MIXED FARMING FOR SUSTAINABLE

LIVELIHOOD OF SMALL FARMERS IN INDIA

Dr. Narayan G. Hegde
BAIF Development Research Foundation, Pune
With about 35 to 40% of the population living in poverty, livelihood security for the rural
poor continues to be a cause of concern in India. Indian economy is heavily dependent on
agriculture even today because about 65% of the population is living in rural areas and over
80% of them are dependent on agriculture and allied activities for their livelihood. Out of the
total 129.22 million land holders in the country, 64.8% are marginal holders who own less
than 1 ha and 18.5% families are small farmers owning between 1 and 2 ha. More than 50%
of these families are located in arid and semi-arid regions, where the rainfall is scanty and
erratic. These farmers have been growing drought tolerant food crops, mostly millets and
pulses with very low investment in improved seeds, fertilisers and plant protection measures,
resulting in poor yields and low returns. Fragmented land holdings, heavy depletion of soil
productivity, inefficient use of water resources, out-dated agricultural production
technologies, unavailability of agricultural credit and lack of infrastructure for post harvest
management and marketing of agricultural produce, are the other factors which further
suppress their agricultural production. Unfortunately, these regions have also been neglected
by the scientific and business communities in introducing new technologies, high yielding
varieties which are resistant to drought and developing necessary infrastructure as well as
support services to boost agricultural production and value addition. Due to low agricultural
productivity, these small and marginal farmers as well as about 15 to 18% landless families
living in rural areas, are unable to generate remunerative employment and about 40% families
are forced to live in poverty.
For these small holders and landless, livestock has been a source of supplementary income.
However, over 75% of the animals are uneconomical due to severe genetic erosion,
inadequate feeding and poor veterinary care. With lower crop and livestock productivity, the
employment opportunities in the farming and other related sectors are reduced further,
leading to reduction in farm wages, seasonal employment, malnutrition and migration.

2013. Invited Paper. International Conference on Increasing Agricultural Productivity and Sustainability in
India: The Future We Want organised by National Institute of Advanced Studies (NIAS), in collaboration with
M.S. Swaminathan Foundation, Chennai, Indian Institute of Science Campus, Bangalore. Jan. 8-9.

With lack of food security, poor families are compelled to migrate to cities in distress,
keeping their agricultural lands fallow. Such barren lands accelerate soil erosion, run off of
rain water, resulting in floods, siltation of water bodies and loss of biodiversity and thereby
contributing to global warming. In the absence of efficient soil and water conservation, there
will be a severe reduction in the ground water table, accelerating the process of denudation of
the eco-system and shortage of drinking water. Distress migration will also deprive the
women and children of their basic needs such as shelter, safe drinking water and health care,
which will affect their quality of life. The children will discontinue their education and end
up as child labour and illiterate unemployed youth of the future. Thus, improving the
agricultural productivity of small land holders can play a key role in ensuring food security
and improving the quality of life in the country.
Indian Green Revolution for Food Security
Realising the urgency of enhancing food production, the Government of India had launched
the Green Revolution programme in the sixties, through introduction of high yielding
varieties and coordination among organisations engaged in agricultural development.
Although Green Revolution was successful only in Punjab, Haryana and parts of Uttar
Pradesh and Rajasthan, this small region could ensure food security for the entire nation.
Their major focus was on development of infrastructure for backward and forward linkages
for cultivating high yielding varieties of paddy, wheat, maize crops and oil seed crops to
some extent. As a result of Green Revolution, the food grain production increased from 82
million tons in 1960 to 176.4 million tons in 1990 and to 241.56 million tons in 2010. The
positive impacts of Green Revolution continued till the 1990s. Subsequently, there was a
decline in the growth of agricultural production, from 10 - 12% during the peak of the Green
Revolution to 2.3% during the Tenth Plan Period (Govt. of India, 2011). Cultivation of high
yielding varieties demanded higher doses of chemical fertilisers, pesticides, more diesel and
electrical power to pump water for irrigation. The cost of these three inputs contributed to
15% of the total cost of inputs in 1970, which increased to 55% in 1994 and to over 80% in
2005. Increasing use of these inputs was no more economical and in the absence of newer
technologies, the growth in agricultural production reduced drastically to less than 2%, which
had an adverse effect on the purchasing power of the poor, due to reduction in employment
opportunities and drop in wage rates. Most of the other regions which have not benefitted
from Green Revolution, continue to suffer from low crop yields, resulting in unemployment,
insecure livelihood and poverty, even today.
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Strategy for Development of Rain fed Areas

While the regions experiencing stagnation in agricultural production after 3 - 4 decades of
Green Revolution, require a special package, which includes scientific crop rotation, efficient
water use and increased use of organic nutrients, the problem of low productivity in other
areas which are dependent on rainfall for agricultural production, needs to be addressed with
an innovative approach to enable the marginal and small farmers to sustain their livelihood.
Some of the important recommendations for rain-fed areas are effective soil and water
conservation through watershed development, increased use of organic nutrients, introduction
of drought tolerant and short duration crops, efficient use of available water resources
through micro-irrigation and mulching, timely tillage operations to conserve moisture and
control weeds, development of wastelands through tree-based farming and introduction of
appropriate farm tools to improve the efficiency of labour. Inspite of the above measures, it
will be extremely difficult for the marginal farmers to depend only on crop production for
their livelihood and hence, livestock can make significant contribution to bring them out of
poverty.
Small and marginal farmers as well as the landless have been traditionally maintaining
different species of livestock as a reliable source of income and cash reserve in times of
emergency. However, in the absence of superior quality germplasm and lack of technical
support to improve the productivity of livestock, most of them have been generating meagre
income from livestock. Unable to cope up with their needs, these farmers try to increase their
herd size, while causing pressure on fodder and feed resources and contributing to green
house gases.
Therefore, the challenge is to address the problems of marginal farmers by improving the
productivity of rain-fed agriculture and livestock owned by them, to enable them to enhance
their income, while conserving the denuding natural resources and the environment. Such a
model of promoting livestock development with agriculture, known as mixed farming, has
several advantages such as efficient use of byproducts like crop residues as animal feed and
dung as manure, fodder trees grown on field bunds as wind breaks as well as source of
fodder, bullocks for tillage operations and efficient use of spare time to manage both the
activities, without any demand for labour from outside. To ensure the success of mixed
farming, it is necessary to improve the productivity of the livestock and develop a sustainable
land use plan depending on the soil productivity and domestic needs. As animal husbandry

demands a large quantity of fodder, low productive land can be profitably used for fodder
production with very remote chances of failure. The programme should also include the
development of efficient value chains, which will include small farmers as the key
stakeholders.
Livestock in Rural Economy
Animal Husbandry is the main source of livelihood for small farmers who are deprived of
fertile land and assured source of irrigation. As per the census of 2007, out of 528 million
heads of livestock in India, there were 199 million cattle, 105 million buffaloes, 141 million
goats, 72 million sheep and 11 million pigs. Cattle represented over 37% of the livestock
population. While farmers having access to fodder resources, prefer cattle and buffaloes, the
landless prefer to maintain sheep, goat and poultry. India ranks first in cattle and buffalo
population, second in goat, third in sheep and seventh in poultry (Table1). Although the
population of livestock during the last 10 years has been stable in the range of 485 million,
the buffalo population has increased by 8.91%, while the cattle population has reduced by
6.89%. There has been a significant increase in the population of goats during the last five
decades, which is attributed to the decrease in the size of land holdings and persistent drought
caused by erratic monsoon, forcing many small farmers to shift from large animals to small
ruminants.
Table 1: Livestock Population in India
Sr. No.

Species

Livestock Census
Growth Rate (%)
1997
2003
2003 over 1997
1.
Cattle
198.9
185.2
-6.89
2.
Buffalo
89.9
97.9
8.91
3.
Sheep
57.5
61.5
6.96
4.
Goat
122.7
124.4
1.38
5.
Other Animals
16.34
16.05
-1.77
Total Livestock
485.4
485.0
-0.08
Source: Livestock Census, Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying, Ministry of
Agriculture.
Cattle and buffaloes are the major species maintained by all sections of the community and
unlike other natural resources, they are well distributed among small and large land holders.
They are ideal for mixed farming because of their valuable contribution to human nutrition
(milk and butter fat), plant nutrition (farmyard manure) and energy (bullock power). The

present breedable bovine population under organised breeding programme is 113.61 million,
which includes 12.62 million crossbred, 51.13 million indigenous cattle and 50.28 million
buffaloes. India also leads in milk production, with 110 million tons/year. The value of
output contributed by livestock in 2003 - 04 was Rs. 164,509 crores, of which Rs. 110,085
crores (66.92%) was from milk. Livestock has also been providing gainful employment allround the year, to over 16 million people, of which 70% are women. Milk production
accounts for 5.86% of the GDP while the total contribution from Animal Husbandry is
9.33%.
India possesses a good number of recognised breeds of cattle, which represent less than 15% of
the total cattle population. These are classified into milch breeds, draft and dual purpose breeds
(Table 2). Our milch breeds such as Gir, Sahiwal, Red Sindhi and Tharparkar were popular
even in other countries but their major drawbacks were productive and reproductive
inefficiencies. The bullocks of these breeds were very heavy and slow. There are many draft
breeds, but the cows of these breeds are low milk yielders, not adequate even to feed their
calves. Except for 10 - 15% of cows of good milch breeds, the rest of the cattle yield about 200
- 350 kg milk per lactation. Hence, even these elite breeds are being neglected by farmers.
There has been no scope for selection by culling due to sentimental and legal restrictions on
cow slaughter. Generally, these animals have been surviving on crop residues and free grazing
on village forests and community pastures, while only the working bullocks and high milking
cows were temporarily fed with supplementary concentrate feed.

Most of these animals

maintained by both rich and poor farmers, have been receiving vaccinations and veterinary
services, free of cost, from the Government. Thus, farmers had an incentive to expand their
herd size without any financial burden, while posing a serious threat to the environment and
eco-system. To improve this status, it is necessary to adopt a scientific approach to formulate
the cattle management policy, covering the conservation of native breeds, improvement of nondescript cattle, health care services and management of community pastures and grazing.
Sheep and goat husbandry, piggery and fishery also have good potential to generate gainful
employment in selected areas, provided, the farmers engaged in these activities are supported
for backward and forward integration.

Table 2: Important Indian Breeds of Cattle

Breeds
Milch Breeds: Average milk production:
above 1500 kg/lactation

Names
Gir, Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Tharparkar

Dual-purpose Breeds :
i. Average productivity breeds : Average
milk production between 1000-1500
kg/lactation
ii. Low productivity breeds: Average milk
production less than 1000 kg/lactation
Draught-Purpose Breeds: Average milk
production less than 500 kg/lactation

Haryana, Kankrej,
Ongole and Dangi

Rathi,

Minari,

Mewati and Deoni

Nagor, Bachaur, Malvi, Hallikar,
Amritmahal, Khillar, Bargur, Panwar,
Siri, Gaolao, Krishna Valley, Kankatha,
Kherigarh and Khangayam

Source: Anon. 1997.

Performance of Dairy Cattle
In spite of achieving the highest milk production in the world, the performance of our cattle
has been extremely poor. It can be observed from Table 3 that the average milk yield of cattle
in India is far below the yield in other countries. No doubt, the average milk yield of cattle
has increased by 100% over 25 years, between 1965 and 1993, but it is still less than 25% of
the yield in Europe.
Table 3: Yield of Milking Cows in different Countries
Country
Asia
India
Japan
Israel
Europe
France
Denmark
U.K.
North America
Canada
U.S.A.
Oceania
Australia

Average Yield (Kg/Lactation)

1961-65
1993
512
1125
428
987
4193
6092
4625
9291
2682
4233
2552
5289
3739
6273
3477
5462
2852
3519
2364
2112

5938
7038
3508
4451

It can be observed from Table 4 that the average milk yield of indigenous breeds of cattle has
been around 1.98 litres as compared to crossbreds (6.75 lit) and buffaloes (4.50 lit). The

above yield of indigenous cattle does not include the yield of draft breeds and nondescript
cows which are hardly milked due to low yields. However, they compete for fodder and feed,
resulting in huge shortage of feed resources. The future challenge is to cope up with the
growing demand for milk without increasing the livestock population, amidst the shortage of
fodder and feed resources.
Table 4: Expected Growth of Livestock Population and Milk Yield
Year
Type of
Animals

Population
(mill.)

2006-07
Production
(mill. tons)

Indigenous
Crossbred
Buffalo
Goat

28.158
2.580
32.864
--

20.263
18.682
53.986
4.073

Wet
Average
(kg/day)

Population
(mill.)

2021-22
Production
(mill. tons)

1.98
6.75
4.50
--

31.264
12.347
40.061
--

26.248
44.703
97.789
6.512

Wet
Average
(kg/day)
2.28
7.98
5.94
--

Conservation of Vanishing Indian Breeds

Among 30 major Indian breeds of cattle, as shown in Table 2, there are only four milch
breeds, which are under severe neglect. There are a few dual-purpose breeds and the rest are
draft breeds. With the modernisation in agriculture, bullock power is losing its importance.
On the other hand, small farmers cannot make optimum use of bullocks and hence, prefer to
hire tractor services, whenever necessary. Thus, with the diminishing demand for bullock
power, the farmers are not adequately motivated to conserve these draft breeds. In the
absence of a clear policy and programme for conservation, these breeds are subject to heavy
genetic erosion.
Realising the growing population of low productive non-descript cattle population, the
Government of India promoted the Intensive Cattle Development Programme way back in the
60s to upgrade them through crossbreeding with exotic milk breeds such as Jersey or
Holstein Friesian. While a well planned cross breeding programme, along with upgrading of
buffaloes could significantly enhance the milk production in the country, dairy farmers are
encountered with several new challenges to sustain the growth and profitability. These
problems need to be addressed to enhance the milk production while enabling small farmers
to increase their profit margin. Fortunately, with the estimated demand for milk increasing

from the present quantity of 110 million tons to 175 million tons by 2022, dairy farmers are
assured of remunerative price for their produce.
Problems of the Poor Dairy Farmers
For involvement of poor dairy farmers in successful dairy husbandry programme, it is
necessary to address their problems, which are presented below:

Poor quality animals requiring genetic upgradation;

Poor access to breeding and health care services;

Nutritional deficiency due to shortage of feed and fodder;

Ignorance about zoonotic diseases such as Brucellosis, TB, etc.

Lack of technical guidance to adopt good husbandry practices;

Inefficient milk collection and marketing;

Poor linkage with research institutions;

Unavailability of credit facilities.

Present Status of Animal Husbandry Services

Delivery of animal husbandry and veterinary services free of cost to farmers, has been
accepted as the responsibility of the State Governments, since independence. These services
included breeding of cattle and buffaloes through AI, preventive vaccinations, treatment of
sick animals and extension services to promote new technologies. However, in the absence
of greater mobility, most of the services were confined to the periphery of the veterinary
clinics established at the block level. With the shortage of qualified veterinary graduates,
most of these technical services were gradually assigned to semi-skilled livestock
supervisors. In the absence of efficient services, farmers in interior areas could not take
advantage of the programmes, to improve the productivity of their livestock. Infrastructure
for marketing of milk has been very weak, due to poor performance of the cooperatives.
Thus, the progress of livestock development, particularly dairy husbandry, could benefit a
small population in selected regions, where milk cooperatives were efficient, while a large
section of small farmers could not take advantage. In case of dairy husbandry, linkage of the
dairy farmers with the processing unit is very critical.
Availability of fodder and feed can play a very important role as about 70% of the cost of
dairy husbandry is on feed. There are several hurdles for the small farmers to procure good
8

quality feed at a competitive price. While there is a severe shortage of animal feeds, farmers
in fodder surplus areas are even burning crop residues or selling for alternate uses at
substantially lower prices. In the absence of organised supply, the local traders take undue
advantage by supplying inferior quality feed at high cost. In such a situation, dairy farming
can become uneconomical in spite of superior technical inputs. Hence, the above problems
need to be addressed, for transforming dairy husbandry into an important source of livelihood
for small farmers.
Strategy for Development of Cattle and Buffaloes for Dairy Husbandry
Considering the requirements of small dairy farmers, the following activities need to be
initiated to boost livestock production.
1. Genetic Improvement
1.1. Production of Superior Quality Bulls

For genetic improvement, the first step is to produce superior quality bull mothers
and bull calves.

Farmers maintaining elite herds of cattle and buffalo can also be involved in bull
calf production through planned breeding and buy-back guarantee.

Application of Super Ovulation and Embryo Transfer technology for production

of superior bull mothers and bull calves.

Progeny testing of sires should be undertaken to select sires having ability to

transmit superior genetic traits.

1.2. Production of Superior Quality Semen

Semen freezing laboratories should be certified for quality and disease free status;

Minimum genetic and health standards should be prescribed for bulls to be used
for semen collection.

1.3. Conservation of Genetic Resources

Important native breeds of cattle and buffaloes should be conserved through the following
activities:

Study on economics and utility of different breeds;

Incentive for maintaining elite animals of native breeds;

Establishment of bull mother farms by procuring elite females from field;

Use of sexed embryos for multiplication of elite progeny;

2. Breeding Services and Management

2.1. Training and Regulation of AI Technicians:

Skill oriented training for paravets to improve breeding efficiency:

Regular monitoring of the services of Paravets and vets to maintain high

technical standards, without exploiting farmers;

Periodic training of Paravets and farmers on good animal husbandry practices.

2.2. Support Services

Timely supply of inputs such as liquid nitrogen, frozen semen, vaccines, first
aid kit, feed concentrates, mineral mixture and forage seeds to the paravets for
onward supply to dairy farmers, through local Dairy Federation or NGO
engaged in livestock husbandry.

2.3. Health Care

Privatisation of health care services, through Farmers Federations;

Support for private veterinary practice in close association with paravets;

Establishment of Disease Investigation laboratories by the Dairy Federation or

private agencies for effective treatment of animals;

Strengthening of Research and Development facilities for disease diagnosis,

production of effective vaccines and control of critical diseases;

Regulatory role of State Animal Husbandry Departments in disease surveillance

and promotion of clean milk production.

2.4. Strategy for Feed Management

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Efficient Management of Crop Residues: Promote new food crop varieties having
higher grain yield with stalks of superior fodder quality.

Plant breeders and

agronomists should be sensitised to breed and promote dual-purpose varieties of

sorghum, maize, bajra, and a wide range of legumes.
Improvement of Nutritional Values: Presently, the major quantity of dry matter is
contributed by paddy straws, wheat straw, maize stalk, sugarcane bagasse and trash,
which are of poor nutritional value, due to high fibre content. With new techniques,
the quality of such fodder should be improved. This will also help in augmenting the
fodder shortage.
Development of Community Wastelands: Efforts should be made to develop
pasture lands involving local communities through soil and water conservation,
introduction of improved legumes and grasses, forage tree species and prevention of
grazing.
Increase in Forage Yields: Presently, improved practices are not followed for
cultivating forage crops.

Hence, efforts are needed to breed superior fodder

varieties, produce and supply good quality seeds, promote use of soil amendments,
biofertilisers and forage harvesting equipment.
Complete Feed Rations: To overcome nutritional imbalance in the field and to
facilitate small farmers and landless to maintain their livestock under balanced
feeding, decentralised complete feed production units can be established.
Fodder Banks: Establishment of fodder banks in fodder scarcity regions through
Dairy Federations and Peoples Organisations can help small farmers to feed their
livestock during scarcity. In paddy and wheat growing areas where the straw is
wasted, facilities for compacting straw can be installed and arrangements can be
made to collect and pack them. Fodder banks can play a critical role in timely
supply of feed to livestock owners during the years of drought. The fodder banks
can also take up the production of complete feed for local distribution.
Introduction of by-pass Protein Feed: Techniques have been developed to avoid
wastage of nutrients by feeding by-pass protein and fat. Support should be provided

11

to establish by-pass protein/fat production units particularly in milk sheds where

high quality milch animals are maintained.
Reduction of Herd Size: It is necessary to create awareness among farmers to
reduce herd size and ensure optimum feeding instead of maintaining a large number
of underfed animals.
Support for Small Farmers: For calf rearing, feed subsidy, insurance coverage,
venture capital, etc. may be given to ensure their active role in dairy development
and in rearing of small ruminants.
2.5. Nodal Agencies for Backward and Forward Linkages

The responsibility of providing back-up services to paravets and veterinarians

can be assigned to milk processing units, dairy federations, voluntary
organisations or private entrepreneurs in the region.

These nodal agencies can also take up the production of critical inputs such as
frozen semen, cattle feed, forage seeds, etc. required by the farmers.

There is a need to develop a value chain, by establishing coordination among all

the stakeholders to enable them to play an efficient and transparent role for
improving the production and profit margins of the farmers.

2.6. Management of Culled Animals

Presently, small farmers are not able to get rid of unproductive or sick animals
suffering from contagious diseases.

Such unwanted animals not only put

pressure on feed resources, but also spread diseases.

Therefore, suitable

arrangements should be made for disposal of the culled animals by way of

establishing panjarpoles through voluntary organisations or any other means.

Export of animals to neighbouring countries desiring to procure, can be

permitted and coordinated through the nodal agency / AHD.

3. Processing and Marketing of Produce

12

Mini dairies should be established in small towns where large dairies are not
viable. This will ensure transparency and efficiency.

Milk processing units should assume a prominent role in Dairy Value Chain
management by promoting breeding services, input supply and health care
provision, apart from collection of milk. The farmers should be trained in clean
milk production.

Development of Other Species of Livestock

Sheep, goats, pigs and fishery also have the potential to provide gainful employment in
selected areas. For instance, piggery is an excellent source of livelihood in the North-Eastern
states. A family with 6-8 pigs can be assured of food security. Families maintaining 8 - 10
goats can come out of poverty, within a period of 18 - 24 months. Similarly, a flock of 40 - 60
birds of indigenous poultry breeds can contribute to the income substantially.
Innovative Approach of BAIF
BAIF has been a leader in taking up dairy husbandry as a powerful tool for generating gainful
employment in Rural India. BAIFs strategy has been to use the non-descript unproductive
local cows and buffaloes with superior quality exotic germplasm to produce high yielding
crossbred cows. BAIF adopted frozen semen technology to ensure the use of elite germplasm
at the doorsteps of farmers. Engagement of school drop outs for providing breeding, each
covering 1500 to 2000 families and other essential services, not only provided employment to
the local youth but also helped them to closely interact with illiterate dairy farmers and assist
them in adoption of good management practices. This innovative model was recognised by
the Government of India in 1979, enabling BAIF to establish Cattle Development Centres
across the country with the support of IRDP Infrastructural Fund of the Government of India
and to expand the programme through 4000 centres across 16 states covering over 40 lakh
families in 60,000 villages.

The programme covers breeding of cattle and buffaloes,

promotion of fodder cultivation, minor veterinary care such as deworming and vaccination
and mobilisation of farmers to develop their organisations to collect milk and supply to the
local dairies.
This programme turned out to be successful as farmers with low yielding nondescript
animals, were able to produce high yielding cows and buffaloes without any capital

13

investment. With the increasing demand for milk and higher price realisation, farmers
maintaining 3 cows were able to earn Rs. 40,000 - 45,000 per year and come out of
poverty. Such high yielding cows and buffaloes produced at the doorsteps of the farmers,
today, fetch over Rs.40,000 to Rs.60,000 and truly serve as security to tide over financial
crisis. There is no other programme wherein the poor have an opportunity to build such high
value assets without any risk or capital investment. Presently, the milk produced by the
farmers participating in BAIF programme, contributes to over Rs. 4000 crores to the national
GDP every year.
BAIF has also initiated an eco-friendly Goat Development Programme wherein 6 - 8 goat
keeping women form a group to maintain a superior quality breeding buck to ensure genetic
improvement, while a trained local paravet mentors 6 8 such groups and provides critical
services such as deworming, vaccination, castration, guidance on fodder production and
feeding, periodic monitoring of growth and linkages with the market. As a result of these
interventions, the goat keepers are now able to enhance their income by 250 - 300%, due to
prolific kidding, high weight of kids at birth and at various stages of growth, low mortality
and better price realisation. Rigorous culling to restrict the herd size depending on fodder
availability and promotion of stall feeding to avoid biotic pressure on the eco-system, are
helpful to keep this programme eco-friendly. The impact of this programme on livelihood
and attitude of the goat keepers can be observed in 18 24 months. BAIF is presently
operating this programme in the states of Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Jharkhand, West Bengal,
Orissa and Tripura with good success.
Reduction in Green House Gas Emission
Livestock has an adverse impact on environment. Firstly, livestock demands huge quantities
of fodder and feed. As there is a severe shortage of cultivated fodder and feed resources,
farmers let their livestock for free grazing on community lands and forests. Such stray
livestock not only denude the vegetation but also accelerate soil erosion.

Secondly,

ruminants produce methane and carbon dioxide during digestion. The dung releases methane
and nitrous oxide during anaerobic decomposition. It is estimated that livestock contributes
18% of the carbon dioxide equivalent green house gases in the atmosphere, which is a serious
concern. However, livestock being a major source of livelihood and food security for small
and marginal farmers in most of the developing countries, it is necessary to find solutions to
reduce their ill-effects on global warming and ensure a sustainable future for poor farmers.
14

Emission of Methane
The global methane production in 1988 was in the range of 400 - 600 million tons per annum
of which livestock contributed about 28%, amounting to 80 million tons/annum. When the
feed reaches the rumen, it is converted into short chain fatty acids, microbial biomass and
fermentative gases, mainly carbon dioxide and methane, through microbial degradation,
known as enteric fermentation. The proportion of these components produced in rumen
varies to a great extent, with the type of feed and microbes (Blummel, et al 2001). The
variation in digested outputs occurs due to the type of feed, level of intake, retention time in
rumen and type of microbes present. On an average, each adult cow emits about 15 - 20 kg
methane in a year.

With about 100 million livestock, USA emits 5.5 million tons of

methane/year. India has 485 million livestock and these are likely to release proportionately
higher quantity of methane due to consumption of inferior quality fibrous fodder.
Scope for Reducing Methane Production
Depending on different species of microbes, nutrients and other chemical substances present
in the feed, the degree of fermentation will vary and the volume of gases released, will also
change. Thus, there is scope for reducing the production of gases by proper manipulation of
these factors.
Balanced Feeding: Efficiency of microbe has a significant impact on production of various
products, particularly gases. While the short chain fatty acids provide 70 - 85% of energy
requirement, microbial biomass provide 70 - 100% amino acid requirements of ruminants.
With proper feed selection, supplementation and balancing of various ingredients, it is
possible to maximise the conversion of feed into microbial biomass and short chain amino
acids, while reducing green house gases. With high protein diet, formation of gases can be
reduced significantly, while high fibre content in diet can increase the production of gases.
These gases are released in the atmosphere through digestive and respiratory systems.
Improving Feed Quality: A majority of the livestock in India is low productive. They are
under-nourished and survive on open grazing or on poor quality, high fibre roughages. These
animals release more methane than high yielding animals, who consume better quality feed.
To reduce the ill-effects of poor quality feed, breaking of lignin in roughages before feeding
to livestock through various methods should be explored. Steam treatment of sugarcane

15

bagasse and paddy straw and urea - molasses treatment of paddy straw are some good
examples. Conversion of high fibre grasses into silage may be easy and beneficial. Even
simple chopping of fodder before feeding livestock, can reduce methane production by 8 10%.
Good Health Conditions: Animals suffering from diseases also release higher volume of
methane compared to healthy animals. As most of the farmers are unaware of the threat
posed by their livestock to the environment, no efforts are being made either to reduce the
herd size or to control methane emission. These animals further demand fodder, feed and
water, thereby creating pressure on the natural resources which are already scarce (Hegde,
2010).
Efficiency of Microbes: It is presumed that there are a wide range of microbes involved in
degeneration of biomass. The efficiency of different species and strains is likely to vary
widely. Thus, there is scope to identify various species and their strains of micro-organisms
present in rumen which are efficient convertors of feed into amino acids and microbial
biomass. Such microbes found even outside the rumen, can be introduced into the rumen to
improve digestion in ruminants.
Methane absorbing Microbes: There are also microbes which have the capacity to absorb
methane and convert it into other products.

Such selected micro-organisms capable of

feeding on methane, can also be incorporated in the rumen flora for reducing the emission of
methane while improving the productivity and profitability of livestock husbandry.
Methane Traps: Most of the low productive livestock generally go out for grazing during
the day and return to the shed in the evening. They release significant volume of methane
and carbon dioxide during the night when housed in a cattle shed. Trapping these gases
inside the barn by fixing efficient filters, may be possible by using modern technologies.
Dung Management:

Animal dung and urine also release methane and nitrous oxide.

Methane is generally released through anaerobic decomposition, when dung is heaped as

manure for a longer period. In countries like India, farmers have been following the practice
of dumping dung in manure pits for 3 - 6 months for better decomposition, thereby
contributing substantially to emission of methane. Better management of farmyard manure
and compost pits can also reduce emission of methane in the atmosphere to a great extent.

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Use of dung for production of biogas is the best option to convert this threat into an
opportunity. The old models of biogas plants were inconvenient to manage in congested
residential areas. New compact models have now been developed which are ready for wider
replication.
Control of Livestock Population: The aim should be to reduce livestock by improving the
productivity of the animals, so that with small number of livestock, farmers can earn higher
income. This can happen by producing genetically superior quality animals and maintaining
them well with balanced feeding.
References
1. Anon. 1996. National Livestock Policy Perspectives: Report of Steering Group.
Planning Commission, Government of India.
2. Anon. 2005. Annual Report 2004-2005. Department of Animal Husbandry and
Dairying, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. New Delhi.
3. Government of India, 2011. Faster, Sustainable and More Inclusive Growth An
Approach to the XII Five Year Plan, Planning Commission, New Delhi.
4. Anon. 1997. Dairy India Yearbook VI. New Delhi.
5. Blummel, M., Krishna, N. and Orskov, E.R. 2001. Supplementation strategies for
optimizing ruminal carbon and nitrogen utlisation: Concepts and approaches.
Proceedings of the 10th Animal Nutrition Conference: Karnal, India. Review Papers,
November 9-11: 10-23.
6. Hegde, N.G. 2010.

Mitigating Global Warming while providing Sustainable

Livelihood through Integrated Farming Systems: Experiences of BAIF. International

Conference on Global Warming: Agriculture, Sustainable Development and Public
Leadership. Ahmedabad, India. Mar 11-13: 16 pp.

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