (Euromonitor, 1997). The only selection criterion was that
subjects had to be at least occasional consumers of dairy ice cream. Subjects
with low to high consumption frequencies were recruited, as consumption rates
may influence perception. A sample size of 108 was planned (105 obtained).
This could be viewed as small in terms of survey research, but limitation to this
level was necessary as tasting of an unstable food material (i.e. ice cream) was
also included, with the ensuing practical difficulties involved in serving large
numbers of samples.
Questionnaire survey. The consumers completed a questionnaire, which
included demographic details, information on their ice cream product
knowledge, consumption patterns and their perception of home-made and
commercial ice cream. Some questions covered general consumption habits but
more specific information was gathered for the brand or type of ice cream
consumed most frequently.
Product knowledge was limited to the factors which have been shown to
influence sensory properties and which could have a bearing on differences
between dairy ice cream of home-made and commercial forms. Consumers were
asked to indicate whether their most commonly consumed ice cream was:
``dairy or non-dairy'';``economy/standard or premium/super premium''; and ``soft
scoop or normal'', with a ``don't know'' option in each case.
Respondents were then asked to indicate which of the following factors
influenced their choice: ``sensory quality'', ``uses natural ingredients'', ``brand
reputation'', ``price and value for money'', ``packaging looks good'', ``previous
experience''. ``Home-made quality'' was not given as a choice factor at this point
as the researchers thought that this would influence later questions, but the
opportunity for ``other'' responses was also given. Individual questions are

detailed in the results section. The questionnaire and the general methodology
were piloted on a sample of 30 consumers.
Commercial product and home-made formulation taste sessions
After completion of the questionnaire, consumers participated in a taste session
comparing four commercial products and two home-made formulations.
Commercial products. Selection of commercial products was guided
primarily by availability of suitable types. Although all were classified
as ``luxury ice cream'' (premium to super premium), the fat content of available
brands varied considerably, and this variation would, according to
published work (Stampanoni Koeferli et al., 1996; Guinard et al., 1996), have an
important influence on sensory properties. Consequently, a variation in fat
level of a similar magnitude was desirable for the home-made forms.
Other variations of vanilla and non-vanilla, emulsified and non-emulsified
products were also present in the commercial samples, but in the interests of
limiting sample numbers, these factors were not varied in the home-made ice
cream.
The influence of brand familiarity was also important. Recognition of a
product sample would negate the validity of any blind tasting assessment.
Accordingly, both local and national brands, and less well known brands were
included (Table I). The three Scottish products (Mackie's (widely available
locally), Cream o' Galloway and Orkney Creamery) were selected to be assessed
alongside Haagen-Dazs, a product with a wider UK market.
The commercial products were purchased locally two weeks before the
study and stored at 18C. Either four  1-litre packs or eight  500ml packs
(depending on availability) of each product were purchased, ensuring the same
batch codes for each product.

Product
Mackie's Traditional
Luxury Dairy
Cream o' Galloway Luxury
Vanilla Dairy
Home-made high fat
Orkney Creamery Original
Orkney Luxury Dairy
Haagen-Dazs Vanilla
Home-made low fat

Fat per cent by

Vol.
Wt.a

Vanilla

Emulsifierb

Consumer
perception

825

Pack specific
volume
(cc/g) (n = 8)

11.50*

19.80

No

Yes

1.71

10.73
15.00

16.50*
(21.40)

Yes
Yes

No
No

1.50
1.40

8.64
15.30*
7.90

12.00*
17.10*
10.80

No
Yes
Yes

Yes
No
No

1.38
1.10
1.40

Notes:
a
g/100ml or g/100g respectively; values with asterisks are as per nutritional information on
retail packs; all other values are calculated
b
Refers to stabilisers and emulsifiers other than egg yolk

Table I.
Ice cream products and
formulations used in
the study

BFJ
102,11

826

A measure of the overrun was not available for commercial products but a
measure of the level of incorporated air was obtained via the specific volume
(cc/g), which was considered appropriate, as ice cream is sold by volume. This
was calculated for each product (pack specific volume) by weighing the pack
contents and dividing the quoted pack volume by the weight. Specific volume
is inversely related to ice cream specific gravity (Kirk and Sawyer, 1991), but
either can be used to calculate the overrun. The overrun achieved depends on
the specific volume of the mix prior to beating and freezing. Figures for this
measure were available for the home-made formulations (0.90-0.97cc/g).
Assuming that the commercial product mixes were similar, based on the fact
that they had similar levels of cream and sugar, an estimate of overrun for
commercial products can be obtained by subtracting unity from the pack
specific volume and multiplying by 100. Between product variation is present
but all are within the typical levels for premium or super premium products,
with the lowest for Haagen-Dazs, quoted at either 20 per cent (Joachimsthaler
and Taugbol, 1993), or 15 per cent overrun (Cool, 1995). Mackie's product
appeared to have had the highest overrun, estimated at approximately 70 per
cent.
Manufacture of the home-made formulations. Several home-made recipes
were tried and one was selected on the basis of its quality in pre-trials, and by
the fact that it was specifically claimed to be superior to commercial (Berry,
1995), i.e. it typified the possible distinction aimed at in this study. A suitable
low fat home-made form was not available, so a variation on the ``Mary Berry's
Rich Vanilla'' recipe was used to produce a home-made sample of this nature
(low fat). Both formulations contained cream (double or single for high fat and
low fat respectively), full fat milk, caster sugar, egg yolk and natural vanilla
extract.
Home-made manufacture was standardised across batches, with mixing and
freezing using a small scale mixer (capacity 1.5 litres), which is within the
range of domestic mixers. Home-made products were made two weeks before
the study (four 1.5-litre batches) and stored under the same conditions as the
commercial products. Specific volume (Table I) was calculated using volume
and weight measurements taken during production. Overrun averaged out at
ca. 40 per cent.
Procedure for assessment. Samples (half of a 30ml scoop) were presented in
unlabelled lidded polystyrene containers. Randomly selected 6  6 William's
Latin Square designs (MacFie and Bratchell, 1989) ensured a balanced sample
presentation order. The assessment took place in sensory evaluation booths
under white lighting equivalent to daylight. Samples were given approximately
five minutes holding time at 4C, during which respondents completed the
questionnaire. Rinsing water was provided.
The taste assessments were conducted with consumers being asked to
indicate their ``degree of liking'' (DOL) using a nine-point category hedonic scale
(Peryam and Pilgrim, 1957). Subjects were then asked to identify each sample
as either home-made or commercial, providing reasons for this selection. The

trials were carried out over three days. A trained sensory panel also profiled the
products and samples used in the assessment. The account of this latter stage
and its analysis are intended for future publication.
Data analysis. Data were summarised by tables and graphical methods and
chi-square tests were used to assess any significant differences in proportions
of the consumers' responses. Hedonic data were converted to integers (where 1
= ``dislike extremely'', 9 = ``like extremely'' and 5 = ``neither like nor dislike'')
and subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA). Crosstabulation (with chisquare) and correspondence analysis (McEwan and Schlich, 1991), were used to
explore the overall association of the products, degree of liking and home-made
versus commercial perception. All analyses were performed on sub-groups
created from the whole sample in respect of age, employment status/social
class (``students'' cf. ``non-students''), consumption frequency, experience of
home-made ice cream, pre-stated preference for home-made and level of
product knowledge. All percentage values for subject groups in tables are
rounded to the nearest integer. SPSS v.7.5 (SPSS Inc., 1990) was used for all
analyses.
Results
Questionnaire survey
Demographic details. The participating consumers (n = 105) were mainly
students (assumed as socio-economic group E on the basis of employment
status and low income). ``Non-students'', (staff (21 per cent) and local residents
(7 per cent); all socio-economic group BC1) made up the remainder. The profiles
of the sample and sub-groups are summarised in Table II.
``Students'' were mostly female (74 per cent) and aged between 16-25 years
(82 per cent), with a similar age profile for the male students. Most (79 per cent)
of the ``non-students'' sub-group were older (aged 36-55 years), and gender was
more balanced. Overall, ``older adults'' (26 years and over) comprised 39 per
cent of the sample. There were no significant gender differences for all
analyses.
Consumption habits in general. Ice cream consumption frequency varied,
ranging from less than once a month (25 per cent) to once per week or more (21
per cent). A larger group (54 per cent) of consumers said that they ate ice cream
once or twice per month. All subjects had consumed dairy ice cream at some
time. Two sub-groups for consumption frequency were created for later
analysis: ``low'' (once a month or less) and ``high'' (more than once a month).
In terms of general experience of commercial dairy ice cream, most (79 per
cent) subjects had tried a branded type at some time, and many (67 per cent)
had also consumed at least one supermarket own-label type.
Consumption habits for ``most frequent'' ice cream. Commercial ice cream
products were the types most frequently consumed by the subjects. Two
consumers indicated ``home-made'' ice cream, but these were from a shop source
or ice cream parlour, i.e. the subject did not make them in the home. Branded
products were most numerous with 64 per cent of respondents naming a

Consumer
perception

827

BFJ
102,11

828

Group/sub-group
All (100)b
Age:
Younger (61)
Older (39)
S-E group:
Student (72)
Non-student (28)
Consumption
frequency
Low (44)
High (56)
Product
knowledge:
Low (64)
High (36)
Experience of HM:
Eaten (36)
Made (34)
[Eaten or made
(53)
Pre-stated
preference:
Prefer HM (56)
Prefer CM (42)

S-E grp.a
E
BC1

31

69

72

28

47

53

0
100

30
34

70
66

97
34

3
66

55
34

45
66

82
7

18
93

26
45

74
55

100
0

0
100

54
28

46
72

63
59

37
41

26
36

74
64

74
71

26
29

48
46

52
54

61
61

39
39

33
29

67
71

72
74

28
26

46
47

54
53

58
47
52

42
53
48

40
31
34

60
69
66

60
64
62

40
36
38

0
0
0

100
100
100]

59
64

41
36

34
27

66
73

71
75

29
25

41
57

59
43

17-25

Age

26-55

61

39

100
0

Gender

Exp. of HM
``None'' ``Some''

Table II.
Percentage composition Notes:
a
S-E = socio-economic, HM = home-made, CM = commercial
of consumer sample
b
Figures in brackets are group/sub-group percentage of whole sample (n = 105)
and sub-groups

commercial brand. Supermarket own-label products accounted for the most

frequent type of ice cream consumed by the remaining subjects (36 per cent).
Brands were dominated by Haagen-Dazs, Walls standard grade ice cream
products and Mackie's. Haagen-Dazs and Mackie's were the most commonly
consumed brands that were specifically identifiable as luxury premium style
products. These products accounted for 10 per cent and 11 per cent respectively
(of all 105 respondents). Few consumers quoted Cream o'Galloway (1 per cent)
and Orkney (0 per cent) ice creams as their ``most frequent brand''.
There was no special division of these consumption patterns (general or
most frequent) according to sub-group analyses.
Choice influences (most frequent brand). Consumers were asked to rank the
importance of six factors that influenced their choice of ``most frequent brand''.
The sensory quality of the product was the most important factor, followed by
previous experience of the product and the price/value for money (Figure 1).
``Packaging'' was ranked as the least important factor, with the use of natural
ingredients ranked fifth most important (out of six reasons). ``Student'' and
``non-student'' sub-groups agreed on the placing of importance for price, but

Consumer
perception

829
Figure 1.
Mean rank of
importance of factors
influencing choice of
``most frequent brand''
(6 = most important)

older subjects and ``non-students'' rated ingredients as more important. There

were few (10 per cent) ``other'' responses. Most were references to the
``convenience'' of commercial products in terms of availability.
Product knowledge. On the basis of the self-reported responses, overall
knowledge of subjects' ``most frequent brand'' appeared to be relatively high.
Summation of any two definite responses (i.e. those other than ``don't know'') for
each respondent showed that 74 per cent claimed to know at least two out of
three characteristics (Table III; 38 per cent of all respondents had two definite
responses and 36 per cent had three).
Of the subjects, 62 per cent had a dairy ice cream as their most frequent
choice, with a slightly higher incidence of high fat grades. Consumption of
economy and soft scoop ice cream was noted, so some consumers had
experience of products with higher overrun and possibly higher levels of
certain additives, although it was not possible to verify this for all products.
Two sub-groups were created for level of knowledge, as ``low'' (none to two
characteristics known) and ``high'' (three characteristics). Product knowledge
level appeared similar across sub-groups.
Perception of quality and experience of home-made ice cream. Roughly
one-third of all consumers had previously made home-made ice cream and
Dairy or non-dairy
Dairy
Non-dairy
Don't know

62a
7
31

Soft scoop or normal

Yes

39

No

43

Don't know

18

Grade (fat level)

Economy/standard
(5-8 per cent fat)
Premium/super
premium (10-18 per cent
fat)
Don't know

Note:
Figures represent percentages of subjects out of total of 105

21
39
40

Table III.
Knowledge of their
``most frequent brand''
as self-reported by
consumers

BFJ
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830

similar numbers had eaten this form (Table II). Approximately half (53 per
cent) of these latter subjects had made the home-made ice-cream for
themselves. Overall, 53 per cent of all subjects had either eaten or made homemade ice cream (14 per cent had done both), with older consumers being more
likely to have done so.
Prior to tasting, 59 (56 per cent) out of the 105 consumers indicated that they
would prefer to eat home-made ice cream rather than commercial dairy ice
cream, if they had the choice (Table II; open ended response). Of this sub-group,
69 per cent (p < 0.05) had eaten home-made ice cream and 63 per cent had
experience of home making, thus previous experience appears to have resulted
in a positive disposition to home-made.
When examining the reasons for their preferred choice (Table IV),
those choosing home-made ice cream did so mainly because of sensory related
effects (taste, texture), knowledge of the ingredients used and of the
ingredients' naturalness and quality. This included a desire for an ``additivefree'' food or for a more intimate knowledge of any inclusions. Conversely,
those who stated that they would prefer commercial products if given the
choice, did so mainly because of convenience factors, sensory properties and
the quality.
Sensory related reasons for preference were common to both forms of ice
cream but there were more references to this feature in the case of home-made
preference (42 per cent cf. 25 per cent). Sensory terms commonly used to
describe home-made ice cream were ``better taste'' (34 per cent of those
preferring home-made) and ``more creamy'' (12 per cent). Those who preferred
commercial ice cream commonly (23 per cent) described the taste, texture and
quality as ``better'' than that of home-made ice cream.
There was also some allusion to a tendency for home-made ice cream texture
to be less consistent in nature, or characterised as ``lumpy'' and ``full of ice''.
There were no specific references to overrun effects, but textural reasons were
not sufficiently detailed to exclude this as an influence.

Reason

Table IV.
Reasons given by
consumers for
preferring to eat either
home-made or
commercial dairy ice
cream

Taste
Texture
Taste and texture
Quality
Ingredients
Novelty
Convenience
Brand
No reason given
Note:
a
Two subjects stated no preference

Per cent preferring

home-made (n = 59)a

Per cent preferring

commercial (n = 44)

23
5
14
19
30
7
2

16
7
2
21
2
0
43
2
7

The tenor of responses to this question from a small number of subjects

suggested that they did in fact accept that ``home-made was better'', but the
convenience element was so strong that it prompted them to choose commercial
instead. These sub-groups (``preferring HM or CM'') were similar in terms of
demographics, the main difference between them being the level of experience
of ``home-made'' (Table II).
Tasting sessions
Degree of liking (DOL). The mean DOL from the ANOVA for the ice cream
samples were not markedly different (Figure 2), but the home-made low fat
product was liked significantly less than the other samples (p < 0.05). Thus all
commercial products were ``liked'' approximately equally and there was no
obvious preference for the high fat home-made formulation.
The relationship between the DOL category allocations and the samples
were examined further by use of correspondence analysis, where it shows
(Figure 3) the correspondence between ice cream samples (rows) and ``DOL
categories'' (columns). For this analysis, three categories were created from the
ratings as ``Like'' (rating 9-6), ``Neither like nor dislike'' (5) and ``Dislike'' (1-4).
This gives more information than was revealed by the comparison of mean
DOL ratings achieved by ANOVA.
Most samples except the home-made low fat are associated with ``like'', but
the frequency of association with ``middle of the road'' or ``dislike'' categories
shifts the position of some samples, viz. Orkney Creamery and Mackie's.
Haagen-Dazs was associated most often with the ``like'' category but was
disliked marginally more often than the home-made high fat sample. Figure 3
clearly illustrates that the consumers liked this home-made sample, Cream o'
Galloway and Haagen-Dazs, disliked the home-made low-fat product and were
ambivalent about others. The former three samples all contained vanilla

Consumer
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831

Figure 2.
Mean hedonic rating
and standard deviation
for degree of liking of ice
cream samples
(1 = ``dislike extremely'';
9 = ``like extremely'')

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832
Figure 3.
Correspondence analysis
biplot of the association
of ``degree of liking''
category with products
and formulations

flavour and no added emulsifier, but more specific sensory profile measures
would be required to examine further any sensory influences on preferences.
All sub-groups scored the low fat ice cream as the least liked sample, although
differences in sample means were less in some cases.
Identification of products as home-made or commercial. For all products, a
significant proportion of consumers claimed that they could identify the form
(home-made or commercial), as in each case the ``don't know'' incidence was
lower (Table V). This ability was not borne out on analysis, as the success rate
for all 105 individuals was low, with 51 per cent of subjects being unable to
identify more than two out of six samples correctly.
A significant proportion of consumers identified two commercial products
successfully (Mackie's and Cream o' Galloway). There may have been a slight bias
for Mackie's as some consumers (11 per cent of all subjects) had named it as their
``most frequent brand'', but removal of these possible ``recognition'' responses still
showed a significant (p < 0.05) proportion identifying this sample correctly.
The home-made high fat sample also had a significant number of subjects
choosing ``commercial'' but in this case the identification was erroneous. This
Sample

Table V.
Percentage of
consumers (n = 105)
identifying ice cream
as home-made or
commercial

Mackie's
Cream o' Galloway
Home-made high fat
Orkney Creamery
Haagen-Dazs
Home-made low fat

Home-made

Identification
Commercial

Don't know

20
28
19
30
35
47

53*
52*
58*
41
46
38

27
20
23
29
19
15

Note:
* Significant (p < 0.05) proportion by chi-square (ignoring ``don't know'')

latter effect was also found in the pilot study for two home-made high fat
formulations, i.e. they were significantly identified as commercial. These
results show that the consumer group did not exhibit a convincing ability to
distinguish between commercial and home-made quality in the samples tested.
Differences may have been perceived as small and the task was difficult, but
respondents did have the opportunity to indicate ``confusability'' by use of the
``don't know'' option. Approximately half (49 per cent) of the group were able to
identify three or more out of six samples correctly, with commercial products
fairing higher in this respect.
Table VI shows the identification ability of sub-groups. Older, ``non-student''
consumers had a better success rate (61-65 per cent for three or more correct;
p < 0.05), as did those who had eaten or made home-made ice cream (62 per cent
for three or more; p < 0.01). These higher success rates presumably reflect the
greater experience of ice cream in these sub-groups.
Reasons for identification as home-made or commercial. Textural properties
were most commonly used to identify samples as home-made, whereas taste
characteristics typically influenced the perception of a product as commercial.
Identification reasons based on texture were more likely to be correct. A total of
71 subjects (68 per cent of all) used at least one texture-related reason, and those
who used the texture term with a home-made identification (52 subjects) were
more successful overall. These latter consumers also had more experience of
home-made compared with that of the whole group.
This ``texture'' effect was marked in the case of the low fat home-made
formulation, which had the most references (47 per cent of all subjects) to
texture-related terms and ``ice crystals'' in particular. This formulation had the
most consumers identifying it as home-made, but others identified it as
commercial, and in both cases the texture and presence of ``ice crystals'' were
given for the majority of reasons. Of those consumers (13 subjects) who
identified the product as home-made on the basis of ``ice crystals'', most (70 per
cent) presumably did not see this as a defect as they liked the sample. Of those
(16 subjects) who identified the product as commercial on the basis of ``ice

Sub-group
Age (16-25 cf. 26-55)
Social class (``student'' cf. ``non-student'')
Consumption frequency (``low'' cf. ``high'')
Level of product knowledge (``low'' cf. ``high'')
Previous experience of home-made (``none'' cf. ``some'')
Pre-stated preference (``home-made'' cf. ``commercial'')

Consumer
perception

833

Per cent of sub-group achieving

correct identification of three or more
samples out of sixa
41
42
48
49
33
44

Notes:
a
49 per cent of all subjects identified three or more correctly
*/** significant at 5 or 1 per cent level by chi-square in cross-tabulation

61*
65*
49
47
62**
54

Table VI.
Comparison of
identification ability in
sub-groups

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834

crystals'', most perceived this to be a negative feature, as 70 per cent disliked

the product.
Generally consumers appeared to use the same reasons (e.g. ``texture'') for the
two identities (home-made or commercial) and therefore comments were
classified as positive or negative. This was based on the use of terms such as
``good'', ``excellent'', etc. and was sometimes aided by reference to the hedonic
rating given by the subject. Overall, home-made identifications had more
positive comments and generally perception was more favourable when a
product was identified as home-made .
Association of identification with liking. Products identified as commercial
(correctly or incorrectly) showed slightly more association with dislike, on
analysis using correspondence analysis and crosstabulation. Products
identified as home-made tended to be more liked than those perceived as
commercial (p < 0.05). This agrees with the pre-tasting preference, where the
sub-group of those preferring home-made was slightly larger. Additionally,
consumers in these sub-groups showed an even more marked divergence in the
association of liking with home-made or commercial. Those who had a general
choice preference for home-made ice cream had more association of ``like'' with
the samples they believed were home-made (p < 0.01). Those who preferred to
eat commercial ice cream showed a clear, but less marked, association of ``like''
with the samples they identified as commercial (p = 0.094).
Discussion and conclusions
Typical adult ice cream markets tend to be comprised mostly of older adult
consumers (> 25 years; Euromonitor, 1994; 1997). The consumer sample in the
present study had a high content of younger adults, but they did exhibit
consumption patterns of frequency and product type which were comparable
with those of the older subjects. This would agree with reported marketing
trends which encompass younger adults (18-25 years) as typical consumers
(Hardcastle, 1999).
In this study, the incidence of preference for the home-made form was higher,
but it was by no means a marked disproportion. Thus the belief that the majority
of people perceive home-made as superior is shown but not to a significant level.
The reasons for this preference for home-made concur with the views highlighted
in the introduction, and related mostly to a supposition of superior taste, texture
and quality. The reference to ``ingredients'' was also very prominent. For the
commercial form, many consumers valued the convenience element, although it
was not specifically intimated in the questionnaire that they would be required to
make the home-made recipe themselves. Irrespective of this, many others stated
a preference in favour of the commercial form based on taste and quality.
With the exception of a home-made low fat formulation, there was little
differentiation of commercial and home-made samples on the basis of level of
liking. Thus, degree of liking for all commercial samples and a typical homemade form were comparable. The perception of a ``poor'' quality for commercial
ice cream of this type does not appear to be marked.

Accurate identification of these forms was also of low incidence. Both higher
consumption and general awareness of ice cream fat level and other
characteristics did not appear to have an influence on the ability to distinguish
samples. Previous experience of home-made ice cream appeared to have most
relevance in this respect.
Sensory textural features seemed to aid identification success. This was
particularly so for the obvious presence of ``ice crystals'' in a low fat home-made
formulation. This feature can be viewed as a characteristic of home-made ice
cream when it is made without a mixer-freezer, combined with insufficient
mixing in of ice particles during the freezing stage (Smith, 1993). In this study
machine mixing was used, and the ice crystallisation was most probably
caused by the low fat level (Guinard et al., 1997). This characteristic appeared
to be acceptable, in terms of liking, among consumers who perceived the
sample as home-made, but ``ice crystals'' were more unpopular when the sample
was perceived to be commercial. This result seems to support the association of
uneven processing with home-made quality.
The premise that ``home-made is better'', although professed by more than
half of the consumer subjects was not detected in the samples on a blind
tasting. Of the commercial products, Haagen-Dazs' had the highest number of
consumers identifying it as home-made, but this was not a significant
proportion, and thus it can only indicate a trend. A product that has been
strongly developed for the luxury market, it apparently has some
characteristics which correspond to some of the home-made traits outlined
above: it is of low overrun and it avoids additional additives. Sensory
descriptive analysis could provide further insight into this distinction.
One difficulty in this study is that the level of exposure to the product forms
is unbalanced, i.e. consumers do not have regular experience of home-made ice
cream. Thus perception of quality may be ``conditioned'' to the commercial form
and while consumers may profess a preference for home-made, on blind
assessment they may associate more with a known taste sensation rather than
a less well-known one.
The inability of these subjects to identify the product source successfully
suggests that for the commercial products examined, manufacturers have
achieved a ``home-made quality''. The distinction between home-made and
commercial quality appears to be less than previously envisaged, but this is
contingent on the particular consumers and products included in the study.
Home-made quality may imply that it should be made in the home of the
consumer and not in a laboratory kitchen, or indeed in an external commercial
establishment, such as an ice cream parlour. However, how consumers perceive
this aspect in principle appears to be at odds with the actual eating experience,
possibly because commercial quality is dominant in the diet. The samples
tested in this study were unlabelled and the influence of home-made as an
extrinsic information factor on perception was not studied. This, and the role of
``home-made quality'' in models of food choice, requires further investigation.

Consumer
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835

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Generally ``home-madeness'' was viewed favourably, and thus home-made

quality would be a desirable characteristic in commercially produced products.
Further work relating the above observations and findings to more detailed
sensory properties is in preparation.
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Appendix. Technical annex
The correspondence analysis (CA) procedure allows graphical examination of the relationship
between two nominal variables. A two-way cross-tabulation produces a simple form of
correspondence table, but unlike ``crosstabs'' the CA biplot provides a clearer picture of the
association between the two variables. It computes row and column scores and produces a
multidimensional scatterplot based on the scores. Like factor analysis it attempts to explain
variation in the data in a series of dimensions with dimension one accounting for most variation
(SPSS, 1990).

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