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SREEKANTH, A.K.
Aerodynamic predictive methods and their validation in hypersonic
flows.
DRDO monograph series.
Includes index and bibliography.
ISBN 81-86514-11-2
1. Aerodynamics 2. Hypersonic flows I. Title (Series)
629.132.306.072
CONTENTS
Preface
xi
Acknowledgement
PART - I
xiii
CHAPTER 1
AERODYNAMIC PREDICTIVE METHODS IN HYPERSONIC
FLOWS
CHAPTER 2
METHODS
2.1
Introduction
2.2
Newtonian Theory
2.3
2.4
2.5
10
2.6
13
2.7
14
2.8
17
2.9
17
2.10
17
2.11
18
2.12
18
2.12.1
18
2.12.2
19
2.13
21
2.14
24
2.15
25
2.16
30
References
31
(vi)
CHAPTER 3
AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF VEHICLE
COMPONENTS
33
3.1
Introduction
33
3.2
Body-Alone Aerodynamics
34
3.2.1
34
3.2.2
Axial Force
37
3.2.3
CA
37
3.2.4
39
3.2.5
40
3.2.5.1
Pointed Cone
40
3.2.5.2
Pointed Ogive
41
3.2.5.3
Hemispherical Nose
41
3.2.6
Normal Force
41
3.2.6.1
Pointed Cone
41
3.2.6.2
Pointed Ogive
42
3.2.6.3
Hemispherical Nose
42
3.2.6.4
Cylinder
42
3.3
43
3.4
Moments
43
3.4.1
Pointed Cone
44
3.4.2
Pointed Ogive
44
3.4.3
Hemisphere
45
3.4.4
Circular Cylinder
45
3.5
45
3.5.1
45
3.5.1.1
Axial Force
47
3.5.1.2
Normal Force
50
3.5.1.3
51
3.5.1.4
51
3.5.1.5
Pitching Moment
52
3.5.2
52
3.5.2.1
52
References
59
(vii)
CHAPTER 4
SKIN FRICTION FORCE CALCULATION
61
4.1
Introduction
61
4.2
62
4.3
63
4.4
64
4.5
Empirical Equations
65
References
66
CHAPTER 5
AERODYNAMIC HEATING AT HYPERSONIC SPEEDS
67
5.1
Introduction
67
5.2
Heating Analysis
67
5.3
69
5.3.1
Spherical Nose
69
5.3.2
72
5.3.3
72
5.3.4
Perfect Gas
73
5.3.5
Real Gas
74
5.3.6
75
5.3.7
77
5.4
80
5.4.1
80
5.4.2
83
5.4.3
86
5.5
87
5.5.1
88
5.5.2
88
5.5.3
89
5.5.3.1
89
5.6
90
5.6.1
Stagnation Point
91
5.6.2
91
5.6.3
91
References
92
(viii)
93
CHAPTER 6
VALIDATION OF PREDICTION METHODS
95
6.1
110
6.1.1
115
6.1.2
Lift Characteristics
115
6.1.3
Wing
116
6.1.4
Horizontal Tail
118
6.1.5
Fuselage
118
6.1.6
Pitching-Moment Characteristics
119
6.1.7
119
6.1.8
Fuselage
128
6.1.9
128
6.2
139
6.3
156
6.4
Conclusions
158
References
169
173
CHAPTER 7
AERODYNAMICS OF RAREFIED GASES
175
7.1
Introduction
175
7.2
177
7.2.1
177
7.2.2
179
7.3
187
7.3.1
Flat Plate
187
7.3.2
7.3.3
Sphere
194
7.3.4
Cone Frustrum
195
7.3.5
Spherical Segment
198
7.4
200
7.5
203
7.5.1
207
(ix)
7.5.2
7.5.3
212
References
213
Appendix
215
Index
225
PREFACE
This monograph presents a summary of engineering
methods most commonly employed for preliminary aerodynamic
analysis of bodies travelling at hypersonic speeds. To the extent
possible, an attempt has been made to make the present work
self-sufficient. However, references are cited if one is interested
in the source or more details.
The work is in three parts. Part 1 deals with Predictive
Methodology, Part 2 covers Validation of Prediction Methods and
Part 3 the Aerodynamics of Rarefied Gases.
Secunderabad
Date: June 2003
AK Sreekanth
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The writing of this monograph has been made possible by
the financial assistance received from the Defence Scientific
Information and Documentation Centre (DESIDOC), Ministry of
Defence, Government of India, New Delhi.
The author would like to place on record his sincere
thanks and appreciation to the following persons.
1.
2.
3.
PART - I
AERODYNAMIC PREDICTIVE METHODS
IN
HYPERSONIC FLOWS
CHAPTER 1
AERODYNAMIC PREDICTIVE METHODS IN
HYPERSONIC FLOWS
1.1
INTRODUCTION
2.1
INTRODUCTION
Shadow Flow
Newtonian (Cp=O)
Modified Newtonian + Prandtl-Meyer
Prandtl-Meyer from free stream
OSU blunt body empirical '
Van Dyke unified
Contd...
Shadow Flow
High Mach number base pressure
Shock expansion
Rarefied gas flow
Shock-expansion
Input pressure coefficient
Hankey flat surface empirical
Delta wing empirical
Dahlem-Buck empirical
Blast wave
Rarefied gas flow
2.2
NEWTONIAN THEORY
Newtonian theory is a local surface inclination method. In
this, the pressure coefficient depends only on the local surface
deflection angle and not on any other aspect of the surrounding
flow field.
Newton originally assumed that the medium around a body
was composed of identical non-interfering independent particles.
When these particles collide with the surface they lose their
normal component of the momentum resulting in a pressure force
on it. After collision, the particles move along the surface with
their tangential component of the momentum unchanged. The
regions of the body that do not see the oncoming particles directly
are said to be in the shadow region and the pressure coefficient in
these regions are normally set equal to zero.
Methods
2.3
-+
co, K j 2 . 0 .
body diameter,
For a hemisphere1,
for
Y=
1.4, K-2.083,andfor
Y=
1,K=2.0.
0.3925
M : . ~ tan 6
2.4
Methods
9
EMBEDDED SHOCK
FLARE
(a)
-EMBEDDED SHOCK
FLAP
(b)
Figure 2.2. Embedded Flows
has been suggested by Sieffj in which the flow over the ramp is
viewed a s an embedded Newtonian impact flow if the flow is not
extensively separated and the ramp sh0c.k wave is thin, with
conditions along the surface of the secondary shock wave a s
initial conditions. According to this postulation, the pressure on
the ramp surface is given by the following expression:
P2 - PI = PI ( ~ sin
1
dl2
where, the subscript 1 refers to conditions along the front surface
of the ramp shock wave, which are the initial conditions for the
application of Newtonian theory on the ramp surface. The above
relation can be expressed in the form of pressure coefficient
based on free stream static and dynamic pressure conditions,
viz.,
41
P2
'P2
4,
Newtonian
10
where, Cp,,,O,i,
is the pressure coefficient given by the usual
Newtonian Impact theory and q the dynamic pressure.
For the application of the above formulation one needs to
know the properties of the stream that is incident on the ramp
surface. Towards this, one can utilize the methods presented in
Sieff, et ~ l .and
, ~ Maslen, et ~ l .or, any
~ other known procedures.
2.5
Substitutingfor
YM,~K
Methods
(2.9)
Po,
Po,
PIP^,)
P
Po,
2+(y-1)
kf2
=JzJw)d $ Z ]
tan-
tan
(2.14)
dM2-1
dv
( 2.15)
ykf: ( P 9 /Po,)
=
(M~z-I)~
11
12
where
Methods
2.6
TANGENT WEDGE
13
14
M,,
(0.87~
-~
0.554) sin6
0.53
(2.22)
sin 0, =
(1 - E )
sin 8,
COS (0, - 6, )
Methods
where,
E =
(P
sin 6 ,
= ,
In the limit as M ,
-+
co
-sinti,
For a wedge:
sine,
For a cone:
2 6 +I)
Y +3
15
16
(a)
(b)
A t M s i n g = O , MrlS=l
(c)
(d)
4%
+ cc
value
a t MI; sin& = 0
M,,
K,,M,sind,
for a wedge, and
=
M,, = K , M , sins,
for a cone, where
K,
y+l
and
3
e -(K,+w,,
e sin&)
KC=
sins,)
/2
2 (Y + 1)
(Y + 3)
Methods
2.8
2.9
2.10
17
18
C, =
[I
+ ~in(46)~/~]sin(6)~/~
(2.39)
2.11
where
C,
d
x
is
is
is
and the values
a s follows:
Flow
2.12
Methods
,LEADING
TANGENT BODY
COMPOSED OF
CONICAL
SEGMENTS
EDGE SHOCK
SHOCK WAVE
19
20
22
EQUIVALENT BODIES
24
AC,
=-
( 2 a )s i n ( 2 ~ ) s i n ( ~ ) + ( ~6c) oa's ~
[ ( 4 / 3 ) sin(26) sin
(o)]
. . a'
(2.49)
where
AC P = -
(2.50)
Methods
25
m1
S for
,- Y M :
P-Pm
m
Y + l
sin P = 4 CP2
and
(c~2;"")2
[(
1 - -'i2
)
e
sin P tan
e2
I'
Methods
Making use of the Eqns. 2.53 and 2.61, the above can be
expressed as
Substituting for
becomes
'pW2
27
28
0.
0.Hence,
ow, = a .
30
(2.72)
The above Eqns. 2.71 and 2.72 are identical up to the first
two terms and differs from each other in the third term by 10 per
cent. It is reasonable therefore to assume that the Eqn. 2.7 1 is
applicable to both the shock and expansion processes. This
assumption is equivalent to neglecting entropy change across the
shock. Both compression and expansion are considered a s
isentropic. The pressure coefficient at any point on the surface of
an airfoil is given by
Methods
REFERENCES
Weibust, Erling. Status report on the FFA version of the
missile aerodynamics program LAIZV, for calculation of
static
aerodynamic
properties
and
longitudinal
aerodynamic damping derivatives FFA. The Aeronautical
Research Institute of Sweden, Stockholm, 1981. TN-AU1661.
Hankey, Jr., W.L. & Alexander, G.L. Prediction of
hypersonic aerodynamic characteristics for lifting vehicles.
WPAFB, Ohio, September 1963. ASD-TDR-63-668.
Sieff, A. Secondary floml fields embedded in hypersonic
shock layers. NASA, May 1962. TN-D-1304.
Sieff, A., & Whitting, W.E. Calculation of flow fields from
bow-wave profiles for the downstream region of blunt-nosed
circular cylinders in axial hypersonic flight. NASA, 1961.
TN-D- 1147.
Maslen, S.H., & Moeckel, W.E. Inviscid hypersonic flow past
blunt bodies. J. of Aero. Sci.,1957, 24(9), 683-89.
Kaufman-11, L.G. Pressure estimation techniques for
hypersonic flows over blunt bodies. J. of Aero. Sci., 1963,
lO(2).
Pittman, J.L. Application of supersonic linear theory and
hypersonic impact methods to three nonslender hypersonic
airplane concepts at mach numbers from 1.10 to 2.86.
NASA, December 1979. TP- 1539.
Gentry, A.E.; Smyth, D.N. & Oliver, W.R. The Mark IV
supersonic-hypersonic arbitrary-body program. WPAFB,
Ohio, November 1973. 11 p. AFFDL-TR-73-159.
Gregorek, G.M., Nark, T.C. & Lee, J.D. An experimental
investigation of the surface pressure and the laminar
boundary layer on a blunt flat plate in hypersonic flow,
Vol 1. March 1963. ASD-TDR-62-792.
Hankey , J r ., W.L. Optimization of lifting re-entry Gehicles.
March 1963. ASD-TDR-62- 1102.
31
32
CHAPTER 3
AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF
VEHICLE COMPONENTS
3.1
INTRODUCTION
34
CN
CL
CD
cm
y
x
CA
CL = CN cos CA sin
CD = CA cos + CN sin
CN = CL cos + CD sin
CA = CD cos CL sin
3.2
BODY-ALONE AERODYNAMICS
(3.1)
where
= Angle made by surface of body with body axis
= Angle of attack of the body axis
= Polar angle of any point on body surface, measured
from positive xy plane and positive for counterclockwise
direction when viewed from rear.
SHIELDED AREA
tan
u = sin 1
tan
2 / M 2
A = 2q
ds
C p r sin d+ C p u r sin d
surface / 2
u
(3.2)
35
36
A = 2q K
r tandx
A
Axial force coefficient, CA = q S
ref
2K
CA =
Sref
dC A
dx
r tan dx
/ 2
length
S ref
(3.4)
2 Kr
(3.3)
/2
length
u
sin 2 u
+
2
4
4
(3.5)
u +
+ cos 2 sin 2
2
(3.6)
/2
u
N = 2q
dx
C p r sin d + C p u r sin d
2
u
length
/
(3.7)
dC N
dx
Kr
S ref
+
(3.8)
M = Kq
{(L N x ) r tan }dx
length
C p r sin d +
/ 2
dC m
dx
Kr
S ref L
C p u r sin d
u
/2
(3.9)
2
u + tan + cos u cot tan + 2 tan
2
3
(3.10)
where, L is the reference length. Eqns. 3.6, 3.8 and 3.10 can be
integrated analytically or numerically to give axial force, normal
force, and pitching moment coefficients, respectively for any
arbitrary shaped body of revolution.
3.2.2 Axial Force
The axial force coefficient on a body can be considered to be
made up of three parts,
C A =C A f +C A b +C A N
(3.11)
where
CAf
C Ab
C AN
37
38
S B wet
(3.12)
S ref
The mean value of Cf depends on whether the flow is
laminar or turbulent. It is an usual practice to assume that the
boundary
layer
over
the
body
is
laminar
if
6
Re < Re cr = 10 (Reynolds number based on the length of the
body). For laminar flow
Cf =
1.328 C f
Re C f i
lam
(3.13)
The above is the well known Blasius relation for the flow
over a flat plate in incompressible flow multiplied by the
compressibility factor. The suggested value of the compressibility
factor is
Cf
Cf
= 1 0 .028 M
lam
(3.14)
1
Re
[1.328 0.0236 M
+ 0.000349 M
0.00335 M
8.54 M
(3.15)
Re Recr
C f = C fi
Re
lam
(3.16)
(3.17)
Cf
Cf
i
Recr
Re
turb
Cf
Cf
i
where
C f
1 + 1.5
L
3
2
d
+ 7
L
(3.19)
base
C P
C p base =
Cp
C Ab
cyl .
S base
S ref
1
M
1. 4
2
=
2
M +1
base
base
0 . 57
M 4
2 .8
for M 1
(3.203)
2 M 2 ( 1 )
+
1
(
)
(3.214)
= (1/cos )
(3.225)
ref
cyl
(3.235)
39
40
C Acone =
Kd 2
sin 2 cos 2
2
2
cos sin +
4S ref
2
; 0 v
(3.24)
CA
cone
= K cos 2 sin 2 +
sin 2 cos 2
2
; 0 v
(3.25)
CA
=
cone
2
2
cos sin u +
2
sin 2 cos 2
u +
2
2
and
C Acone = 0
for v
(3.26)
C Aogive
= K 2 1 + F 2
[1 + 0.22 F
1+ F2
1 F 2 ln
F2
sin 2 M 2 1
)] 4Sd
(3.27)
ref
CA
=
hemisphere
K R2
(1 + cos )2
4 S ref
(3.28)
C N cone = K
C N cone =
K
2
cos 2 v sin 2 d 2
2
4 S ref
; 0 v
(3.29)
cos 2 v sin 2
2
1
d
u + 2 + 3 cos u (cot tan v + 2 cot v tan ) 4 S
ref
: v v
CN
cone
=0
(3.30)
(3.31)
41
42
CN
ogive
d2
1+ F2
= K (sin cos ) sin F 2 2 1 + F 2 ln
F2
4 S ref
(3.32)
It has been found that for angles of attack near zero for a
circular arc ogival nose, the normal force can be adequately
obtained from the simple equation for that of the cone of equal
fineness ratio. For fineness ratios of unity or larger, calculations
show that the difference in C N for the cone and ogive are negligible
at angles of attack up to v for the cone. At angles of attack
somewhat less than v of the cone, the curves of C N versus for
the two nose shapes cross, so that = v , C N for the ogive exceeds
that for the cone. No explicit expression for the location of the
centre of pressure can be given for the ogive as in the case of the
cone; computations have shown, however, that for small angles of
attack the centre of pressure of the ogive is nearer the vetex than
that of the cone of equal fineness ratio and moves rearward with
increasing angle of attack.
3.2.6.3 Hemispherical Nose
Integration of the Eqn. 3.8 for the case of hemispherical
nose results in
C N sphere =
R 2 K
4S ref
sin (cos + 1 )
; 0 ;
(3.33)
CN
=
cylinder
1.5
d (L B L N
S ref
) sin 2
; 0 (3.34)
( CN )NL
= C dc
Ap
Aref
sin 2 cos
MOMENTS
+ Cm
N
cylind er
43
44
C m cone =
Cm
cone
0 v
K
2
2
2
1 2 tan v cos v sin
6
1
v v
C m cone = 0 ;
(3.35)
);
(3.36)
(3.37)
x cp
LN
2
1
3 cos 2 v
(3.38)
1 F arctan
F
2
d lN
1 d
3 4 S ref L ref L ref
)
(3.39)
where
F
Lmr
L re f
=
=
=
the centre of pressure of the ogive is nearer the vertex than that
of the cone of equal fineness ratio and moves rearward with
increase in angle of attack.
3.4.3 Hemisphere
When the moment is taken about the base of the sphere,
C m hemisphere = 0 ;
(3.40)
Cm
3.5
=
cylinder
CN
cylinder
L ref
[L mr (l N + l cylinder )]
(3.41)
Hexagonal
Biconvex, and
Blunt nose leading edge
45
46
Compression Flow
The pressure coefficient behind an attached oblique
shock is given by the relation,
C pc =
4 M 2 sin 1
( + 1) M 2
(3.42)
B=
2M
+1
C =
+2
sin 2
( + 1 ) 2 1
sin 2
+
+
2
4
M
cos 2
4
where, is the flow deflection angle and it is assumed that for the
given free stream Mach number its value is such that it always
gives rise to an attached shock at the leading edge.
Expansion
The pressure coefficient behind an expansion fan is
C pe =
2
M 2
pe
1 =
M 2
p
pe
p
o
po
p
(3.43)
and
pe
poe
1
=
1 + cos
+1
1
e + arctan
+1
2
e
(3.45)
where, pe is the pressure and Me the Mach number downstream
of the expansion. e is the corresponding Prandtl Meyer angle
which is obtained from the Prandtl-Meyer function
e =
+1
1
arctan
1
+1
(M
2
e
1 arctan M
2
e
(3.46)
similarly
+1
1
arctan
1
+1
(M
1 arctan
(3.47)
and, e = +
From the known value of e the Mach number Me is
obtained by an iterative solution of the Eqn. 3.46, then from pe
Eqn. 3.45 and C p e from Eqn. 3.43.
3.5.1.1 Axial Force
The axial force on a wing surface consists of two parts, one
due to friction and the other due to inviscid flow over it. The friction
force is determined similar to the case of a body in hypersonic flow
(section 3.22).
CAf = C
S wet
f
S ref
(3.48)
47
48
CN
CA
X,X'
Z'
Z
= ROLL ANGLE
Y'
Y
RUDDER
DEFLECTION
'
1
2
EXPANSION
SHOCK
Figure 3.3 Shock and expansion method applied to hexagonal crosssectional wing.
11
INNER WING
i ,1
SECTION-AA
D
0 ,1
OUTER WING
i ,2
A
0 ,2
21
B
SECTION-BB
bi
bo
t
2 S ref
{ (b i d )
( 1)
m +1
m =1 n =1
+ (btot bi
( 1)
m =1 n =1
m +1
C p im , n , M
C p om , n , M
i m , n
i m ,n
o m , n
o m ,n
(3.49)
sin
+ sin m
i
1
]
sin ' sin + ( 1 )n ( 1)m + sin ' cos cos m
(3.50)
49
50
=C A
+C A
wH
+C A
wV
(3.51)
RH
+ CA
RV
+ C AR
(3.52)
{(
+ cos ( j 1) 90 o ( 1 ) j
) }cos
j ,k
sin
(3.53)
where, j = 1 for the horizontal wing and j = 2 for the vertical wing.
k =1 for the right and upper wing halves and k = 2 for left and
lower wing halves at roll angle = 0. When the above angle is
known the pressure coefficients are determined by use of Eqns.
3.42 and 3.43. The above gives the forces acting normal to the
wing or rudder chord. This has to be converted to get the axial
component of the force and the component of the force normal to
non-rolled xy plane ( i.e., negative z axis direction).
3.5.1.3 Axial Component of the Rudder
C AR
SR
4 S ref
j =1 k =1
C ( , M ) C ( , M )
p
j ,k
j ,k
pe
c
sin j , k
(3.54)
CNw =
Sw
4S
ref
j =1
2
C p ( j ,k , M ) C p ( j ,k , M )
c
e
k =1
' j ,k
cos ( j 1) 90 o ( 1) j cos j , k
j ,k
(3.55)
'
with j ,k = | j ,k |, j = 1 for horizontal wing and j = 2 for vertical
wing, k = 1 for right and upper wing halves and k = 2 for left and
lower wing halves at zero roll angle viewed from nose towards tail.
51
52
C L
CN =
Cn
4
M
(3.56)
Cm
=
W
CN
X ref
(X
mr
X cp
(3.57)
2x
;
c
2z
;
c
c = chord length, ;
= angle of attack, K = M ;
= thickness ratio
2
,
K
A2 =
+ 1
,
2
t = thickness;
A3 =
t
; = ;
Validity 3 M 12
+ 1) K
6
53
54
Profile
Airfoil Characteristics
CN
= 2 ( A1 + A3 )
2
Cm
=0
2
Flat Plate
CD
= 2 ( A1 + A3 )
3
CN
= 2 A1 + A3( 3 + 2 ) ;
2
Cm
=A2
2
CD
= 2 A1 2 + 1 + 2 A 3 4 + 6 2 + 1
3
Double Wedge
CN
= 2A1 + 2A3 2 + 3 2
2
1 1
Cm
1 + 1 1 1
= A2 3 A3
4
2
1 1 1 + 1
CD
1
1
= 2A1 2 + 1 2 + A2
2
2
3
(1 1)
1 1
(1 + 1)
1
1
+ A3
+
+ 2 4 + 6 2 1
3
3
1+
+
(
)
(
)
1 1
1 1
1
1 1
Profile
Airfoil Characteristics
CN
3
1
= 2 A 1 + 2 A 3 2 +
2
(
2 1
Modified Double
Wedge
1)
CD
1
1
= A1 2 2 +
+
3
1 1 1 2
1
1
+ A2
2
2
(1 2 )
(1 1 )
1
1
+ 6 2
+
1 1 1 2
CN
= 2 A1 4 A2 + 2 A3 3 + 2
2
Cm
1
3
= A 1 + A 2 A3 2 + 2
2
2
2
CD
= 2 A 1 2 + 2 12 A 2
3
+ 2 A 3 4 + 12 2 + 8
CN
3
= 2 (A 1 + A 2 ) + A 3 + 2 2
2
3
1
(
2 1
2 )
1 + 1 1 + 2
Cm 1
3
= A2 ( 1 + 2 + 2 ) A3
+
2
2
4
1 1 1 2
1
1
+ A3 2 4 +
+
3
(1 1 ) (1 2 )3
Single Wedge
55
CM
=0
2
CD
1
= A 1 + 2 2 + A 2 + 3 2
3
2
+ A 3 + 3 2 + 2 4
8
56
Profile
Airfoil Characteristics
t1
CN
8
= 2 A 1 + A 2 ( 1 + 2 )
2
3
+ 2 A 3 3 + 4 A 3 12 + 22
t2
1 = 2t 1 / t
2 = 2t 2 / t
t = t1 + t 2
Cm 4
1
= A 2 A 1 ( 1 + 2 )
3
3
2
4
A 3 13 + 32 A 3 2 ( 1 + 2 )
5
CD
2
= 2 A 1 2 + 12 + 22
3
3
+ 8 A 2 ( 1 + 2 )
14 + 24
+ 2 A 3 4 + 4 2 12 + 22 +
5
(
(
)
)
CN
1 13
= 2 A1 + 2 A3 2 + 4
2
2
1 12
Cm
2
CD
3
4
A2
3
(1 )
(1 )
3
1
2
1
= 2 A1 +
2
4
3
+ 2A 3
(1 )
(1 )
(1 )
+8
(1 )
3
1
2 2
1
3
1
2 2
1
16
5
(1 )
(1 )
3
1
2 4
1
Airfoil Characteristics
CN
2
Cm
2
CD
Symmetrical Biconvex
= 2 A1 + 2 A
2 + 4 + 2
2
2
= 2 A2 +
2
3 15
8
1
= 2 A1 + 2 +
2
15
3
16
16
+ 2 A2 8 2 +
+ 4 +
2
5
5
CN
Cm
CD
CN
= 2 A1 + A 3 4 + 2
4
Cm
CD
12
2 +
)]
A2
3
1
= 2 A1 + 2 + 2 A 3
= 2 A 1 + 8 1
+ 2A 3
57
(1 + 1 ) 2
4A 2
(1 + 1 )
+ 8 1 A 3
4
2
+ (1 + 1
3
2A 1
A2
4 1 + 3 12
2
(1 + 1 ) 4
4
1
A2
3
(1 + 1
(1 + 1 )
16
4 + 8 2 +
)4
(1 + 1 ) 4
+ 4 12
[ 3 1 2 ( 1 + 1 ) 4
+ 4 1 ( 1 + 12 )] + 2
A3
(1 + 1 )
[ 4 (1 + 1
)8
Contd ...
58
4
+ 8 2 1 + 3 12 (1 + 1 ) + 16 14 + 2 12 + ]
CN
1
Cm
Single Parabolic Arc
CN
1
= 2A 1
2
CD
A1 +
16
A2 + 2A3 8 + 2
3
32
A2 A3 2 2 +
3
5
= 2 A1 + 2 16 A 2
128
+ 2 A 3 4 + 16 2 +
2 1
= 2 A1
2
(1 + 1 )
+
Blunt T.E. Single
Parabolic Arc
8 A2
(1 + 1 )2
2 + 12
1 3
2
(1 + 1 )
6 1 2
3
+ 2 A3
(1 + 1 )2
Cm
2
8 1 + 3 12
(1 + 1 )4
2
A1
2
32 1 (1 + 1 )
8
(1 + 1 )
A2
3 (1 + 1 )
2 A3
2
4 1 (1 + 1 )
(1 + 1 )6
3
(1 + 1 )2
1
16 + 12
5
8 (1 + )2 + 2 (1 + )4
1
1
1
CD
1
+ 12
8
= 2 A1 2 +
(1 + 1 ) 4
8 A2
(1 + 1 )
41
(1 + 1 ) 2
3
2 1 + 3 12
8 1 1 + 12
+
1 2
(1 + 1 )2
(1 + 1 )4
2
128 1 + 212 + 14
4
5
+ 2A3 +
(
+ 1)6
1
128 1 1 + 12
(1 + 1 )6
) + 16 (1 + 3 ) +
2
(1 + 1 )4
2
1
8 1 3
(1 + 1 )2
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
59
60
8.
9.
CHAPTER 4
SKIN FRICTION FORCE CALCULATION
4.1
INTRODUCTION
62
T*
= 1 + 0.035 M
Te
2
e
T
w
+ 0.45
Te
(4.1)
*
from the relation
Evaluate Reynolds number R e xe
Re *xe
Re xe
*
=
e
*
(4.2)
Te
T
Therefore
e
*
T
e
=
T *
Re *xe
Re xe
e
The ratio *
e
*
(4.3)
Te
*
T
1.5
T + 115
T e + 115
( temperatur e in o K )
(4.4)
0.242
C F*
= log 10 C F* Re *xe
(4.5)
C F* =
0.46
*
log 10 Re xe
2.6
(4.6)
CF
C F*
4.3
*
e
Te
T
(4.7)
63
64
4.15 log 10 Re x C F
w
sin 1 A + sin 1 B
T
aw
CF
Te
+ 1. 7
(4.8)
where
A =
2a
2
b + 4a
0.5
and
B=
b
2
b + 4 a 2
0.5
a =
M
2
2
e
T e
aw
1
and b =
Tw
Tw
Taw
Te
=1 +
1
2
M e2
CF =
1
Re F
CF
xe
Re x
inc
Fc
(4.9)
where
Fc =
T /T 1
aw
e
sin 1 A + sin 1 B
and
F Re x F c =
e
w
(4.10)
inc
0.088
log R
xe 1.5
C F inc =
1.328
Re x
where the Reynolds number is based on the length from the leading
edge to the point of transition.
4.5
EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS
65
66
C f lam
V
3050
91400
Turbulent flow
turb
Re
0.2
V
= 0.048 sin 4.5 + 0.70
cos 2.25 sin 1.5
3050
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
CHAPTER 5
AERODYNAMIC HEATING AT HYPERSONIC
SPEEDS
5.1
INTRODUCTION
HEATING ANALYSIS
68
q& = ( w C p ,w w
d Tw
dt
= h (H st H w ) s F T w4
(5.1a)
q& = ( w C p ,w w
dT w
dt
= h (H R H w ) s F T w4
(5.1b)
w
Cp,w
w
Tw
t
h
time, sec
HR =
Hw =
Tw =
wall temperature, K
Aerodynamic Heating
thermal properties of the material, the only way to vary the heat
capacity significantly is to change the value of the material thickness.
For metallic surfaces, the thickness of the skin will give satisfactory
results. For surfaces that are insulated with low conductivity
insulation (such as space shuttle), a material thickness should be
used that will result in a heat capacity of approximately
2044 J/m2 - K".
The heat transfer rate varies from a maximum value at Tw = 0
(cold wall) to zero at Tw = Taw (adiabatic wall). Knowing the heat
transfer coefficient, the Mach number, angle of attack and altitude
combination, it is possible to compute the actual heating rate for
any wall temperature. From this, the time rate of change of skin
temperature can be determined if one knows the properties of the
wall material. By carrying out the heat transfer calculations at a
series of selected points along the vehicle trajectory, the time history
of the surface temperature of the body can be obtained.
The skin equilibrium temperature for each skin element
under consideration can be calculated from the above equation
when the time rate of change of temperature goes to zero.
4
h H R H eq = s F T eq
The temperature and heat flux for each skin element at time
J are calculated from
h (H R H j 1 ) s F T j41
T j = T j 1 +
t j
w c p , w w
and
q& j = h (H R H j ) s F T j4
respectively.
In practice, computational intervals are spaced closely
during the early times and farther apart at later times so that
precision is maintained during periods of rapid temperature rise
but excessive computational time will not be required after the
period of initial temperature rise.
5.3
69
70
the stagnation point. From the known free stream conditions the
downstream properties of the shock are determined using the
normal shock relations for the case of perfect gas. If however, the
temperature is such that one has to consider the gas as real, then
the downstream properties of the shock are determined for an
equilibrium flow either by the use of real gas flow charts if one is
available or by numerical iterative solution as outlined in Andersons
book2. From the known properties downstream of the normal shock,
the stagnation enthalpy, recovery enthalpy and stagnation pressure
are determined as follows:
V 22
(for both perfect and real
2
gases). Recovery enthalpy, H R = H 2 + ( H 0 H 2 ) where, is the
recovery factor (In the above relations subscript 2 refers to
conditions downstream of the normal shock)
Stagnation enthalpy, H 0 = H 2 +
= (Pr )
Pr = Prandtl Number.
The flow downstream of a normal shock at high speeds is
low subsonic. Hence, one can use the incompressible Bernoullis
equation without much of an error to calculate the stagnation
pressure both for perfect and real gas flows.
po
= p2 +
2 V 22
2
Aerodynamic Heating
h = 0.763 Pr
0. 6
( o o )
0.5
w w
o o
0. 1
du e
dx
(5.2)
w w
is also mentioned in the book of Anderson2. This term
o o
is of the order of unity and alters the heat transfer rate by about 10
per cent depending on the wall temperature conditions.
The stagnation point streamwise velocity gradient is given
by the Newtonian impact theory, viz.,
du e
dx
2( p o p )
rN
dx
=
r N
1.85
71
72
h = 0.57 Pr
0.6
0.5
w
w
o o
0.1
du
dx
(5.3)
Aerodynamic Heating
p2
T2
= temperature downstream
= density downstream
H2
= downstream enthalpy
V 22n
This value holds good both for perfect and real gases as
V2n is low subsonic.
5.3.4 Perfect Gas
For a perfect gas, the temperature on the surface is given by
1 2
Te = T 2 1 +
M 2n
2
where
2n
V2n
RT 2
73
74
e = 2
M 22n
1
1
The Mach number of the flow with a velocity V2t along the
stagnation line is
M
V 2t
RT e
po = pe
M
1+
2
To = Te 1+
M
2
o = e
1+
H o = C p Te +
1
2
2
e
2
e
2
e
2
V 2t
respectively.
5.3.5 Real Gas
The enthalpy of the flow along the edge is given by
He = H2 +
V 22n
2
Aerodynamic Heating
Ho = He +
2
V 2t
h = 0.57 Pr 0.6 o o
du e
dx
0.5
w w
o o
0.1
(cos )1.1
(5.4)
l . e ,lam
= h ( H aw H w
q i .e , turb = 1.04 Pr
0.6
(* * ) 0 . 8 ( V
( o ) 0. 6
sin
2
0.6
du e
dx
0.2
(5.5)
75
76
where
He = enthalpy at the outer edge of the boundary layer
For a perfect gas a reference temperature is used as follows
which is multiplied by Cp to get the reference enthalpy.
= 0 .5 ( T w + T e
The streamwise
streamline is given by
1
=
r le
sl
du
dx
) + 0.22 ( Taw Te )
velocity
gradient
at
the
stagnation
2 p e p
V D
q& = q&
lam
Re
Re low
D
+
Re upp Re low
q&
lam
Aerodynamic Heating
h =
w C p ,w w
dT w
+ s F T w4
dt
( HR Hw )
HR =H +
V 2 V e2
2
V e2
2
h =
*
f
Pr *
2
0.667
*Ve
77
78
where, Cf* is the skin friction coefficient and Pr* is the Prandtl
number
C
*
f
0.332
Re *
N lam
1
2
0.185
Re *
log
10 N
tur
2.584
(5.6)
H * = He + 0.5 (HR He )
(5.7)
or
(5.8)
*Ve s
Aerodynamic Heating
Pr * =
*C
k
*
p
T*
*V e
Re *
N lam
(5.9)
h H = 0.185 ( Pr * )
0.667
* V e
Re *
log10
N tur
2.584
(5.10)
shown
Nlam
Ntur
79
80
q& = w C
p ,w
dT w
dt
= h H st H
FT 4
(5.11)
q& = w C
p ,w
dT w
dt
= h H R H
FT 4
(5.12)
Aerodynamic Heating
h = 0.94 K 1 ( st st
(5.13)
h = 0.706 K 2 ( st st
(5.14)
H st = H +
cos 2
(5.15)
HR =H+
+ 0.85
sin 2
2
(5.16)
81
82
dU
1
=
dx
R
x=0
7 M
cos 2 1
cos 2
cos 2 + 5
P
(5.17)
where
R = body nose radius
st st =
T o K
= 2.43 10 7 T w o K
= 2.43 10
6 M 2 cos 2
M 2 cos 2 + 5
T
st
0.75
(5.18)
0.75
(5.19)
0.75
(5.20)
P w P st P
w =
Pw
287 T w
7M
cos
6
(5.21)
(5.22)
Aerodynamic Heating
and Tst are obtained by the curve fits given by Gupta et. al.6 and,
Srinivasn7. Values of K1 and K2 are obtained by linear interpolation
from the following table.
Table 5.1 Stagnation point heating factors
Mach No.
K1
K2
1.00
1.00
1.16
1.20
10
1.14
1.18
15
1.16
1.16
20
1.23
1.16
25
1.40
1.25
30
1.45
1.26
dT
q& = (w C p ,w ) w = h (H R H w ) Tw4
dt
To determine the heat transfer coefficient h one has to know
the local flow conditions. However, for simplicity and to save time
the free stream values are utilized similar to the case of stagnation
point heat transfer analysis. The heat transfer coefficient is written
as
h= C 5
h +
o
(5.23)
where, ho is the heat transfer coefficient for a flat plate at zero angle
of attack and h is that portion of the heat transfer coefficient
caused by angle of attack and wedge or cone angles. For laminar
flow the suggested value of C5 is 1.73 and for turbulent flow C5 is
1.15.
For turbulent flow, the equations to calculate the heat
transfer coefficient are as follows:
83
84
Lower Surface
ho
C 1 ( 0.0375 ) U
=
0.2
x
0.8
U
= A1
x 0.2
0.8
0.2
T
*
T
0.65
(5.24)
(5.25)
0.8
U
= A1
x 0.2
(5.26)
ho
U
= 0.4
x
h = A2
0.5
T
*
T
0.125
(5.27)
0. 5
(5.28)
Aerodynamic Heating
Upper Surface
ho
U
= 0.421
x
h = A2
0.5
T
*
T
0.125
(5.29)
0. 5
(5.30)
-10
-5
+20
+40
2
3
5
0.844
1.50
1.30
0.920
1.62
1.79
1.04
1.80
2.38
1.04
1.62
1.84
1.30
1.80
2.07
1.41
2.08
2.34
1.62
2.08
2.61
1.73
2.37
2.87
1.84
2.49
2.90
10
1.19
1.66
2.49
2.16
2.61
3.32
4.06
4.80
4.88
15
1.01
1.57
2.60
2.16
2.77
3.97
5.18
6.58
6.77
20
25
0.747
0.582
1.41
0.989
2.30
2.03
2.16
1.95
2.87
2.87
4.47
4.54
6.08
6.49
9.94
9.20
9.49
8.66
30
0.472
0.826
1.88
1.84
2.87
4.87
6.49
6.49
6.49
-10
-5
+20
+40
0.366
0.378
0.390
0.354
0.366
0.378
0.403
0.415
0.427
0.488
0.507
0.533
0.488
0.528
0.547
0.561
0.558
0.561
0.732
0.799
0.871
0.763
0.455
0.950
1.01
1.04
0.819
10
0.997
1.18
1.51
1.46
1.62
1.85
2.03
2.07
1.87
15
1.13
1.53
2.20
1.83
2.29
2.68
2.94
2.96
2.51
20
1.17
1.77
2.48
2.51
2.90
3.54
3.82
3.75
3.20
25
1.12
1.74
2.75
2.48
3.33
4.15
4.27
3.66
3.11
30
1.03
1.71
2.95
2.30
3.66
4.27
4.27
2.44
2.44
85
86
Re =
U x
= 2.43 10
H R = H + 0.85
0.75
H R = H + 0.89
Hw = f
H
( H w H ) + 0 .22 ( H R H )
( Tw , P )
= f T , P
= f H
, P
Aerodynamic Heating
[log Re
If log Re
[log Re
If log Re >
+Cm M
+Cm M
Cm
Sharp leading edge
log ReT
0-7
7 - 20
20 - 40
5.3
5.3
5.3
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.20
0.18
0.12
Log ReT
20
7 < < 20
20
0 - 45
5.3
0.23
0.20
0.18
0.20
0.18
0.15
45 - 60
5.3
0.20
0.18
0.15
0.18
0.15
0.12
60 - 75
5.3
0.17
0.17
0.13
0.15
0.13
0.11
5.5
HEAT
TRANSFER
87
88
q& ws = 1.83 10 4
rn
0.5
Hw
V 3 1
Hs
watts/m2
(5.31)
r
cyl
Hw
V 3 1
H aw
0.5
cos eff
(5.32)
where
du
dx
2 p st p
1
=
rn
st
0.5
Aerodynamic Heating
cos c
q& w , Cone = 4.03 10 5
x
Hw
V 3.2 sin c 1
H aw
cos FP
q& w ,FP = 2.42 10 5
x
Hw
V 3.2 sin FP 1
H aw
0.5
W / m 2
(5.34)
0.5
W / m 2
(5.35)
where
Hw
FP
89
90
q& w ,FP
2. 45 10
)( sin 2 cos 2 . 62 )0 . 8
( x x bt )0.2
Hw
V 3.7 0.9
He
qW FP =
) ( sin
(x x ) (T
3.72 10 4
cos 2.2
0 .2
bt
W /555
0 .8
0 .25
W /m 2
q&
w cone
= 1.15 q& w FP
where
Hw =
He =
xbt =
5.6
q& w = N V M C
The units for q w, and V are W/m2, kg/m3 and m/sec
respectively. The values of M, N and C are as follows:
Aerodynamic Heating
H
C = 1.83 10 8 R 1/2 1 w
Ho
where, R is the nose radius in metres, and H w and Ho are wall and
total enthalpies respectively.
5.6.2 Flat Plate in Laminar Flow
M = 3.2 and N = 0.5
C = 2.53 10
cos
0.5
sin x
0.5
Hw
1
Ho
where, is the local body angle with respect to the free stream and
x is the distance measured along the body surface in metres.
5.6.3 Flat Plate in Turbulent Flow
For V 3962 m/s, N = 0.8, M = 3.37 and
1 1.11
Ho
Tw
556
)0.2
0.25
) 0.2 1 1.11
Hw
H o
91
92
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
PART - II
VALIDATION OF PREDICTION METHODS
CHAPTER 6
VALIDATION OF PREDICTION METHODS
Approximate methods are normally used in preliminary
design stages to predict flight control forces and moments
experienced by a flying vehicle in the entire speed range covering
the flight envelope. To ascertain the validity and the range of
applicability of these methods, particularly for hypersonic vehicles,
some detailed studies have been reported in the literature both in
the past and fairly recently. In general, the approach is to examine
several vehicle designs, such as the wing-body, the blended body,
the cone body, etc., which cover a broad range of proposed
hypersonic vehicle configurations and compare the predicted values
with the available experimental data and then draw conclusions.
In the subsonic and supersonic speed ranges, many
methods are available to predict the aerodynamic characteristics.
Some of these have been used for the analysis of a few hypersonic
vehicle configurations. The vortex lattice method for subsonic flow
analysis described by Lamar and Gloss1, which includes the leading
edge suction effects based on theory, described by Polhamus2 has
been applied to three different hypersonic vehicle configurations
and compared with the wind tunnel results3 at a Mach Number of
0.2. The theoretically predicted lift, drag due to lift and the pitching
moment, correlated well with the experimental results. Similar
results using the same type of analysis were also reported4. Since
the method described by Lamar and Gloss1 did not have the
capability to include vertical surfaces, it was not possible to predict
the lateral-directional characteristics of the configurations
analysed. For this reason, the vortex lattice method used was not of
much use in the preliminary design analysis. The most commonly
used prediction method in subsonic and supersonic flows is the
Panel method. Panel method has been applied to some specific
hypersonic vehicle configurations such as X-15, Space Shuttle and
Hypersonic Research Airplane, in the subsonic and supersonic
96
Methods
(b)
(c)
97
98
(a)
(b)
(b)
(c)
7.67
C.G.OF MODEL
80
47.55
53.52
48.92
HORIZONTAL CONTROL
PIVOT
(a) BHVCB
31.60
12.52
19.25
CANARD PIVOT
.810
0
STATION
6.5
MOMENT CENTRE
48.11
Methods
99
1.18
76.5
77.8
65
4.44
3.38
CANARDS
0.0238
RAD
0.665
3.46
4 36'
1 36'
6.05
0.0254 RAD
0.292
8.95
3.485
3.92
70
2.10
(b) Components
65
6.3
VERTICAL TAIL
1.382
1.49
0.47
8 35'
100
Aerodynamic Predictive Methods and their Validation in Hypersonic Flows
Methods
101
102
Tangent cone on body and vertical tails andTangent cone on horizontal controls
Modified Newtonian (K = 2.4) on
horizontal controls
Shock expansion on horizontal controls
Tangent wedge on horizontal controls
Wind-tunnel data
h'deg
0
10
-30
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
h'deg
Cm
-30
0
-0.01
0
10
-0.02
-0.03
Tangent cone
Modified Newtonian (K = 2.4)
Shock expansion, and
Tangent wedge
4
3
2
1
L/D 0
-1
h'deg
- 30
-2
-3
-4
-0.15
-0.10
-0.05
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
CL
Methods
Tangent cone on body and vertical tails andTangent cone on horizontal controls
Modified Newtonian (K = 2.4) on
horizontal controls
Shock expansion on horizontal controls
Tangent wedge on horizontal controls
.11
.10
h'deg
-30
0
Wind-tunnel data
.09
h'deg
.08
.07
0
10
-30
CD .06
.05
.04
.03
.02
.01
0
-30
20
h'deg
0
10
15
,
deg
10
-5
-.15
-.10
-.05
.05
.10
.15
20
.25
CL
Figure 6.2. Comparison of several hypersonic theories with windtunnel data for HYFAC configuration (BHV) at
R,l= 10.5 106 (Concluded).
103
104
.11
.10
.09
.08
h'deg
-30
.07
CD
.06
.05
-20
.04
.03
-10
.02
.01
0
Tangent cone on body, horizontal controls and
vertical tails
Wind-tunnel data
20
h'deg
10
0
-10
-20
-30
15
10
,deg
0
h'deg -30 -20 -10 0 10
-5
-.15
-.10
-.05
.05
.10
.15
.20
.25
CL
Methods
.04
.03
h'deg
-30
.02
-20
Cm
.01
-5
0
5
10
0
-.10
-.02
h'deg
10
5
0
-5
-10
-20
-30
4
3
2
1
L/D
0
-1
-2
h'deg
-30
-3
-4
-.15
-20
-10
-.10
-.05
.05
.10
.15
.20
.25
CL
Figure 6.3.
105
106
CY
-.005
-.010
-.015
Wind-tunnel data (M = 6)
.001
Cl
-.001
-.002
Tangent cone on body, and horizontal controls
and -
.003
.002
Cn
.001
0
-.001
-4
12
16
20
, deg
Figure 6.4.
Comparison of several hypersonic theories with windtunnel data for lateral-directional stability characteristics
of HYFAC configuration (BHV) h= 0; R= 10.5 106.
Methods
common span, aspect ratio, taper ratio, planform area and thickness
ratio. The wings were translated longitudinally on the body to make
tests possible with the total and exposed mean aerodynamic chords
located at a fixed body station. The theoretical estimates were based
on Gentrys Program14. Tangent cone pressure distribution was applied
on the body and tangent wedge on the wings, (method 1). In the
expansion region a limiting expansion pressure coefficient of 70 per
cent of vacuum conditions, (i.e., Cp, limit= ( 1/M 2 ) was utilised for all
calculations. The base pressure on the body base was assumed to be
equal to the freestream static pressure. Spalding-Chi method was
used for viscous effects, assuming 100 per cent turbulent boundary
layer. The drag contribution from the body nose bluntness and the
wing leading and trailing edges were not taken into account as they
were estimated to be very low. An alternate analysis in which tangent
cone only on the fuselage fore body and tangent wedge on the wing
and body aft of the wing was also done (method 2). Comparison of the
wind tunnel data with the theoretical predictions lead to the following
conclusions:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
107
108
4 per cent thick diamond airfoil delta wing of aspect ratio 1 that
could be located at three longitudinal positions while maintaining a
smooth wing body juncture. The model components included two
nose geometries which varied in bluntness, two canards which
differed in planform and three vertical tail arrangements. The test
Mach Number ranged from 2.5 to 4.5. The model was designed to
allow the wing to be positioned at five incidence angles ( 5, 2.5,
0, 2.5, and 5). Angle of attack was varied from 4 to 28 and
angle of slide slip from 8 to 8. Theoretical analysis was performed
using three prediction methods: The Gentry Hypersonic Arbitrary
Body Program14, Linear Theory18, and Supersonic Implicit Marching
Program (SIMP)19. The HABP method employed the tangent cone
theory for the body compression pressure and the tangent wedge
methodology for the wing, canard and tail compression pressures.
The Prandtl-Meyer expansion was used for lee-side pressures.
Spalding-Chi method was used for viscous forces. The linear theory
method was based on linearized supersonic potential theory and
slender body estimates for inviscid lift, far field wave drag using
supersonic area rule for inviscid zero lift drag and Sommer-Short
skin friction estimate12. The SIMP method solved the full potential
equation to provide inviscid characteristics and the skin friction
estimate was done using the Sommer-Short estimates.
Comparisons of the experimental data with several analysis
methods to predict the longitudinal aerodynamic characteristics of
the wing-body showed the following:
results
for
the
wing-body
and
two
canard
Methods
109
110
Methods
Table 6.1
X-15 Research
characteristics)
airplane
(airplane
geometric
200
Aspect ratio
2.50
Taper ratio
0.20
123.23
36.75
Span, (ft)
22.36
178.89
35.78
Twist, (deg)
Airfoil section
NACA 66005(modified)
339.19
52.17
15.48
40
Wing (exposed)
105
Aspect ratio
2.15
Taper ratio
0.27
131.95
35.78
Horizontal tail (exposed)
51.76
Aspect ratio
2.81
Taper ratio
0.21
60.07
45
17.64
84.27
25.28
-15
111
112
NACCA66005(modified)
537.52
26.96
1 98.33
35 (down),
15 (up)
+7.5
40.8
Aspect ratio
1.03
Taper ratio
0.74
1 07.5
30
55
1 22.5
90.75
Airfoil section
10 wedge
5 20.25
26.15
1 81.06
26.5
+ 7.5
34.2
Aspect ratio
0.785
Taper ratio
0.79
1 09.2
30
44
1 21.4
96
Airfoil section
10 wedge
519.4
Methods
Span station for 50 per cent vertical-tail mean
aerodynamic chord, from fuselage, (in.)
Tail arm, 20 per cent wing mean aerodynamic chord to
50 per cent vertical-tail mean aerodynamic chord, (in.)
21.15
1 80.21
19.9
+ 7.5
Fuselage
49.17
50.16
88.0
56.0
21.4
9.4
31.0
Speed Brakes (Upper and Lower)
534
4.88
41
113
114
50.16
17.64
22.36
Figure 6.5.
Methods
for landing. The original tail configuration results were used21, for
comparisons in the subsonic and transonic speed ranges and the
final configuration results in the supersonic and hypersonic speeds.
The X-15 aircraft geometric characteristics are given in
Table 6.1. The three view drawing of the aircraft is given in Fig.
6.5. Since, this aircraft configuration was extensively studied in
1960's during its development, it is interesting to study the
comparisons
between
theoretical
predictions
and
measurements made then 23 (period in which the finite element
panel methods for subsonic and supersonic flows had not yet
been developed), and now fairly recently 21, wherein, there has
been an extensive use of combined subsonic/supersonic
computer codes available for analysis. A summary of these
studies is as follows:
6.1.1
Lift Characteristics
115
116
CL =
SW
C LW (K W B + K B W )
S
S cos T
C LT (K T B + K B T
+Q T
S
) 1
+ C LB
(6.1)
Q =
q 1 (C L )1
q (C L )
Wing
Assuming that both the wing and the tail surfaces can be
considered as flat plates for the lift analysis, Van Dykes unified
small disturbance theory was used for calculating the lift
coefficient. This method is suitable to both the supersonic and
hypersonic speed regimes. For a 2-dimensional flat plate wing at an
angle of attack ,
Methods
c n = (C p )low er (C p )u p p er
cn = 2
+1
+
+1
4
H
(6.2)
1 1 H 1 1
(6.3)
1 .
4
M
cn
(6.4)
C L W = C N cos
(6.5)
while that for the wing in the presence of the body (based on
reference area S ),
C L
C L W = (K W B + K B W )
4
M
cn
SW
S
cos
(6.6)
117
118
6.1.4
Horizontal Tail
Fuselage
The lift from the fuselage was derived both from the inviscid
flow and the viscous crossflow. Second-order Shock-Expansion
theory was used to calculate the inviscid lift. Since the fuselage
cross-section of the X-15 aircraft was noncircular, the second-order
shock-expansion expressions, as given in Syvertsons report27, was
multiplied by a factor equal to the ratio of the actual planform area
to that of an equivalent body of revolution having the same local
cross-sectional area as the X-15 configuration. This approximation
lead to the relationship for the inviscid flow as
(C )
LB
In which
in viscid
(C )
'
N
= R
( )
SB
C N
S
cos
(6.7)
(C )
LB
viscou s
= c d c
A 2
cos
S
(6.8)
Methods
Pitching-Moment Characteristics
The moment arm for the lift of the wing in the presence of
the body differs in general from that for the lift induced by the wing
on the body, with the difference depending primarily on Mach
number and fuselage diameter. The moments from the two sources
therefore must be determined separately. For consistency with the
lift calculations described earlier, both effects are charged to the
wing. The characteristics for the horizontal tail at zero incidence
are also determined likewise, although the moment arms for the
various interference effects, due to the absence of the fuselage
afterbody, are essentially equal. The pitching moment of the
combined wing and tail in the presence of the fuselage is given by
C m W +C m T =
SW
x
x
C LW K W B W B + K B W B W
S
c
c
S Tcos T
x
d
+ Q
C L T 1 (K TB + K B T ) T
d
S
c
(6.9)
119
.2
.4
.6
0
4
8
,deg
12
16
Horizontal tail on
(iT=0)
.1
Airplane
trimmed
(a) M = 2.01
20
Wing
0
-.1
Horizontal
tail off
-.2
Cm
-.3
Horizontal
tail on
-.4
Wing
-.5
Figure 6.6. Comparison of calculated and experimental lift and pitching-moment characteristics for the X-15
airplane at various Mach numbers.
CL
.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
120
Aerodynamic Predictive Methods and their Validation in Hypersonic Flows
CL
.2
.4
.6
.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
Horizontal tail on
12
,deg
16
Wing
(b) M = 2.29
.1
20
Airplane
trimmed
-.1
Horizontal
tail off
-.2
Cm
-.3
Wing
Horizontal tail
on
-.4
-.5
Methods
121
CL
.2
.4
.6
.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
12
.1
(c) M = 2.98
20
Airplane
trimmed
16
Wing
, deg
Horizontal tail on
0
-.1
Horizontal
tail off
-.2
Cm
-.3
Wing
Horizontal
tail on
-.4
-.5
122
Aerodynamic Predictive Methods and their Validation in Hypersonic Flows
.2
.4
CL .6
.8
1.0
1.2
12
(d) M = 4.65
20
.1
Airplane
trimmed
16
,deg
Wing
Horizontal tail on
-.1
Horizontal
tail off
-.2
Cm
Wing
-.3
Horizontal
tail on
-.4
Methods
123
CL
.2
.4
.6
.8
1.0
12
Horizontal tail on
20
24
(e) M = 6.86
,deg
Wing
16
.1
Airplane
trimmed
-.1
Cm
-.2
Wing
Horizontal
tail on
Horizontal
tail off
-.3
124
Aerodynamic Predictive Methods and their Validation in Hypersonic Flows
Methods
22
Calculated
(iT, deg (refs. 3,4)
20
20
15
18
16
14
, deg
12
10
8
6
4
2
iT = 15
iT = 15
iT =20
iT =20
0
(a) M = 2.29
(b) M = 2.98
20
18
16
14
12
, deg 10
8
6
4
iT = 15
iT = 20
iT = 20
iT = 15
2
0
-.4
-.2
0
Cm
.2
(c) M = 4.65
.4 -.4
-.2
0
Cm
.2
.4
(d) M = 6.86
125
126
20
M=2.98
M=2.29
M=4.65
M=6.86
16
, deg
12
8
4
0
-.008 -.004
0
C n , per deg
R
20
-.008
Cn
-.004
0
, per deg
R
-.008
-.004
0
, per deg
Cn
-.008
Cn
-.004
0
, per deg
R
Calculated
Data
(refs. 3,4)
16
12
, deg
8
4
0
M=2.98
M=2.29
-.001
C l
.001
, per deg
R
-.001
C l
.001
, per deg
R
M=6.86
M=4.65
-.001
.001
C l , per deg
R
-.001
C l
.001
, per deg
R
Figure 6.8. Comparison of the calculated and experimental directionalcontrol derivatives for the X-15 airplane at several Mach
numbers.
Methods
20
M=2.98
M=2.29
M=6.86
16
M=4.65
12
, deg
8
4
Calculated
Data
(refs. 3,4)
0
C l1'
.001 .002
, per deg
C l1'
-.001 .002
, per deg
20
C l1'
.001 .002
, per deg
-.001
C l1'
M=4.65
M=2.98
M=2.29
002 003
, per deg
M=6.86
16
12
, deg
8
4
0
.001 .002
C n1
'T '
, per deg
.001 .002
C n1
'T '
, per deg
.001 .002
C n 1'
, per deg
T'
C n 1'
, per deg
T'
Figure 6.9. Comparison of the calculated and experimental lateralcontrol derivatives for the X-15 airplane at several
Mach numbers.
127
128
6.1.8
Fuselage
The centre of pressure for the lift due to the inviscid flow
over the fuselage was calculated by the Second-order ShockExpansion method27, (Appendix C) and that due to viscous cross
flow by the procedure described by Perkins & Jorgensen29. The
former was found to vary slightly with the Mach number and the
latter to be essentially constant. The moment coefficient for the
fuselage was expressed as
x
xB
+ C L
C m B = C L B B
c in viscid B c viscous
(6.10)
Methods
flows. For the hypersonic analysis, the impact methods chosen for
the various components were: tangent cone empirical for the bodies;
tangent wedge empirical for the surfaces; and modified Newtonian
with the factor K =C p m ax
129
0.3
NASA RM
L57D09 APAS II
0.2
f
40
0
0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
10
40
30
20
ANGLE of ATTACK (deg)
0.3
0.2
PITCHING MOMENT COEFFICIENT
130
0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
LIFT COEFFICIENT
Methods
0.4
NASA RM
TM X-24 APAS II
0.2
h
0
-3
-6
a
0
3
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
LIFT COEFFICIENT
131
2.0
NASA RM
TM X-820 APAS II
DRAG COEFFICIENT
1.5
h
0
-20
-35
-45
1.0
0.5
0.0
-10
10
30
20
40
50
2.0
1.5
DRAG COEFFICIENT
132
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
LIFT COEFFICIENT
Methods
0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
0.5
NASA
TM X-820
0.0
APAS II
h
0
-20
-35
-45
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
LIFT COEFFICIENT
133
1.00
NASA TM X-236
APAS II
APAS II with Shielding
0.75
LIFT COEFFICIENT
0.50
0.25
0.00
0.25
5
15
10
20
25
0.4
0.3
DRAG COEFFICIENT
134
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
LIFT COEFFICIENT
Methods
NACA RM L57D09
APAS II Potential + LE +Tip
CY
0.000
0.002
0.004
10
20
30
40
Cn
0.002
0.000
0.002
0
10
20
30
40
30
40
Cl
0.004
0.002
0.000
10
20
ANGLE OF ATTACK (deg)
135
136
NASA TM X-820
APAS II Potential
APAS II Potential + LE
APAS II Potential + LE + Tip
0.000
CY
0.005
0.010
10
10
20
ANGLE OF ATTACK (deg)
30
40
0.004
Cn
0.002
0.000
10
0
10
20
ANGLE OF ATTACK (deg)
30
40
0.001
Cl
0.000
0.001
10
10
20
ANGLE OF ATTACK (deg)
30
40
Methods
NASA TM X-236
APAS II
0.050
C Y
0.025
0.000
10
5
ANGLE OF ATTACK (deg)
15
20
15
20
15
20
0.000
Cn
0.002
0.004
5
10
C l
0.000
0.001
5
10
137
138
Methods
6.2
139
140
0.060 (92.63)
0.030 (47.00)
0.064 (98.98)
Span, m (in.)
0.244 (9.62)
Aspect ratio
0.999
0.371 (14.59)
0.119 (4.7)
Taper ratio
0.322
0.294 (11.57)
Sweepback angles:
Leading edge, deg
67.5
61.1
angle,deg
Incidence
10
angle,deg
-2.1
0.051
Tip
0.078
0.064 (0.025)
0.064 (0.025)
Elevons:
Tip chord, percent wing tip
36.6
59.8
0.0064 (9.89)
Vertical Tail
Area, exposed, m2 (in2)
0.007 (10.93)
0.077(3.06)
0.857
0.101 (3.99)
0.057 (2.256)
Taper ratio
0.565
0.097(3.804)
Sweepback angles:
Leading edge, deg
49.9
18.5
Methods
Vertical Tail
Hinge line location, per cent chord
68.7
Arudder/Atotal
0.295
0.064 (0.025)
Fuselage
Length, m (in.)
0.584 (23.0)
0.159 (0.063)
0.076 (2.98)
0.097 (3.83)
6.86
0.042(65.12)
Wetted area:
Without components of base, m2 (in2)
0.122 (188.6)
0.116 (179.4)
Ab, m2 (in2)
0.0023 (3.54)
Complete model:
Planform area, m2 (in2)
0.072 (112.12)
0.825
141
10
.045
.132
x-STATION
0.0 .045
.018
.132
.408
.531
.561
7.6
.075
7.6
.075
MODEL REFERENCE
LINE
.365
1.350
.297
.212
.182 .254
.026
.506
.204
10 .016 .238
.057
.687
67.5
.65
c.g.
.751
.830
.870
HL
1.088
y-STATION
.209
1.000 1.075
HL
Y-STATION
.209
Figure 6. 18. Model general dimensions. All dimensions have been normalized by body length (l = 58.4 cm)
.254
.212
.182
.531
.408
.297
.561
.751
.830
.870
X-STATION
1.000
BASE PRESSURE
MEASUREMENT
LOCATION
142
Aerodynamic Predictive Methods and their Validation in Hypersonic Flows
Methods
7.75
12
.0312
12
.0226
12
.0022
.0161
.0673
.0981
HL
.1326
49.9
1.8
22.8
.0216
.1735
.1485
12
SUBSONIC AIRFOIL
12
.0384
HYPERSONIC AIRFOIL
7.75
12
.0454
SPEED BRAKES
143
144
.025
.020
.015
.010
Cm
.005
0
- .005
-.010
20
15
10
, deg
5
Exp.
Theory
.15
.20
BW
BWVCH
-5
-.10
-.05
.05
.10
.25
CL
.30
Methods
0
L/D
-2
-4
.12
.10
Exp.
Theory
B
BW
.08
BWVCH
.06
CD
.04
.02
0
-.10
-.05
.05
.15
.10
.2.0
.25
.30
CL
145
146
Theory
B
BW
BWVCH
CY
-.02
.002
Cl
-.002
C n -.002
-.004
-5
10
5
, deg
15
.20
Methods
.015
.010
.005
Cm
0
-.005
-.010
-.015
-.020
20
15
10
, deg
-5
e,deg Exp. Theory
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
0
0
-5
-.10
-.05
.05
.10
.15
.20
.25
.30
.35
CL
147
148
.18
e, deg Exp. Theory
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
.16
.14
.12
.10
CD
.08
.06
.04
.02
0
0
0
0
0
0
-.10
-.05
.05
.10
.15
.20
.25
.30
.35
CL
Methods
4
2
0
0
0
L/D
0
e, deg Exp. Theory
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
0
-2
-4
-.10
-.05
.05
.10
.15
.20
.25
.30
.35
CL
b)
149
150
Methods
0.10
0.05
0.00
-0.05
-0.10
-5
10
15
25
20
0.10
NASA
TP-1189
APAS II
0
-5
-10
-15
0.05
0.00
-0.05
-0.10
-0.4
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
LIFT COEFFICIENT
151
0.02
0.01
0.00
NASA
TP-1249 APAS II
-0.01
e,
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-0.02
-0.03
-5
10
15
20
0.02
PITCHING MOMENT COEFFICIENT
152
0.01
0.00
-0.01
-0.02
-0.03
-0.1
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
LIFT COEFFICIENT
Methods
NASA TP-1189
APAS II POTENTIAL
APAS II POTENTAIL + LE
APAS II POTENTAIL + LE + TIP
0.004
0.002
0.000
-5
10
15
20
15
20
15
20
Cn
0.000
-0.002
-0.004
-5
10
Cl
0.001
0.000
-0.001
-5
10
153
NASA TP-1249
APAS II
APAS II WITH SHIELDING
CY
0.001
0.000
-0.001
-5
10
15
20
15
20
15
20
Cn
0.000
-0.001
-0.002
-5
10
0.002
Cl
154
0.001
0.000
-5
10
Methods
EXPER
APAS II
CY
0.004
0.002
0.000
0
MACH NUMBER
Cn
0.000
-0.002
-0.004
0
2
MACH NUMBER
Cl
0.001
0.000
-0.001
0
2
MACH NUMBER
155
156
6.3
Figure 6. 27. Space shuttle orbiter physical geometry and hypersonic analysis model
Methods
157
158
Methods
0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-5
10
20
15
0.4
ADDB
APAS II
e,
10
0
-10
-20
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
LIFT COEFFICIENT
159
1.25
ADDB
DRAG COEFFICIENT
1.00
APAS II
10
0
-10
-20
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
-10
20
10
30
40
1.25
1.00
DRAG COEFFICIENT
160
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
-0.25
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
LIFT COEFFICIENT
Methods
0.05
0.00
-0.05
ADDB
APAS II
10
0
-0.10
-10
-20
-0.15
-10
10
20
30
40
0.05
0.00
-0.05
-0.10
-0.15
-0.25
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
LIFT COEFFICIENT
161
1.5
LIFT COEFFICIENT
ADDB
APAS II
APAS II WITH SHIELDING
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
0
-10
20
10
30
40
1.00
DRAG COEFFICIENT
162
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
-0.25
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
LIFT COEFFICIENT
Methods
1.00
ADDB
APAS II
10
0
0.75
-10
-20
0.50
0.25
0.00
-10
10
30
20
40
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
LIFT COEFFICIENT
163
0.04
ADDB
APAS II
bf
-11.7
10.0
22.5
c L
0.02
0.00
-0.02
-10
10
20
30
40
30
40
0.06
0.04
0.02
c D
164
0.00
-0.02
-10
10
20
Methods
ADDB
SHUTTLE FLIGHT TEST
APAS II
CY
0.001
0.000
-0.001
-10
10
20
30
40
30
40
30
40
Cn
0.001
0.000
-0.001
-10
10
20
Cl
.002
.001
.000
-10
10
20
165
ADDB
0.002
APAS II
0
10
CY
0.000
-0.002
-0.004
0
10
15
20
15
20
15
20
MACH NUMBER
X10-3
0.5
Cn
1.0
0.0
-0.5
0
10
MACH NUMBER
.0050
Cl
166
.0025
.0000
0
10
MACH NUMBER
Methods
ADDB
APAS II
APAS II WITH SHIELDING
CY
0.001
0.000
-0.001
-10
10
20
30
40
30
40
30
40
0.000
Cn
0.001
-0.001
-10
10
20
Cl
0.001
0.000
-0.001
-10
10
20
167
168
Methods
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
169
170
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
Methods
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
171
PART III
AERODYNAMICS OF RAREFIED GASES
CHAPTER 7
GAS DYNAMICS OF RAREFIED FLOWS
7.1
INTRODUCTION
(7.1.1)
d
(L sin + D cos )
(7.1.2)
176
16
RT
(7.1.3)
5 2 p
where is the viscosity of the gas, p, the gas pressure, T, the gas
temperature and R, the gas constant.
From the above equation, one can obtain a relation for the
Knudsen number in terms of the Mach and Reynolds number as
Kn = 1.27
M
Re
(7.1.4)
0.01 Kn 0.1
0.1 Kn 10
Kn 10
7.2
dE i dE r
dE i dE w
(7.2.1)
where
dEi =
dEr =
dEw =
177
178
t =
i r
i w
i r
i
(7.2.2)
where
i
n =
pi pr
pi pw
(7.2.3)
where
pi
pr
pw
f (U,V,W ) dU dV dW =
1
cm
( c m )2
(U 2 + V 2 + W 2 )
dU dV dW
(7.2.4)
Here, cm = most probable molecular speed = 2 R T , where R, is
the gas constant and T, the temperature of the gas. U, V and W are
the velocity components of the random or thermal motion of the
molecules.
To calculate the forces experienced by a body, it is first
necessary to obtain the basic momentum transfer to a differential
elemental area dA and then integrate over the body. The motion of a
body with a velocity - q may be transformed into an equivalent
dynamical problem by considering the body to be at rest and the
gas moving towards it with a velocity q. The distribution of velocities
for the incident molecules relative to an observer moving with the
steady gas velocity q is Maxwellian. Consider an orthogonal
coordinate system such that the axes x and z lie on the plane of the
surface element and the y axis is the inward directed normal. Let
u , v and w be the components of the mass velocity along x, y and
z axes respectively. The molecules approaching the element will
have the thermal velocity components superimposed on the mass
velocity components, viz.,
u = u + U , v = v + V and w = w + W
(7.2.5)
179
180
q
x
(7.2.6)
(7.2 .7)
m ni
u v f du dv dw dA
(7.2.8)
m ni
f du dv dw dA
(7.2.9)
m ni
+ +
v w f du dv dw dA
(7.2.10)
dF
= m ni
dA incident
+ + +
(a
u + a y v + a z w )v f du dv dw
(7.2.11)
In a similar manner we can compute the force due to
reflected molecules. It is assumed that the molecules are reemitted
from the surface randomly with a Maxwellian velocity distribution
at a temperature of Tr . The reflected molecules are thought of as a
fictitious gas issuing from the rear side of the surface at a
temperature Tr. The number of molecules reemitting from the
elemental surface of area dA in unit time in the velocity range u to
u + du, v to v + dv and w to w + dw is
n r ( v ) f du dv dw dA
(7.2.12)
m nr
u v f du dv dw dA
(7.2.13)
181
182
m nr
+ 0
v 2 f du dv dw dA
(7.2.14)
v w f du dv dw dA
m n r
(7.2.15)
The limits of integration for v are from to 0 as only the
molecules having a velocity component in the negative y direction
will leave the surface.
dA
= m nr
reflected
(a
u + a y v + a z w v f du dv dw
(7.2.16)
The sum of Eqns. 7.2.11 and 7.2.16 give the total force on
the surface element in a specified direction due to both the incident
and reemitted molecules and is given by
dF
dA
= m n i
+ + +
(a
+ m nr
u + a y v + a z w )v f du dv dw
(a
u + a y v + a z w ) v f du dv dw
(7.2.17)
ay
a
+
(1 + erf v ) + m nr y2
4 2
4 r
(7.2.18)
r =
, ni and nr are
2 RTi
2 RTr
the number densities of incident and reflected molecules and
x
erf x =
y2
dy
(7.2.5)
N i = ni
vf du dv dw
(7.2.19)
N i = ni
2 R T
i
+ + +
ve
[ (u u )
2 RT i
+ (v v
)2
+ w2
]
du dv dw
(7.2.20)
on integration, it reduces to
v
RT i 2 R T
i
+
e
2
N i = ni
v
2 R Ti
1 + erf
2 R Ti
(7.2.21)
v
183
184
n r ( V ) f dU dV dW
(7.2.22)
N r = nr
( V )
2 R Tr
3 2
1
2 R Tr
(U 2 +V 2 +W 2 )
dU dV dW
(7.2.23)
The result of the integration is
N r = nr
R Tr
(7.2.24)
n r = n i r v
(1 + erf v ) +
v2
(7.2.25)
1
1
= mn i
(a x u + a y v + a z w ) v (1 + erf v ) + e 2 v 2
dA
2
ay
ay
1
2 v 2
+
(1 + erf v ) +
v 1 + erf v + e
2
4
4
dF
(7.2.26)
Let bx, by and bz be the direction cosines between the mass
velocity and the x, y and z axes respectively. Then,
u = b x q , v = b y q and w = b z q
(7.2.27)
2 RTi
= mn i
dA
q2
2
{(a x b x
+ a y by + a z b z
1
(b s )2
e y
b y (1 + erf (b y s )) +
s
ay
+
(1 + erf (b y s ))
2s2
+
ay
by
2 r s
(1 + erf (b y s )) +
1
s
(7.2.28)
e
(b y s )2
Tr
) the
as
dF
dA
= i
q2
2
{(a
x bx
+ a y by + a z b z
ay
1
(b s )2
e y
(1 + erf (b y s ))
b y (1 + erf (b y s )) +
+
2
s
2s
+
Tr b y
1 (b s )2
1 + erf (b y s ) + 2 e y
Ti s
s
ay
2
(7.2.29)
{(
dC
1
=
dA
A ref
ay
+
2s 2
ay
+
2
a xb x + a yby + a zb z
(1 + erf
Tr
Ti
( ))
b y 1 + erf b y s
(b s ))
( )
bys
b y
(1 + erf
s
(b s )) + s1
y
( )
bys
(7.2.30)
185
186
(7.2.31)
p r = 1 n
)pi
+n pw
(7.2.32)
)i
= t i
(7.2.33)
(7.2.34)
Substituting the above in the force coefficient Eqn. 7.2.30
we have
dC
dA
1
Aref
2 n a y b y + t a x b x + a z b z
(2 n )a y
1
(b s )2
e y
[1 + erf (by s )]
+
b y (1 + erf (b y s )) +
2s 2
s
n a y
2
Tr b y
1 (b s )2
(
1 + erf (b y s )) + 2 e y
Ti s
s
(7.2.35)
Y
y
j
i
z OUT OF PAGE
z OUT OF PAGE
Figure 7.2. The flat plate exposed on the front side only
187
188
1
Aref
2 n
a b + a b + a b
y y
t
x x
z z
b y 1 + erf b y s +
2 a
n
y
+
2
2s
n a y
2
1 + erf
1
s
b y s
b s +
y
b y s
Tr b y
1
1 + erf b y s + 2 e
Ti S
s
(7.3.1)
In the above ax, ay and az are the direction cosines between
the local x, y and z axes and the desired force direction, bx, by and bz
are the direction cosines between the local x, y and z axes and the
mass velocity vector.
The unit vector in the direction of the mass velocity is
q = i cos + j sin
surface of the flat plate, the expression for the normal force
coefficient is
dC N front = (2 n
sin e ( s sin )
1
sin 2 +
(1 + erf (s sin )) +
2s 2
s
Tr
2s 2
Ti
[e
( s sin )2
(7.3.2)
Axial Force
The axial force is in the X direction. The direction cosines
between the x, y and z axes and the X axis are given by
ax = 1, ay = 0 and az = 0
as before
bx = cos , by = sin and bz = 0.
Substituting the above in Eqn. 7.3.1, we obtain for the axial
force coefficient as
dC A front
= t sin cos
CASE 2:
e (s sin )
+ (1 + erf s sin )
s sin
(7.3.3)
j
x
i
X
Z OUT OF PAGE
q
y
189
190
x = i ; y = j and z = k
Normal Force
The direction cosines in this case are
ax = 0, ay = -1 and az = 0
and
bx = cos , by = - sin and bz = 0
Substituting the values in Eqn. 7.3.1, we obtain the normal
force coefficient as
dC N rear = (2 n
sin e (s sin )2
1
sin 2 +
2 s2
s
Tr
2s 2
Ti
[e
( s sin )2
(1 erf (s sin ))
(7.3.4)
Axial Force
The corresponding direction cosines in this case are
ax = 1, ay = 0 and az = 0
and
bx = cos , by = - sin and bz = 0.
Substituting in the Eqn. 7.3.1 we get
dC Arear
CASE 3.
e (s sin )
= t sin cos
(1 erf (s sin ))
s sin
(7.3.5)
dC N = dC N front + dC N rear
dC N
= (2 n )
1
2 sin e ( s sin )
+ n sin
Tr
Ti
(7.3.6)
From Eqns. 7.3.3 and 7.3.5, the axial force coefficient is given
by
dC A
e (s sin )
= 2 t cos sin erf (s sin ) +
(7.3.7)
191
192
k
Z
C N cyl . =
1
Aref
2 L
(dC ) r d dL
CN =
n sin
4s
e
Tr
Ti
s 2 sin 2
2
+ sin 2 (4 + t 2 n
f (s sin )
(7.3.8)
where
1
1
+ s sin I o
f (s sin ) =
2
3
s
sin
1
s sin
+
+
I1
3
6 s sin
and
s 2 sin 2
s 2 sin 2
(7.3.9)
s 2 sin 2
Io
= Bessel function of first kind and zero order
2
s 2 sin 2
I1
= Bessel function of first kind and first order
2
Axial Force
The direction cosines for the axial direction force are
ax = x . i
=1
ay = y . i
=0
az = z . i
=0
C Acyl. =
(s sin )2
2
(s sin )2
cos
2
1 + (s sin ) I o
2
(s sin )2
2
+ (s sin ) I 1
(7.3.10)
where, Io and I1 are Bessel functions mentioned earlier
193
7.3.3 SPHERE
An expression for the drag coefficient of an element of area
dA when both of its sides are exposed to the flow can be obtained
from the normal and axial force relations for a flat plate discussed
earlier, by the relation
CD = CN cos + CA sin
Multiplying Eqn. 7.3.6 by cos and Eqn. 7.3.7 by sin ,
and adding the two expressions we get
dC D =
1
Aref
+
2 e (s sin )2
sin 2
s
(2 n
[ (2
Tr
Ti
) sin 2 +
) sin 2 + t cos 2 ]
1
+ t cos 2 dA
2
2s
(7.3.11)
Element of area for sphere dA = 2R2 cos d
Choose an elemental ring surface of area dA = 2 R 2cos
on the front and rear side of the sphere as shown in Fig. 7.3.4. Each
d
R cos
194
point on this ring element will be at the same angle of attack and
the expression for dCD can be applied. In general, the temperature
Tw varies from one surface element to another. In the special case
where the body is a perfect thermal conductor, Tw is constant over
the entire surface, the above expression can be integrated over the
surface to get the drag coefficient of the sphere based on the frontal
projected area.
C D sph ere
1
=
A ref
dC
dA
(7.3.12)
C D sphere
2 n + t
=
s3
2 n
3 s
4 s 4 + 4 s 2 1
e s
erf s +
4s
2 1
s +
2
Tr
Ti
(7.3.13)
L1
j
y
x
Figure 7.3.5. Figure depicting normal and axial force coefficients for
a cone frustrum.
195
196
tan
cos
dL d
The unit vectors in the direction of the local axis system are
x = j sin k cos
y = i sin + j cos cos k cos sin
z = i cos j sin cos + k sin sin
Normal Force
For the normal force the direction cosines are
a x = x . j = sin
a y = y . j = cos cos
a z = z . j = sin cos
C N cone =
cos
2 Aref
2 sin
s
(b y s )2
d +
3
Tr 2
sin cos 2 +
Ti 2s
cos
s
cos
s
cos e
(b y s )2
(7.3.14)
Axial Force
For this case the direction cosines are
ax = x . i = 0
a y = y . i = sin
a z = z . i = cos
C Acone
L 22 L12 tan
1
2
sin 2 cos + 2
2 Aref cos
s
2 cos
s
Contd ...
197
198
(b y s )2
d +
sin
Tr 3 2
cos sin 2 +
Ti s
(cos sin
sin
s
(b y s )2
(7.3.15)
dA = r
sin d d
Y
j
CN =
sin
cos
sin
2
sin
cos
sin cos erf by s dd
1
Aref
o o
r2
+ 2 sin 2 +
s2
+
2 sin
s
sin e
sin
cos erf b y s d d
o o
by s 2
d d
o o
cos 3 1
2
Tr 3 2
cos 1 +
sin
3
3
Ti 2 s
cos sin 2 cos erf b y s d d
cos
s
o o
+ sin
1
s2
o o
(b y s )2
sin 2 cos e
d d
o o
(7.3.16)
199
200
C A sph . sg
r2
2
2
sin 2 1
=
cos sin 1 +
2
Aref
2s
1
+ 2 cos 2 + 2
s
o o
+ 2 sin cos
sin
cos erf (b y s )d d
o o
+
+
2 cos
s
sin e
d d
o o
Tr 3 2
cos 1 cos 3 1
Ti 3 s
+ sin
sin
o
1
s2
erf (b y s ) d d
(7.3.17)
o o
(b y s )2
o o
sin cos e
(b y s )2
d d
C FTRAN = C FCONT
1
1
2
+ C F FM C FCONT sin
+
log 10 Kn
3
(7.4.1)
where, CF is the force coefficient and the subscripts TRAN, CONT
and FM refer to transition, continuum and free molecule flow
regimes respectively. The continuum values are usually based on
the Newtonian analysis. The above equation and its correlation with
the experimental data are discussed by Lott8.
Another similar empirical bridging formula suggested by
Blanchard9 is
C FTRAN = C FCONT + C F FM C FCONT sin 2 w
(7.4.2)
where
w = ( 3 + log 10 Kn ) / 8
201
202
CD =
(7.4.3)
C D fm C D i
Pn D
H
s * *
(7.4.4)
where
U = free stream velocity
= kinematic viscosity
1
s * =s (P F A /W A )2
= 0.63
H
H
s
H
( 0.2 H o + 0.5 H w )
CD = drag coefficient
CL =
C L C Li
C L fm C L i
(7.4.5)
(7.4.6)
CL
CD
2. 6
=
2 . 6 + Pn1L.6
2. 6
=
2 . 6 + P 1. 6
nD
0.5
0.5
(7.4.7)
(7.4.8)
(dE )
i tr
1
2
+ + +
n i u 2 + v 2 + w 2
v f u ,v , w
du dv dw dA
(7.5.1)
The result of the integration is
dE = i R T i
i tr
f
2
3 2
5
+ s2 +
2
s + 2
2
e s (s sin )
)]
(7.5.2)
203
204
(7.5.3)
{e
2
RT i
N i f = ni
( s sin )2
(s sin )
( 1 + erf s sin ) dA
(7.5.5)
( dE int ) f =
j
2
{e
m (R T i
( s sin )2
ni
)3 2
2
(s sin )
( 1 + erf s sin ) dA
(7.5.6)
(dE )
i
(RT )
3 2
= i
( s sin )2
e
s sin
s2 + 2 + j
) (1 + erf s sin ) s
5
2
j
dA
2
(7.5.7)
(dE i )r = i
(RT i )3 2
2
(s sin )
( s sin )2
j
2
s + 2 + 2
( 1 erf s sin ) s 2 + + dA
2 2
(7.5.8)
dE
= 1mn
w tr
wf
f
2
+V
+W
V f U ,V ,W
dU dV dW dA
(7.5.9)
On integration
dE
= 2 w
w tr
(RT )
w
3 2
dA
(7.5.10)
wf = i
T i (s sin )2
+
e
Tw
)]
(7.5.11)
3
dE = 2 i R
r tr
f
2
Tw f
Ti
)]
(s sin )2
(7.5.12)
205
206
(dE )
int
(7.5.13)
m R T w f N w f dA
j i R3
(dE int ) f =
{e
Tw f
2 2
( s sin
)2
Ti
(7.5.14)
The total energy of reflected molecules in equilibrium with
the surface is
(dE w )f
tr
+ dE w int
)f
= (dE w ) f
3
j i R
(dE w ) f = 2 +
2
Tw f
(7.5.15)
Ti
{e
( s sin )2
(7.5.16)
3
j i R
(dE w )r = 2 +
2
{e
( s sin ) 2
Tw r
Ti
(T )
wequ
Ti
1
j
2 +
2
j (s sin )2 2 5 j
2
+ s + + s sin [1 + erf (s sin )]
s + 2 + e
2
2
2
( s sin )2
e
(7.5.18)
(T )
wequ r
Ti
1
j
2 +
2
j (s sin )2 2 5 j
2
(s sin )2
s sin [1 erf (s sin )]
e
(7.5.19)
When both the front and rear surfaces are in perfect thermal
contact
Twequ
1
=
j
Ti
2 +
2
j (s sin )2 2 5 j
2
2
(s sin )
+ s sin erf (s sin )
e
(7.5.20)
207
208
Sphere
If the temperature Tw is constant over the entire surface of
the sphere then the expressions for incident and reflected energies
on an element of the sphere can be integrated to obtain the
equilibrium temperature. The elemental area chosen is identical to
the momentum calculation case. The result of the integration is
Tweq .
Ti
1
=
j
2+
2
j 1 3 j
2 5 j s2 3
s + + e
+ s + s 3 + + +
2 2
2 s 4 4
2
1
erf (s )
e s + s +
s
2
erf (s )
(7.5.21)
For a monatomic gas j = 0 and j =2 for a diatomic gas.
Cylinder
For the case of a cylinder having a constant surface
temperature, the energy transport equations for an elemental area
can be applied and integrated over the cylinder surface to get the
equilibrium temperature. The elemental area chosen for integration
is similar to the case of momentum transfer. The result is
Tweq
Ti
s2 4 2 7 j
s2
j
5s2 j s2
+
I o s + s + + 2 + + I 1 s 4 +
2
2
2
2
2 2
1 2
=
j
s2 2
s2 2
2+
I o s +1 + I 1 2 s
2
2
2
(7.5.22)
where, Io and I1 are modified Bessel functions of first kind, zero and
first order respectively.
7.5.2 Heat Transfer for Typical Bodies in Free Molecule Flow
The two non-dimensional parameters that are normally
used in heat transfer calculations are the thermal recovery factor
and the Stanton number. They are defined by
r =
Tw eq . Ti
Ttot . Tw
(7.5.23)
St =
A i V i c p Tw eq . Tw
(7.5.24)
dE i dE r
dE i dE w
Tw = T eq.
r =
( + 1)s
2
2s + 1
1+
209
210
{e
( +1)
St =
4 s
( s sin 2 )
(7.5.26)
r =
( + 1)s 2
1
2
2s + 1
2
(7.5.27)
St =
( + 1 )
4 s
{e (
s sin )2
(7.5.28)
Front and Rear Surfaces of the Flat Plate
It is assumed that the front and rear surfaces are in perfect
thermal contact and the plate temperature Tw is the same
throughout.
r =
( + 1)s 2
2
2s + 1
1+
(7.5.29)
St =
{e
( + 1)
4 s
( s sin )2
(7.5.30)
r =
( + 1)s 2
2
2
2
2
+ 2 1 + 2s 2
s
I
+
+
2
1
2
2
I
I
+
1
1
o
2
2
)]
[ (
)] I 1 2
(7.5.31)
St =
( + 1 )
4s
2
2
2
2
2
2
+ I1
1+ I o
2
2
(7.5.32)
2
2
and I 1
are modified Bessel
where, = s sin and I o
2
2
functions of the first kind, zero and first order respectively. The
area considered being the total curved surface area L d where L is
the length of the cylinder.
Sphere
2
2s + 1
r =
+1
s2
1
erf ( s )
2s
1
1
(
)
erf
s
1 + ierfc (s ) +
2
2s
) 1 + 1s ierfc (s ) + 2s
(7.5.33)
St =
( +1 )
8s
2
s + s ierfc ( s
)+
1
2
erf
( s )
(7.5.34)
where, ierfc = {1 erf (s)} dA is the complimentary error function
integrated over the total heat transfer area, d 2.
Cone at an angle of attack
Only the conical surface considered neglecting the base.
Q = L 2 i R Ti
+
R Ti tan
2 cos
+ 1 Tw
2
s +
1 2 ( 1 ) Ti
2
e ( s sin )
2
( s sin )2
e
(7.5.35)
211
212
Tw ( eq . )
Ti
=1 + r
( 1)
(7.5.36)
s2
q nfm
q fm
Tw
= 1 + 2
0.1414 s
2
s
Tw
12
Kn
(7.5.37)
r =
rc + Kn r fm
1 + Kn r fm
(7.5.38)
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
213
214
12.
Caruso, P.S. Jr. & Naegeli, C.R. Theoretical and empirical low
perigee aerodynamic heating during orbital flight of an
atmosphere explorer. Proc. of the 1976 Heat Transfer and
Fluid Mechanics Institute, Stanford University Press.
APPENDIX
2 16
EXECUTIVE
PROGRAM
SERVICE ROUTINES,
ERROR HANDLING, ETC.
READ SURFACE
PROPERTY DATA
CALCULATE
STREAMLINE
TRAJECTORIES
CALC
FRIC
INTEG
FRICT
SURFACE PRO
PERTY DATA SAVE
SKIN FR
FORCE
INTEGRA
FORCE DAT
Appendix 21 9
7
SHABP (DUD\)
-0.04 - - -
I
-0.08
-15.0
-1d.O
-5.0
0.0
I
I
5.01
10.
Appendix 221
0.20
----
I
I
0I
---h&kFor---Te-I
I
I
I
I
I
-I-
- - -f-
1
I
I
EXPT (TP246Y)
SHABP (TP 2487)
- - - - ySHxB~D(g-qDjj
---T---7---- t T C W (DRDL)1
0.10-
- - - -k-----+--
0.00-
-0..20
0
I
-15.0
I
I
I
-10.0
I
I
I
I
-5.0
i
I
I
0.0
5.0
10.0
.---
-----I----
I -
MACH NO 6 . 0 ~ -
-7----7
I
EXPT ( ~ 2467)
h
I
I
I
-I
I
I
I
Appendix 223
I
I
I
I
- - - - - _I
I MACH NO 6.0 I
I
I
SHABP ( D R D ~ )
T P n V (DRDL) I
I
I
I
-6-7
INDEX
A
Adiabatic wall 39
Aerodynamic
preliminary analysis II
(APAS II) 109
heating at hypersonic
speeds 67
performance 3
preliminary analysis II
(APAS II) 109
Aerodynamics 175
body-alone 34
wing alone 45
of rarefied gas flows 175
Ailerons 156
Analysis
drag buildup 96
APAS 97
code 156
APAS II 109
Aspect ratio 107
Asynchronous elevon deflection 150
Axial pressure coefficient 40
Circular cylinder 45
Compressibility factors 39
Compressible turbulent flow
62
Compression flow 46
Computation of
aerodynamic coefficients
98
Cone 16, 211
frustrum 195
Convective heating equation
83
Cylinder 42, 208,
D
DahlemBuck empirical 109
method 17
Delta wing emperical
method 14
Direct simulation monte
carlo technique 176
Double circular arc 56
226
Isentropic expansion 11
H
HABP 101, 108, 168, 215
predictions 158
Hankey flat surface empirical
method 17
Heat flux 69
transfer analysis 80
transfer coefficient 75
transfer methodology of
Tauber 87
Heating
analysis 67
rates cone flat plate 89
Hemisphere 45
Hemispherical nose 42
HYFAC 101
Hypersonic
impact methods 96
isolation principle 107
Mach numbers 110
rarefied transitional flow
202
speeds 67
research airplane 95, 110,
139
I
Inclined cone 109
Inviscid zero lift drag 108
L
Laminar flow 66, 78
Index
N
Newtonian & Prandtl-Meyer
model 10
Newtonian theory 6
North American X-15 110
O
OSU blunt body method 17
P
Pan air 97
Panel method 95
Pitching moment 52
coefficient predictions 149
characteristics 119
Planform area 107
Pointed
cone 40, 41, 44
ogive 42, 44
Potential flow theory 110
Prandtl number 71
Prandtl-Meyer expansion
108
flow 96
Prediction methods 95
Preliminary design analysis
158
Program
supersonic implicit marching (SIMP) 108
R
Ramp surface 9
Real time heating analysis
80
Recovery enthalpy 70
Reynolds
analogy factor 77
number 65
Rolling moment 149
Rudder 51
S
SHABP 215
Shuttle orbiter 109
SIMP 108
Single
parabolic arc 58
wedge 55
Skin friction
coefficient 37
forces 61
Slip & transitional
flow regime 212
flows 200
Solar radiation 68
Sommer-Short
estimate 108
skin friction estimate 108
Space shuttle orbiter 156
configuration 156
Spalding & Chi method 64
Sphere 194, 208
Spherical
nose 69
segment 198
Stagnation
density 71
enthalpy 70,74
line heat transfer 72
point 71
heat transfer 69,88
heating rate 80
temperature 71
Stanton number 77
Subsonic flow analysis 95
Sutherland law 71
Sutherland relation 79
Swept infinite cylinder 88
Swept wing 72
T
Tangent
cone 101
wedge 109
Tangential accommodation
coefficients 186
Taper ratio 107
Theory
2-D airfoil 25
227
228
theory in hypersonic
flows 25
Allen & Perkins viscous
cross flow 43
first order 18
linear 108
linear supersonic 96
modified Newtonian 7, 34
Newtonian 6
potential flow 110
Prandtl-Meyer 98
expansion 10
second order shock expansion 19, 168
SOSET 19
Shock expansion 18
tangent-cone 98
unified supersonic-hypersonic small disturbance
128
Van dyke unified 24
small disturbance 116
Thickness ratio 107
Transitional flow 176
U
Unified distributed panel
109
V
Validation 95
Vortex lattice method 95
W
Walker and Wolowicz
115, 138
Wedge 16
Wing
cone configuration 107
leading edge variations
107
sections 52
X
X-15 118, 168
Y
Yawing moment 138, 149