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7 AUTHORS, INCLUDING:
Lisa Michele Barnett
Vitor P. Lopes
Deakin University
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Eva D'Hondt
Ghent University
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REVIEW ARTICLE
Key Points
123
1 Introduction
Promoting and sustaining health-enhancing physical
activity (PA), health-related physical fitness (HRF), and
healthy body weight in children and adolescents is a global
pursuit. Over the past few decades, a wealth of research has
been conducted in an attempt to alleviate the disturbing
trends in these health domains. However, research indicates that these interventions have had limited success [1
4]. Largely unexplored is the understanding of how the
development of multiple health-related variables may
synergistically impact each other to promote either positive
or negative trajectories of health. Conceptualizing this
complex problem using a developmental framework may
provide valuable insight as to why researchers have had
limited success in increasing PA and HRF and decreasing
obesity rates.
In 2008, Stodden et al. [5] suggested that previous
research had failed to consider the dynamic and synergistic role that motor competence (MC) plays in the
initiation, maintenance, or decline of physical activity
(p. 90). Motor competence is a global term used in this
paper to reflect various terminologies that have been used
in previous literature (i.e., motor proficiency, motor performance, fundamental movement/motor skill, motor
ability, and motor coordination) to describe goal-directed
human movement. Using a unique developmental
approach, a conceptual model was proposed by Stodden
et al. [5] that addresses the potential role the development
of MC may have on promoting either positive or negative
Fig. 1 Developmental model
proposed by Stodden et al. [5]
hypothesizing developmental
relationships between motor
competence, health-related
physical fitness, perceived
motor competence, physical
activity, and risk of obesity. EC
early childhood, MC middle
childhood, LC late childhood.
Reprinted from Stodden et al.
[5] with permission from Taylor
& Francis (http://www.
tandfonline.com)
123
trajectories of PA and weight status (see Fig. 1). In addition, HRF and perceived motor competence were suggested
as mediating variables in the model. While different causal
pathways are hypothesized across different phases of
childhood, the development of reciprocal relationships and
increasing strengths of associations among the variables
across time are critical assumptions within this model. The
synergistic nature of relationships among variables is suggested to promote either positive or negative trajectories of
PA, HRF, and weight status across childhood and into adolescence. Ultimately, the lack of an adequate foundation of
MC may be linked to a hypothetical proficiency barrier [6]
where low-MC individuals may not demonstrate health-enhancing levels of PA and HRF later in life [7]. These lowskilled individuals may also be at greater risk for obesity
across childhood and adolescence. Overall, the model provides a testable framework focusing on multiple individual,
behavioral, and psychological constraints.
It is imperative to note that indirect support for the
development of actual MC is evident in many theoretical
models as it relates to the development of positive healthenhancing behaviors across the lifespan. When examining
health behavior change, prominent theories consider an
individuals psychological disposition to be physically
active. Many of these theories, including Self-Determination Theory [8], Achievement Goal Theory [9], Theory of
Planned Behavior [10], the Transtheoretical Model [11],
and Social Cognitive Theory [12], address some form of an
individuals perceptions of competence, physical
123
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123
Many authors have stressed the crucial need for longitudinal and experimental research to examine a possible
antecedent/consequent mechanism between MC and
weight status. One explanation is that excess mass impedes
stabilization and/or propulsion of the body, promoting
lower actual and perceived MC, which decreases the
likelihood of overweight/obese individuals being physically active [59, 8285]. It has been suggested that the
weight status of infants (i.e., being overweight) is related to
motor development impairment [86]. Likewise, body mass
index was noted to be an important predictor of future MC
in childhood [85, 87]. Alternatively, childrens MC level
was also suggested to be a significant predictor of adiposity
[85, 8890]. Unfortunately, no experimental designs can
corroborate causal pathways.
Diverse pathways of MC across childhood and adolescence are associated with higher or lower levels of PA, and
that pathway also may assist in the development of differential trajectories of weight status over time. Most
studies reporting an adverse association between MC and
weight status did not adjust for PA, but when PA was taken
into account its role turned out to be rather limited [84, 85,
88, 91]. A longitudinal study by DHondt et al. [87]
demonstrated an increasingly wide gap in gross motor
coordination, with overweight and obese children showing
poor MC as well as reduced age-related progress compared
with normal-weight peers. Childrens body mass index at
baseline negatively predicted and explained 37.6 % of the
variance in gross motor coordination over time, while
participation in organized sports were a positive predictor.
DHondt et al. [85] also found that the level of MC
6 Future Directions
Overall, there is a strong consensus that MC is positively
associated with all health-related variables within the
model [5]. Based on the research that has been published
Mediated via
Perceived
Competence
Posive
Physical Acvity
Motor
Competence
Inverse
Weight Status
Health Related
Fitness
Mediated via
123
since 2008 (see Fig. 2), the model hypotheses have initial
empirical support. Data for some pathways are stronger
than others, and some pathways have yet to be tested.
Emerging evidence also indicates increasing strength in
associations between MC and weight status (inverse) and
HRF (direct) across childhood into adolescence, while
associations between MC and PA and perceived competence are variable across time. In addition, perceived
competence has been identified as a potential mediator (as
noted in the model) in the MC and PA pathway.
To promote future research as it relates to Fig. 2, several
model hypotheses have yet to be confirmed and warrant
exploration. The original model [5] situated HRF as a
mediator between MC and PA. This is yet to be confirmed
empirically. Perceived motor competence was also situated
as a mediator and there is emerging evidence of this
hypothesis, although further research could seek to explore
this aspect further. Whilst research on perceived physical
competence (in terms of general physical perceptions) and
actual MC has been conducted, there is less research on
perceived MC and actual MC, so the specificity of these
relationships could be further investigated. In terms of MC
and PA, future studies may wish to examine different
contexts of PA. It seems plausible that MC will only be
related to discrete time periods for PA, and perhaps the
nature of the association between MC/PA is diluted by
examining daily averages of PA outcomes (which includes
periods such as school that tend to encourage sedentary
behavior). For example, weekday and weekend variations
[44], or focusing on segments on the day that are critical
periods for PA such as recess and afterschool [93], may help
to further illuminate the relationship between MC and PA.
Following the developmental underpinnings of this
model, data from a few studies indicate that object control/manipulation skills may be more salient predictors of
PA [26, 93] and HRF [48, 52, 53] in later childhood and
early adolescence. However, data support that locomotor
skills are critical during the early childhood years for PA
[33, 94]. This aligns with motor development literature, as
locomotor skills generally develop earlier than object
control/manipulation/ball skills. Further examination of
this question is important, as some MC assessments are
limited in their testing of object control/manipulation skills
(i.e., Korperkoordination Test fur Kinde, Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency). In addition, measurement
issues are important to address, as a wide variety of PA,
MC, perceived competence, and weight status assessments
are used in the literature, which makes it difficult to
accurately ascertain the strength of associations across age.
However, longitudinal data [39, 42, 85, 87] provide valuable insight on the hypothesized positive or negative
developmental trajectories of PA, HRF, and weight status
based on the tracking of MC levels.
123
7 Conclusions
Based on the increased interest of the scientific community
and data linking MC to various aspects of health across
childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood, further
testing of the specific hypotheses (i.e., differential trajectories and causal pathways) within the model is warranted.
We believe this approach should continue to be tested,
modified, or adapted to examine its feasibility and predictive utility. As noted in many cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, demonstrating antecedent/consequent
relationships among variables in the model remains speculative without well-conducted experimental evidence.
Interventions targeting young children should be initiated
during the early childhood years, as MC and PA behaviors
should be established early in life and they often track into
the adult years.
Collectively, childrens physical and psychological
development is a complex labyrinth of biological, environmental, psychosocial, and behavioral factors that synergistically
evolve
across
developmental
time.
Additionally, the rationale for causal pathways in the
model may not be unidirectional across time. These are two
critical features that separate it from other theoretical
models that are used as paradigms to promote various
aspects of health. Understanding the most salient factors
that influence health and well-being of individuals and how
relationships among these factors change across time is a
worthwhile endeavor that should be approached in both a
developmental and a systematic manner.
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