b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 5 ( 2 0 1 1 ) 4 0 1 5 e4 0 2 4

Available at www.sciencedirect.com

http://www.elsevier.com/locate/biombioe

Use of straight vegetable oil mixtures of rape and camelina

as on farm fuels in agriculture
Hans Marten Paulsen a,*, V. Wichmann b, U. Schuemann b, B. Richter b
a

Institute of Organic Farming of the Johann Heinrich von Thunen-Institute (vTI), Federal Research Institute for Rural Areas,
Forestry and Fisheries, Trenthorst 32, 23847 Westerau, Germany
b
Chair of Piston and Internal Combustion Engines, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Marine Technology, Albert-Einstein-Str. 2,
18051 Rostock, Germany

article info

abstract

Article history:

Possibilities for using straight vegetable oil (SVO) from Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz (camelina

Received 27 January 2009

or false flax) and its mixtures with Brassica napus (rape) SVO as fuel in adapted diesel

Received in revised form

engines are described with chemical parameters, measurements in a test engine and a field

14 June 2011

test in a tractor. Camelina as a crop is attracting attention in organic farming and is often

Accepted 14 June 2011

used in mixed cropping systems with low competition to food production area. Camelina

Available online 8 July 2011

SVO has low oxidation stability. Its polymerization affinity limits the storage time and
increase the risk of coking at hot motor components and of thickening processes in the

Keywords:

lubricant oil of the engine. In mixtures with rape and camelina SVO, threshold limits for

Organic farming

Conradson Carbon Residues and for oxidation resistance were exceeded. The oxidation

Self-sufficient farming system

resistance could be prolonged by the addition of commercial antioxidants. Camelina and

Camelina sativa L. Crantz

rape SVO showed very similar burning characteristics at full-to-medium partial engine

Brassica napus L.

loads. Under low partial loads and idle load, the burning function of the various fuels was

Mixed cropping

increasingly delayed, beginning with diesel fuel over pure rape SVO, then a mixture con-

Biofuel

taining 700 dm3 m
3 rape SVO, and 300 dm3 m
3 camelina SVO, through to pure camelina
SVO. The exhaust emissions of NOx-, CO-, particles and HC of rape SVO, camelina SVO and
their described mixture were not significantly different. The typically higher NOx- and
lower HC-emissions of SVO compared to diesel fuel were apparent. The results principally
reveal the usability of a cold pressed, non-refined camelina-rape SVO mixture in adapted
diesel engines.
2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1.

Introduction

The use of straight vegetable oils (SVO) as a fuel is a tool

toward the energy self-sufficiency of farms. The oil crop
Camelina sativa L. Crantz (camelina or false flax) was identified
as a suitable partner in mixed cropping systems with legumes
or cereals, especially for organic farms. This cropping system
is described as mixed cropping with oil crops [1,2] and allows

the simultaneous production of food and fuel with moderate

area competition. Agricultural benefits of the cropping
systems are described as weed suppression, lodging resistance and elevated land use efficiency values [3e5]. Life cycle
assessments (LCA) for the co-production of the oil crops
generally showed low energy and environmental loads when
the seed bed preparation was allocated to the main crop and
whether the drilling procedures of both crops were combined

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 49 4539 8880 316.

E-mail address: hans.paulsen@vti.bund.de (H.M. Paulsen).
0961-9534/$ e see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2011.06.031

4016

b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 5 ( 2 0 1 1 ) 4 0 1 5 e4 0 2 4

[6,7]. The efficiency of the production of renewable fuels with

Brassica napus L. (rape) is seen critically worldwide, because of
the competition between food and energy crops and the low
energy efficiency of the whole production line in comparison
to heat and combined heat and power generation. Additionally, unbalanced political demand for biofuels increases
impairments of the environment in exporting countries
[8e12]. In organic farms, the energy input in rapeseed cultivation is much lower than in conventional production [13], but
the high yield risk caused by insects and pests makes the
cultivation of rape impracticable at many sites [4,14].
However, rape could be combined with undersown clover
(Trifolium repens L.) in organic crop rotations. This cropping
concept shifts the yield risk of rape, but also its yield potential
to the required leguminous fallow year in the crop rotation
and is described as intensified fallow [15]. The cropping
systems intensified fallow and mixed cropping with oil
crops deliver between 350 and 850 kg ha
1 a
1 rape SVO and
between 100 and 300 kg ha
1 a
1 camelina SVO. With an
average fuel consumption of 100 kg ha
1 for farm machinery
[16] these two crop rotation elements would supply fuel for
4.5e11.5 ha and could significantly contribute to the fuel
demand of the whole crop rotation without competition to
food production, and with minimized area competition and
low environmental costs.
Quality of rape SVO (refined or unrefined) is standardized
for use as fuel by the DIN 51605, the standard on fuels for SVO
compatible combustion engines [17]. The use of vegetable oils
as fuel in diesel engines is widely described in the literature
and has been summarized by [18] and [19]. First results concerning the use of pure camelina SVO in a car with an
unadapted diesel engine are described by [20]. Various technical adaptations of diesel engines to vegetable oil as fuel have
been developed to improve cold starting, to perfect combustion, to prevent coking and deposits at injection nozzles,
pistons and cylinders and to minimize the permeation of
vegetable oil in the mineral lubricating oil of the engine (Fig. 1).
The production of oils in local oil mills, e. g., in single farms
or those owned by farmers associations would contribute to
the diversification of the agricultural product range, is

INCREASING RISKS

no adaptation

diesel/straight vegetable oil mixture

fuel heating

periphery modification
- increased diameters of fuel pipes
- additional fuel force pump
- filter heating/modification

engine heating

changes in combustion
- heat plug elongation
- nozzle heating
- changes in nozzle geometry
- changes in injection timing and engine control

engine modification
- special piston geometry
- changes in fuel injection pump

adapted straight vegetable oil engine

INCREASING COSTS

Fig. 1 e Adaptation of diesel engines on straight vegetable

oil, risk assessment and costs according to [21,22].

estimated as suitable option to stimulate rural economics

with good LCA values [23e25] and would address the demand
of organic farming to close local energy cycles in farms [26].
Fuel characteristics of native cold pressed rape SVO and of
camelina SVO are described in the following. Possibilities for
the use of SVO mixtures as fuel for agricultural machinery are
analyzed in detail on the basis of chemical analyses and of
runs in a test engine. First field results on the use of a suitable
mixture of both SVO as pure biofuel in a tractor with an
adapted engine are reported.

2.

Materials and methods

Various SVOs were used in the different experiments. All SVO

charges were analyzed on quality parameters with the
methods given in the DIN 51605 [17]. The parameters and
standard values are given in Table 1. The Cetane numbers
were analyzed with a Fuel Ignition tester (Fuel Tech As,
Trondheim) according to the method given by [27]. The ignition delays were determined as a mean from 20 single injections at 525  C and 0.2 MPa pressure. Both latter values were
determined at the Technologie- und Foerderzentrum (TFZ)
Straubing, Germany.
The range of the quality parameters of camelina SVO and
its mixtures with rape SVO are described on basis of cold
pressed SVO produced in a local oil mill: After treatment in
a screw press (Straehle Co., 350 kg h
1, 40e50  C oil temperature), the oil was stored in a raw oil tank, pumped through
a chamber filter press (Schenk Co.) with variable plate
numbers and was finally filtered with a candle filter (AMA Co.)
to reach purity according to the DIN 51605. Seeds of the
harvests in 2005 and 2007 from different origin and age and
storage conditions were processed (camelina: Steiermark,
Austria (Graz area: 47 40 N, 15 260 E), Bayern, Germany (Pfaffenhofen area: 48 320 N, 11 250 E) and Schleswig-Holstein,
Germany (Trenthorst: 53 470 N, 10 300 E), rape: purchased
from European Union by the local oil mill). All SVO were
pressed between January and March 2008 and stored in plastic
containers at room temperature in farm buildings. They were
used as fuel in a tractor between February and October 2008.
Both SVO and their mixtures were analyzed immediately
before their use as biofuel at that time (Table 1). The camelina
SVO used for the test engine runs was pressed in December
2007 with the same technology (Seed origin: North Germany,
harvest 2007) and used immediately. The P, Ca and Mg
contents of this oil were higher than the range given for
camelina SVO in Table 1. The other quality parameters for
camelina and rape SVO used here were within the reported
quality range. In the test engine the combustion behavior and
the exhaust emissions of the different fuels (rape SVO, camelina SVO, mixtures of both with 700 dm3 m
3 rape SVO and
300 dm3 m
3 for camelina SVO) were assessed at different
motor loads in comparison to diesel fuel, without replications.
No fuel additives were used. The fuels were examined at five
engine load levels. A residual fuel oil test engine with one
piston (brand Elbe Werk Roblau, Type 1VDS18/15, four stroke
cycle diesel operation, direct injection, forced induction,
72 kW, compression pressure 17 MPa, maximum indicated
mean effective pressure (IMEP) 2.4 MPa, stroke 180 mm, bore

4017

b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 5 ( 2 0 1 1 ) 4 0 1 5 e4 0 2 4

Table 1 e Fuel characteristics of native cold pressed SVO from rape and camelina according to DIN 51605 (values in
brackets [ n).
Parameter

Density (15  C)
Flash point
Net calorific value
Viscosity (40  C)
Conradson
Carbon Residue
Iodine number
Total contamination
Acid value
Oxidation stability
P-Content
SCa Mg
S-content
Ash content
Water content

Unit

Threshold
DIN 51605

kg m
3
C
MJ kg
1
mm2 s
1
mg kg
1

910e925
101
36.0
36
400a

g$100 g
1 I
mg kg
1
mg g
1 KOH
H
mg kg
1
mg kg
1
mg kg
1
mg kg
1
mg kg
1

125
24
2.0
6.0
12b
20b
10
0.01a
750

Rape
SVO

SVO Mixture: 700 dm3 m
3

rape SVO, 300 dm3$m
3camelina
SVO

Camelina
SVO

920
215e228
36.6e37.7
34.5e35.2
400e450

(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(10)

924e925
236e273
39.9e37.5
30.4e30.7
620e670

(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(6)

e
e
e
e
410e500 (15)

112e115
5e11
0.17e4.93
6.4e9.2
0.4e21
0.3e60
1e15
0.002e0.015
290e820

(3)
(3)
(10)
(10)
(10)
(10)
(10)
(3)
(10)

149e155
7e15
0.56e4.43
1.8e2.9
0.6e35
0.8e34.6
3e38
<0.001e0.017
570e940

(4)
(4)
(7)
(7)
(7)
(7)
(7)
(4)
(7)

e
e
2.77e4.34 (23)
1.4e5.2 (22)
7e11 (22)
8.2e17.3 (22)
7e13 (22)
e
510e840 (23)

Bold numbers are indicating values exceeding the threshold values given in the DIN V 51605.
a According to pre-standard DIN V 51605, parameter not any longer listed in the final DIN 51605.
b New thresholds valid in 2012: P  3 mg kg
1, Ca  1 mg kg
1, Mg  1 mg kg
1.

150 mm, engine displacement 3180 cm3, nominal rotational

speed 25 Hz, compression ratio 13, maximum injection pressure 140 MPa, injector nozzle: 9 holes, 0.26 mm bore, 155
angle).
Furthermore the effects of ten different fuel additives from
the petro- and food industry were tested on the oxidation
resistance of SVO [29]. The most effective additive was
Baynox plus (2,20
methylene
bis
(4
methyl
6
tert.

butylphenol)-CAS No. 119
47
1, trademark of Bayer AG,
Germany). For this trial, SVOs of different origins and treatments were used (Table 4): cold pressed (40  C), refined (90  C,
press cake extraction, distillation, degumming, deacidification, bleaching and deodorization) and pre-fatigued (different
storage times and conditions).
This data makes a first estimation of the suitability of the
vegetable oils and their mixture as fuel possible. Results on
deposits, wear and coking processes in the engine could not be
achieved in the short run times of the test engine.

Table 2 e Fatty acid compositions of rape SVO and

camelina SVO (g kgL1).

n
16:0
18:0
18:1
18:2
18:3
20:0
20:1
20:2
20:3
22:1

Fatty acid

Camelina [30]

Rape
00-cultivars [31]

Palmitic
Stearic
Oleic
Linoleic
a-Linolenic
Arachidic
Eicosenic
Eicosadienonic
Eicosatrienonic
Erucic

35
54
25
149
152
368
13
155
19
16
28

24
55
16
625
196
79
6
13
e
e
1

A 1000 h practical test in a tractor with the camelina-rape

SVO mixture (cold pressed, non-refined, without additives,
Table 1) was undertaken. A tractor with an engine (John Deere
PE 6068) that was subsequently adapted to the use of pure SVO
(adapted straight vegetable oil engine in Fig. 1) was used
under various loads in normal farm work.

3.

Results

3.1.

Chemical parameters and fuel characteristics

Camelina and rape SVO differ in fatty acid composition and

some fuel characteristics (Tables 1 and 2). Only small differences were apparent in the parameters density, viscosity,
flash point, heating value, total contamination, acid values, P-,
Ca-, Mg-, S-, water- and ash-contents. Both SVOs could keep
within the thresholds of DIN 51605 [26] for these parameters.
But the iodine value of camelina SVO significantly exceeds the
threshold. Consequently the oxidation value is below the
desired range. The CCR (Conradson Carbon Residue) was listed in the pre-standard of the DIN [28], but is no longer
required in the current version. But the former CCR threshold
was exceeded by camelina SVO and the SVO mixture that was
used in the 1000 h practical test.
A general idea on the Cetane numbers for different cold
pressed camelina SVO and rape SVO was attained in 2004 with
analyses of samples from North and South Germany and
Austria (burning chamber conditions: 525  C, 2 MPa). Camelina oil (n 3) showed Cetane values between 36.5 and 37.0
with ignition delays between 8.35  0.72 ms and
8.46  0.46 ms. Rape oil (n 1) had a Cetane number of 41.8 and
an ignition delay of 7.23  0.19 ms. Additionally, an SVO
sample of Linum ustitatissivum produced in the same year and
site in North Germany was analyzed and showed a Cetane
number of <35.0 and an ignition delay of 9.45  0.47 ms. Diesel
fuels have Cetane numbers between 40 and 60 [17].

4018

b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 5 ( 2 0 1 1 ) 4 0 1 5 e4 0 2 4

Table 3 e Fuel characteristics in mixtures of rape SVO and camelina SVO.

Unit
Camelina SVO content
Conradson Carbon Residue
Iodine number
Acid value
Oxidation stability
P-content
S-content
SCa Mg

dm3 m
3
mg kg
1
g$100 g
1 I
mg g
1 KOH
h
mg kg
1
mg kg
1
mg kg
1

Threshold
DIN 51605
400a
95e125
2.0
6.0
12b
10
20b

0
400
112
1.05
7.1
7
1
13.9

50
410
116
1.27
4.9
8
2
18.8

100
430
117
e
4.8
8
2
20.1

150
430
119
1.40
e
9
2
19.0

200
e
121
1.44
4.6
10
2
20.3

250
440
123
1.48
4.2
10
3
20.5

300
460
125
1.59
4.0
11
3
20.9

1000
620
153
2.22
2.5
19
4
23.2

Bold numbers are indicating values exceeding the threshold values given in the DIN V 51605.
a According to pre-standard DIN V 51605, parameter not any longer listed in the final DIN 51605.
b New thresholds valid in 2012: P  3 mg kg
1, Ca  1 mg kg
1, Mg  1 mg kg
1.

The high iodine number of camelina SVO characterizes its

high unsaturated fatty acid content (Table 2). This chemical
property determines low oxidation stability and increased
polymerization of the oil. Polymerization affinity limits
storage times. Also thickening processes in the lubricant oil
are expected to be faster when camelina oil permeates instead
of rape oil. The high CCR value is typical for vegetable oils with
unsaturated fatty acids. The unsaturated bonds are thermally
instable and intermolecular connections between triglycerides can increase molecular weights. Those polymerization
points can develop at hot components of the fuel system in
the engine. Lacquer-like films smoldering under anoxic
conditions form coke deposits. Therefore the use of camelina
SVO has a higher risk of the formation of carbonaceous
deposits, e. g., in the exhaust manifold, in the burning room, at
the piston rings or injection valves than the use of rape SVO or
diesel fuel. On the other hand, unsaturated fatty acids in oils
enhance low-temperature performance. Rape SVO and camelina SVO typically have higher boiling points than diesel fuel.
Fuel mixture formation is therefore delayed. Additionally
camelina SVO is instable and cracks earlier than rape SVO
(Fig. 2).
Different mixtures of rape SVO with increasing camelina
SVO contents were tested on their fuel characteristics. The

quality parameters developed relatively linear to the camelina

SVO content (Table 3).

3.2.

Use of fuel additives

In the oil mixtures the threshold limit for CCR was already
exceeded by the rape SVO and the parameter was negatively
influenced further by additional camelina SVO. Already at
concentrations of 50 dm3 m
3 camelina SVO, the threshold for
oxidation resistance could not be kept in the mixture (Table 3).
Therefore different fuel additives were tested to decrease
oxidation processes. All tested fuel additives could increase
the oxidation resistance of rape SVO (Rancimat method at
110  C according to [32]) significantly (Fig. 3). Baynox plus,
originally used for the stabilization of biodiesel, was identified
as the most effective additive [33].
The addition of 1 g kg
1 Baynox plus prolonged the
oxidation resistance of rape SVO from 9 to more than 23 h. The
low oxidation resistance of camelina SVO was more than
doubled. Even the stability of pre-fatigued SVO and the
mixture of rape and camelina SVO could be increased significantly (Table 4).

3.3.

Burning characteristics and fuel demand

The measurements in the test engine showed very similar

burning characteristics for camelina SVO and rape SVO at fullTable 4 e Oxidation resistance of rape SVO and camelina
SVO and their mixtures, at 110  C with and without
addition of an antioxidant.

Rape, cold pressed

Rape, refined
Rape, refined, pre-fatigueda
Camelina, cold pressed
Camelina, cold pressed,
pre-fatiguedb
Rape camelina,
0.7 0.3 volumetric mixture

90

Oxidation
resistance [h]
pure

1 g kg
1
Baynox plus

9.3
9.0
3.1
2.7
0.6

30.2
23.1
10.4
6.7
2.4

4.2

15.3

a Stored at room temperature for 90 days at daylight.

b Stored at 4  C for 2 years in the dark.

80

diesel fuel
rape SVO
camelina SVO

70
volume [%]

SVO

100

60
50
crackpoints
40
30
20
10
0
100

150

200

250
temperature [C]

300

350

Fig. 2 e Boiling behavior of diesel fuel, rape SVO and

camelina SVO.

400

4019

b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 5 ( 2 0 1 1 ) 4 0 1 5 e4 0 2 4

refined rapessed oil

cold pressed rapeseed oil

oxidation resistance [h]

30
25
additive concentration: 1 g kg-1
20
15
10

5
0
none

Baynox

Baynox Plus

BioStable 207

Covi-ox T-90

additive

Fig. 3 e Oxidation resistance of rape SVO at 110  C with different antioxidants.

to-medium partial engine loads (Figs. 4e6). Under low partial

loads and under idle load conditions the burning function was
increasingly delayed, beginning with diesel fuel over pure
rape SVO, then the mixture containing 700 dm3 m
3 rape and
300 dm3 m
3 camelina SVO, through to pure camelina SVO
(Figs. 7 and 8). The fuel mass flow (referred to the heating
value of diesel fuel) was not influenced by the fuel type at
lower IMEP (Fig. 9). At higher IMEP the rape SVO flow increased
in this measurement.

Engine performance in the 1000 h field test

In the 1000 h test of a tractor the operational behavior did not

differ from the use of rape SVO as fuel. No abnormal wear
could be detected on motor components but coking deposits
were found at the injection nozzles. A general explanation for
this can be found in the elevated CCR (Conradson Carbon
Residue) values of the oil mixtures. Based on this finding,
a control interval for the injectors of 500 h was recommended
for further trials with those SVO mixtures as fuel.

Exhaust emissions

The exhaust emissions of NOx, CO, particles and HC of rape

SVO, camelina SVO and the mixture of both oils were not
significantly different and showed the typically higher NOx
exhaust concentrations and typically lower HC-emissions
compared with diesel fuel (Figs. 10e13). The higher CO
concentration in the exhaust of the vegetable oils at lower
motor load compared to diesel fuel (Fig. 11) indicates incomplete burning processes and is in line with the results on
delayed burning of the vegetable oils (Fig. 7).

900
800
700
-1]

600

ROHR [J

500

4.

Discussion

The measurements on the oil quality, burning behavior and

exhaust emissions of the different SVOs and the mixture
containing 700 dm3 m
3 rape SVO and 300 dm3 m
3 camelina
SVO principally indicate the usability of the SVOs and their
mixtures as burning fuels in diesel engines. The use of pure
camelina SVO as a fuel in diesel engines has to be seen critically due to the high CCR values and low oxidation resistance.

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

400
300
200
100
0

cylinder pressure [MPa]

3.4.

3.5.

diesel fuel
rape SVO
camelina SVO
mixture rape SVO
camelina SVO

Engine: 1VDS 18/15

Rotational speed: 25 Hz
IMEP: 2.31 MPa
Performance: 80 kW
Start of fuel delivery:
164 CA constant
ROHR: rate of heat release
IMEP: indicated mean
effective pressure
CA: crank angle

150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270
crank angle [CA]

Fig. 4 e Burning characteristics of diesel fuel, rape SVO, camelina SVO and a mixture of 700 dm3 mL3 rape SVO and
300 dm3 mL3 camelina SVO at full motor load.

4020

900

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

800
700

ROHR [J

CA -1]

600
500

cylinder pressure [ MPa]

b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 5 ( 2 0 1 1 ) 4 0 1 5 e4 0 2 4

400
300
200

Engine: 1VDS 18/15

Rotational speed: 25 Hz
IMEP: 1.79 MPa
Performance: 60 kW
Start of fuel delivery:
164 CA constant
ROHR: rate of heat release
IMEP: indicated mean
effective pressure
CA: crank angle

100
0
150

diesel fuel
rape SVO
camelina SVO
mixture rape SVO
camelina SVO

160 170 180

190

200 210 220

230

240

250

260 270

crank angle [CA]

Fig. 5 e Burning characteristics of diesel fuel, rape SVO, camelina SVO and a mixture of 700 dm3 mL3 rape SVO and
300 dm3 mL3 camelina SVO at high partial motor load.

900

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

800
700
ROHR [J CA ]

600
500
400
300
200

diesel fuel
rape SVO
camelina SVO
mixture rape SVO
camelina SVO

Engine: 1VDS 18/15

Rotational speed: 25 Hz
IMEP: 0.761 MPa
Performance: 20 kW
Start of fuel delivery:
164 CA constant
ROHR: rate of heat release
IMEP: indicated mean
effective pressure
CA: crank angle

100
0
150

cylinder pressure [MPa]

Fig. 6 e Burning characteristics of diesel fuel, rape SVO, camelina SVO and a mixture of 700 dm3 mL3 rape SVO and
300 dm3 mL3 camelina SVO at medium partial motor load.

160

170

180

190

200 210 220 230

crank angle [CA]

240

250

260

270

Fig. 7 e Burning characteristics of diesel fuel, rape SVO, camelina SVO and a mixture of 700 dm3 mL3 rape SVO and
300 dm3 mL3 camelina SVO at low partial motor load.

4021

b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 5 ( 2 0 1 1 ) 4 0 1 5 e4 0 2 4

Fig. 8 e Burning characteristics of diesel fuel, rape SVO, camelina SVO and a mixture of 700 dm3 mL3 rape SVO and
300 dm3 mL3 camelina SVO at idle load.

Fig. 9 e Fuel demand at different engine loads referred to the heating value of diesel fuel (42600 kJ kgL1).

1600
diesel fuel
rape SVO
camelina SVO
mixture rape SVO/
camelina SVO

NOx emission [cm.m-]

1400
1200
1000
800

Engine: 1VDS 18/15

Rotational speed constant:
25 Hz

600

IMEP: indicated mean

effective pressure

400
200
0

0.5

1.5
IMEP [MPa]

2.5

Fig. 10 e NOx-emissions at different engine loads.

4022

b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 5 ( 2 0 1 1 ) 4 0 1 5 e4 0 2 4

Fig. 11 e CO-emissions at different engine loads.

Fig. 12 e Particle-emissions at different engine loads.

550
diesel fuel
rape SVO
camelina SVO
mixture rape SVO/
camelina SVO

HC emission raw [cm.m-]

500
450
400

Engine: 1VDS 18/15

Rotational speed constant:
25 Hz

350
300

IMEP: indicated mean

effective pressure

250
200
150
100

0.5

1.5
IMEP [MPa]

2.5

Fig. 13 e HC-emissions at different engine loads.

The findings from the 1000 h field test indicate the same
direction. The high CCR values indicate the possibility of the
development of carbonaceous deposits in the engine and the
low oxidation resistance limits the storage time. Measures to
compensate this negative fuel parameter have to be taken in
the engine construction, for example, cooling of the injection
nozzles [34]. To avoid auto-oxidation, polymerization
processes and lacquer-like films, and to keep high fuel quality

upright camelina oil should be stabilized with antioxidants for

longer storage times. It should be stored under cool conditions
without water access [35,36]. The polymerization affinity of
camelina oil could have special risks in the mineral lubricant
system of the engines when thickening processes occur. The
threshold value of camelina oil in the lubricating oil therefore
has to be significantly lower than for rape oil. The threshold
value for rape oil is somewhere between 100 g kg
1 ([37] and

b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 5 ( 2 0 1 1 ) 4 0 1 5 e4 0 2 4

own experiences) and 250 g kg
1 [38] and should be defined by

the engine producers.
In addition to the higher ignition delay and the different
boiling behavior compared to rape SVO (Fig. 1) the earlier
cracking of double bounds of camelina SVO at hot motor
components can lead to polymerization processes. These
factors increase the risk of the development of coking deposits
in the burning room and nozzles.
In mixtures containing 300 dm3 m
3 camelina SVO and
700 dm3 m
3 rape SVO the CCR values were consistently higher
than the threshold for known rape SVO (Tables 2 and 3).
However oxidation resistances of the oil mixtures used in the
field tests could not be kept under the threshold of 6 h (Tables 2
and 3). It is obvious that the starting qualities of the oils
determine the fuel quality of the mixtures.

[7]

[8]
[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

5.

Conclusions
[13]

The results principally reveal the usability of a cold pressed,

non-refined camelinaerape SVO mixture in adapted diesel
engines. According to the results from the field test with
a tractor driven with that mixture as on farm biofuel, engine
control intervals should be kept thoroughly and the SVO
quality parameters should be consequently checked and
optimized to minimize the risk for coke deposits in the engine.

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

Acknowledgments
[18]

This research was funded by the Agency for Renewable

Resources (FNR), Guelzow, Germany.
[19]

reference
[20]
[1] Paulsen HM. Mischfruchtanbausysteme mit Oelpflanzen im
oekologischen Landbau 1. Ertragsstruktur des
Mischfruchtanbaus von Leguminosen oder Sommerweizen
mit Leindotter (Camelina sativa L. Crantz). Landbauforsch Volk
2007;57(1):107e17.
[2] Paulsen HM. Mischfruchtanbausysteme mit Oelpflanzen im
oekologischen Landbau 2. Ertragsstruktur des
Mischfruchtanbaus von Lein (Linum ustitatissivum L.) mit
Sommerweizen. Hafer Oder Leindotter Landbauforsch VTI
AG 2008;58(4):273e80.
[3] Saucke H, Ackermann K. Weed suppression in mixed
cropped grain peas and false flax (Camelina sativa). Weed Res
2006;46:453e61.
[4] Paulsen HM, Schochow M, Ulber B, Kuehne S, Rahmann G.
Mixed cropping systems for biological control of weeds and
pests in organic oilseed crops. Aspect Appl Biol 2006;79:
215e9.
[5] Szumigalski AR, van Acker RC. Nitrogen yield and land use
efficiency in annual sole crops and intercrops. Agron J 2006;
98:1030e40.
[6] Sergis-Christian L, Brouwers J. Dezentral hergestelltes,
kaltgepresstes Pflanzenoel im oekologischen Vergleich mit
Dieselkraftstoff. Aachen/Witzenhausen. Zeitschrift der
Arbeitsgemeinschaft Land- und Regionalentwicklung am;

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

4023

2005, Feb:67. Fachbereich Oekologische Agrarwissenschaften

der Universitaet Kassel Sonderheft 3.
Paulsen HM, Pscheidl M. Drilltechnik zur Etablierung von
Mischfruchtanbausystemen. Landbauforsch Volk Sonderheft
2007;309:108e13.
Zeijts van H. Energy production on farms e Sustainability of
energy crops. Stud Environ Sci 1995;65(2):1113e6.
Hanegraf MC, Biewinga EE, Van der Bijl G. Assessing the
ecological and economic sustainability of energy crops.
Biomass Bioenerg 1998;15(4/5):345e55.
SRU. German Advisory Council on the Environment, Climate
Change Mitigation by Biomass. Berlin: Erich Schmidt Verlag;
2007.
Halberg N, Dalgaard R, Olesen JE, Dalgaard T. Energy selfreliance, net-energy production and GHG emissions in
Danish organic cash crop farms. Renew Agr Food Sys 2008;
23(1):30e7.
Greenpeace. Sustainable palm oil a farce; Industry body
weak and ineffectual. Greenpeace press release, http://www.
greenpeace.org/seasia/ph/press/releases/sustainable-palmoil-a-farce/; Nov 20 2008.
Kagi T, Nemecek T, Gaillard G. Life cycle assessment of
energy crops. Agrarforschung 2007;14(10):460e5.
Kuehne S, Ulber B. Schaedlingsbefall an Raps in Rein- und
Mischfruchtanbau im oekologischen Landbau.
Landbauforsch Volk Sonderheft 2007;309:96e107.
Paulsen HM, Rahmann G. Wie sieht der energieautarke Hof
mit optimierter Naehrstoffbilanz im Jahr 2025 aus?
Landbauforsch Volk Sonderheft 2004;274:57e73.
Froeba N, Funk M. Dieselkraftstoffbedarf bei
landwirtschaftlichen Arbeiten. Darmstadt: KTBL Verlag;
2005.
DIN 51605. Kraftstoffe fuer pflanzenoeltaugliche Motoren e
Rapsoelkraftstoff - Anforderungen und Pruefverfahren.
Berlin: Beuth-Verlag; 2010.
Ramadhas AS, Jayaraj S, Muraleedharan C. Use of vegetable
oils as I. C. engine fuels e a review. Renew Energ 2004;29:
727e42.
Knothe G, Dunn RO, Bagby MO. Biodiesel: the use of
vegetable oils and their derivates as alternative diesel fuels.
In: Saha BC, Woodward J, editors. Fuels and chemicals from
biomass, Washington D. C.: American Chemical Society
Symposium Series, 66; 1997. p. 172e208.
Bernardo A, Howard-Hildige R, OConell A, Nichol R, Ryan J,
Rice B, et al. Camelina oil as fuel for diesel transport engines.
Ind Crop Prod 2003;17:191e7.
Voegelin D. Umruestkonzepte fuer Traktoren e Stand der
Technik und Perspektiven, Tagung Energie aus der
Landwirtschaft"; 26e28. Maerz, Zentrum fuer nachw
achsende Rohstoffe NRW, Haus Duesse 2006. http://www.lkwl.de/duesse/znr/pdfs/2006/2006-01-26-energie-01.pdf.
Paulsen HM, Schaedlich O. Pflanzenoelmotoren: Wunder
dauern etwas laenger. Landwirtschaftliches Wochenblatt
2005;43:26e8.
Stotz K, Remmele E. Daten und Fakten zur dezentralen
Oelgewinnung in Deutschland. Straubing; 2005:59. Berichte
aus dem TFZ 3.
Schaedlich O, Paulsen HM, Oppermann R. Projektbericht
Dezentrale Pflanzenoelnutzung in der Region Luebecker
Bucht: Marktstudie: Chancen der Vermarktung von
Pflanzenoelprodukten in den Bereichen Treibstoffe,
Futtermittel und Nahrungsmittel in der Region Luebecker
Bucht. Westerau: VdFF; 2007:89.
Paulsen HM, Schaedlich O, Oppermann R. Dezentrale
Pflanzenoelerzeugung und enutzung auch in oekologischen
Betrieben. Dr. Koester. In: Zikeli S, Claupein W, Dabbert S,
Kaufmann B, Mueller T, Zarate AV, editors. Zwischen
Tradition und Globalisierung; Beitrage zur 9.

4024

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]
[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 5 ( 2 0 1 1 ) 4 0 1 5 e4 0 2 4

kologischer Landbau. Universitaet

Wissenschaftstagung O
Hohenheim. Berlin: Verlag; 2007. p. 409e12.
EC No 834/2007 of 28 June. Council Regulation (EC) on organic
production and labelling of organic products and repealing
Regulation (EEC) No 2092.91. Official Journal of the European
Union 2007;2007(L189):1e23.
Attenberger A, Remmele E. Entwicklung einer Pruefmethode
zur Bestimmung der Cetanzahl von Rapsoelkraftstoff.
Straubing; 2006:86. Berichte aus dem TFZ 6.
Din V 51605. Kraftstoffe fuer pflanzenoeltaugliche Motoren e
Rapsoelkraftstoff e Anforderungen und Pruefverfahren.
Berlin: Beuth-Verlag; 2006.
Harndorf H, Schuemann U, Bahl B. Oxidationsstabilitaet durch
Additive verbessern. Landestechnologieanzeiger 2007;3:17.
Zubr J, Matthaeus B. Effects of growth conditions on fatty
acids and tocopherols in Camelina sativa oil. Ind Crop and
Prod 2002;15:155e62.

 Z, NeCeral Nakic
 S, Butorac J,
Pospi
sil M, Skevin
D, Mustapic
 D. Fatty acid composition in oil of recent rapeseed
Matijevic
hybrids and 00-cultivars. Agric Conspec Sci 2007;72(3):
187e93.
Din EN 14112:2003e10. Fat and oil derivatives e Fatty acid
methylesters (FAME) - Determination of oxidation stability
(accelerated oxidation test). Berlin: Beuth Verlag; 2003.
Schuemann U, Bahl B, Ingendoh, A. Improvement of stability
and shelf life of plant oil fuel with hindered phenolic
antioxidants. In: Bundesverband BioEnergie/Union zur

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

Forderung von Oel- und Proteinpflanzen, editors. 6th

international conference on biofuels "Fuels of the Future
2008" of BBE and UFOP; Dec. 1-2. Berlin. (Berlin-Bonn): BBE
and UFOP; 2008. p. 1e17.
Erfordernisse Leske T. Probleme und Aussichten der
Klassifizierung und Aufbereitung von Schweroelen sowie
deren Verschleiwirkungen und Verbrennung in
Schiffsdieselmotoren. Universitat Rostock, Institut fur
Kolbenmaschinen und Verbrennungsmotoren. Dissertation;
1988.
Schuemann U. Eigenverbrauchstankstellen und
Pflanzenoellagerung. In: Pflanzenoel als Kraftstoff in der
Landwirtschaft e Erfahrungsberichte, Guelzow, Fachagentur
Nachwachsende Rohstoffe; Aug 2006. p. 38e40.
Schuemann U, Graf T, Remmele E. Rapsoel als Kraftstoff. In:
BASF AG, editor. Raps e Anbau und Verwertung einer Kultur
mit Perspektive, Munster: Landwirtschaftsverlag Munster
Hiltrup; 2006. p. 16e26.
FAM (Fachausschuss fuer Mineraloel- und BrennstoffNormung). Bestimmung des Pflanzenoelanteils in
gebrauchten Dieselmotorenoelen. Internal Standard of the
FAM Working Group AA663 (unpublished). Group available
from, http://www.fam-hamburg.de/dgmk/#Gremien 2009.
Thuneke K, Wilharm T, Stotz K. Untersuchung der
Wechselwirkungen zwischen Rapsoel als Kraftstoff und dem
Motorenoel in pflanzenoeltauglichen Motoren. Straubing;
2005:115. Berichte aus dem TFZ 7.