Chapter 1: Flow in Soil

Table of Contents
1.1 Capillary in soil, soil shrinkage & soil expansion
(Text book 9.9 & 9.10)
1.2 Head and flow of one and two dimensional
(Text book 8.2 & 8.3)
1.3 Seepage analyses (Text book 8.4 8.10)
1.4 Filter design (Text book 8.11)

1.1

Adapted from Dr. Lulies presentation slide

Adapted from Dr. Lulies presentation slide

1.1 Capillarity (continued)

Groundwater table (or phreatic surface) the level which

underground water will rise in an observation well, pit or

other open excavation in the earth
Soil beneath groundwater table filled with water
Soil moisture any water in soil located above the water
table
Capillary rise phenomenon which water rises above the
groundwater table against the pull of gravity but is in
contact with the water table as its source
Capillary moisture the water associated with capillary rise
Vadose zone the soil region directly above the water
table and wetted by capillary moisture

Water in Capillary Tubes

Basic principles of capillary rise in soils related to the

rise of water in glass capillary tubes

The rise attraction

between the water and
the glass and to a
surface tension, which
develops at the air-water
interface at the top of
the water column in the
capillary tube

Water in Capillary Tubes (continued)

Value of Ts for water varies according to

temperature
As temperature increases, the value of Ts
decreases, indicating a lessening height of capillary
rise under warm conditions
At room temperature, Ts for water = 0.064 N/m
At freezing, Ts for water = 0.067 N/m
In applying the development of capillary rise in
tubes to capillary rise in soils:
hc 31/d mm (McCarthy, D. F., 2002)
(*provided that d is in millimetres)

Water in Capillary Tubes (continued)

Question:
Compute the height of capillary rise for water in a tube
having a diameter of 0.05 mm (in SI units)

Solution:

4Ts
(4)( 0.064 N / m)
hc

0.52m
5
3
d w (5 x10 m)( 9.81kN / m )

Water in Capillary Tubes (continued)

The height of capillary rise is not affected by a slope or

inclination in the direction of the capillary tube, or by
variations in the shape and size of the tube at level below
the meniscus

Water in Capillary Tubes (continued)

Capillary rise is not limited to tube, or enclosed, shapes. If

two vertical glass plates are placed so that they touch along
one end and, form a V, a wedge of water will rise up in the
V because of the capillary phenomenon

Capillary rise in soil

Shapes of void spaces between solid particles are

unlike those in capillary tubes
Voids are of irregular and varying shape and size,
and interconnect in all directions, not only the
vertical
The features of capillary rise in tubes are
applicable to soils in so far as they facilitate an
understanding of factors affecting capillarity, and
help to establish an order of magnitude for
capillary rise in the different types of soils

Capillary rise in soil (continued.)

Question:
Limited laboratory studies indicate that for a certain silt soil, the
effective pore size for height of capillary rise is 1/5 of D10, where
D10 is the 10 percent particle size from the grain-size distribution
curve. If the D10 size for such a soil is 0.02mm, estimate the
height of capillary rise.

Solution:
d = effective capillary diameter = 1/5D10 = 1/5 (0.02 mm)
= 0.004 mm
hc 31/d 31/0.004 mm 7750 mm 7.75m

Capillary rise in soil (continued.)

Capillary
fringe

Capillary rise in soil (continued.)

Table : Representative heights of capillary rise:
water in soil

Soil Type

Meter (m)

Small gravel
Coarse sand
Fine sand

0.02-0.1
0.15
0.3 to 1

Silt
Clay

1 to 10
10 to 30

Soil shrinkage & soil swelling

1.2 Head and flow of one and two

dimensional

One- dimensional flow the velocity at all

points has the same direction and (for an
incompressible fluid) the same magnitude
Two-dimensional flow all streamlines in
the flow are plane curves and are identical
in a series of parallel planes

1.2 Head and flow of one and two

dimensional (continued)

(1)

(2)

1.3 Seepage analyses

1.3 Analysis of flow nets and seepage

Many catastrophic failures in geotechnical

engineering result from instability of soil
masses due to ground water flow
Lives are lost, infrastructures are damaged
or destroyed, and major economic losses
occurred
In this subchapter, you will study the basic
principles of two-dimensional flow of
water through soils

1.3 Analysis of flow nets and seepage

(continued)

The topics that you will study would help

you to avoid pitfalls in the analyses and
design of geotechnical systems where flow
of ground water can lead to instability
The emphasis of this chapter is on gaining
an understanding of the forces that
provoke failures from flow of ground water

1.3 Analysis of flow nets and seepage

(continued)
Learning Objectives:
Understand the basic principles of twodimensional flow
Be able to calculate seepage stresses, porewater pressure distribution, uplift forces,
hydraulic gradients, critical hydraulic gradient,
flow under and within earth structures
Be able to determine the stability of geotechnical
systems subjected to two-dimensional flow of
water

1.3.1 Basic Concepts

The two-dimensional flow of water through soils is

governed by Laplaces equation. The popular form of
Laplaces equation for two-dimensional flow of water
through soils is
2H
2H
kx
kz
0
x 2
z 2

Where kx and kz are the coefficient of permeability in the

x and z directions and H is the head
The assumptions in Laplaces equation are:
(i) Darcys law is valid
(ii) The soil is homogeneous and saturated
(iii) The soil and water are incompressible
(iv) No volume change occurs

1.3.1 Basic Concepts (continued)

If the soil were an isotropic material then kx = kz and

Laplaces equation becomes:
2H 2H
2 0
2
x
z

The solution of Laplaces equation requires knowledge of

the boundary conditions.
Common geotechnical problems have complex boundary
conditions from which it is difficult to obtain a closed
form solution.
Approximate methods such as graphical methods and
numerical methods are often employed.
In this subchapter, graphical method, called the flow net
technique or flow net sketching, that satisfies Laplaces
equation is discussed.

3.56 x 10-4

No of equipotential
drops at point a

Elevation loss

hpw

hpw

hpw

Uplift forces

Static Liquefaction, Heaving, Boiling, & Piping

Static liquefaction the state which the effective stress becomes

zero, the soil loses its strength and behaves like a viscous fluid
Boiling, quicksand, piping and heaving are used to describe
specific events connected to the static liquefaction state
Boiling the upward seepage force exceeds the download force
of the soil
Piping the subsurface pipe-shaped erosion that initiates near
the toe of dams and similar structures. High localized hydraulic
gradient statically liquefies the soil, which progresses to the
water surface in the form of a pipe, and water then rushes
beneath the structure through the pipe, leading to instability and
failure
Quicksand existence of a mass of sand in a state of static
liquefaction
Liquefaction can be produced by dynamic events such as
earthquakes

Piping

Piping (continued)
The risk of piping can occur in several
circumstances, such as a cofferdam (a) or the
downstream end of a dam (b)
In order to increase the factor of safety against
piping in these cases two methods can be
adopted
(1) increase the depth of pile penetration in (a)
and inserting a sheet pile at the heel of the dam
in (b); in either case there is an increase in the
length of the flow path of the water with a
resulting drop in the excess pressure at the
critical section.

Piping (continued)
A similar effect is achieved by laying down
a blanket of impermeable material for
some length along the upstream ground
surface
(2) To place a surcharge or filter apron on
top of the downstream side, the weight of
which increases the downward forces

Example:-

Others phenomenon: Quick sand,

Frost heave in soils, liquefaction

Quicksand

Dreaded quicksand condition occurs where a

sand or cohesionless silt deposit is subjected to
the seepage force caused by upward flow of
groundwater
The upward gradient of the water is sufficient to
hold the soil particles in suspension, in effect
creating a material with the properties of a
heavy liquid
Elimination of seepage pressure will return the
soil to a normal condition capable of providing
support

Frost heave in soils

When freezing temperatures develop in a soil mass, most of the

pore water in the soil is also subject to freezing. As water
cystallizes, its volume expands approximately 9 percent
In considering void ratios and the degree of saturation for soils,
expansion of a soil material as a result of freezing might be
expected to be on the order of 3 or 4 percent of the original
volume

Frost heave in soils (continued)

In the normal frost heave occurrence, the source of water is the

groundwater table
Upward movement from a water table to the freezing zone
relates to a potential for migration (capillary rise)
Height of capillary rise is quite limited in clean, coarse-grained
soil

Soil liquefaction

1.4 Filter design

Text book sec: 8.11

End of Chapter 1