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Quantitative Research Laboratory, ITOCHU Technology, Inc., 317 Madison Avenue, Suite 1100, New York, NY 10017, USA
Earth Engineering Center and Department of Earth and Environmental Engineering (Henry Krumb School of Mines), Columbia University, 500 West 120th Street,
Room 926 Mudd Building, New York, NY 10027, USA
b
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 19 November 2008
Received in revised form
31 October 2009
Accepted 14 December 2009
Available online 22 January 2010
Numerical analysis of the mixing of municipal solid waste (MSW) particles as they travel on the grate of
a mass-burn waste-to-energy (WTE) combustion chamber is necessary for understanding the parameters
that control the combustion processes and designing the grate. In order to characterize the heterogeneous
particle behavior, a 2-dimensional stochastic model of MSW particle mixing within a WTE combustion
bed was developed. This model was calibrated and validated by means of a full-scale physical model of the
Martin reverse acting grate, using tracer particles of sizes ranging from 6 to 22 cm. It was found that
different particle sizes result in different residence times according to the Brazil Nut Effect (BNE). The
motion of the reverse acting grate, in the speed range of 15e90 reciprocations/h, increases the mean
residence time of small and medium particles by 69% and 8%, respectively and decreases that of large
particles by 19%. Also, within this speed range, the mixing diffusion coefcient of each particle size was
quantied. The ratio of particle diameter to the height of moving bar, d/h, was found to be a major
parameter for the mixing diffusion coefcient and the particle residence time at reciprocation speeds
exceeding 30 recip./h. Based on these quantitative results and the local MSW particle size distribution, the
grate motion and the moving bar height can be designed for optimum operation.
2009 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Waste-to-energy (WTE)
Stochastic analysis
Municipal solid waste (MSW)
Particle-based mixing model
Brazil nut effect (BNE)
Residence time distribution (RTD)
1. Introduction
Since municipal solid wastes (MSW) are extremely heterogeneous, the complex behavior of various MSW particles on the
traveling grate of a mass-burn waste-to-energy (WTE) combustion
chamber is one of the main concerns for controlling the combustion
process. The movements of particles depend on MSW properties
(such as particle size, shape, density, etc.), geometric parameters
(such as design of grate system), and operational parameters (feed
rate and reciprocation speed of moving bars). Therefore, modeling
the behavior of each MSW particle is very complicated. Some
important studies of mixing phenomena on a traveling grate have
been conducted in the past, but they have not considered the
importance of the size distribution of MSW particles.
The combustion chamber was considered as a combination of
several continuously stirred reactors (CSRs) by Beckmann and
* Corresponding author at: Quantitative Research Laboratory, ITOCHU Technology, Inc., 317 Madison Avenue, Suite 1100, New York, NY 10017, USA. Tel.: 1 646
862 6961; fax: 1 212 308 7886.
E-mail addresses: nakamura@itochu.net, mn2028@columbia.edu (M.R. Nakamura).
1290-0729/$ e see front matter 2009 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2009.12.006
Nomenclature
uf
d
D
Rr
S(0)
n
S(n)
P
F
k
t
t
h
985
986
6.4 m
1.0 m
Inlet
Feed MSW
Outlet
Discharge Ash
32 zones
5 layers
1 2
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
A
B
C
IInlet
l t
Ash Bin
0.20 m
0.20 m
Fig. 2. MSW bed on the reverse acting grate of a WTE plant showing divided cells (mesh) for the stochastic simulation.
2 i 162
162
Layer A
Layer A
Layer B
F=
Layer C
Layer D
Layer E
Layer B
Layer C
Layer D
Layer E
Inl.
31 32
31 32
31 32
31 32
31 32
Out
Inl.
02
0.2
31
32
0.2
31
32
0.2
31
32
0
0
0.2
31
32
0.2
31
32
Out 0
162
987
Cell i-32
pi, i-32
Cell i-1
Cell i+1
Cell i
pi, i-1 p
i, i
pi, i+32
pi,
i+1
Cell
i+ 3 2
32 sections
5 layers
A
B
C
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
p1, 2
p1, 34
p1, 66
. 32 33
34 35
. 64 65
66 67
. 96 97
p1, 98
98 99
. 128 129
130 131 .
. 160 161
p1, 130
1 2
p33, 162
p65, 162
p97, 162
162
p129, 162
p161, 162
Cell #
Cell #
Fig. 4. The corresponding cells and directions to the elements of the ow matrix F and transition matrix P.
3. Mathematical model
During the tracer tests using the physical model shown in Fig. 1,
MSW particles are not changing in size (no burning) since this is
a cold model. The stochastic process employed in the mathematical
model is called a Markov Chain and it assumes that, at each
reciprocation of the moving bars, the transition probabilities of the
waste particles between adjacent cells are independent of the
previous state in time. The rule governing the particle migration of
the system is expressed by the following equation:
Sn F k $P $S0
(1)
pi,i-1 : probability that particle moves to its neighboring cell (in opposition to the direction)
pi,i+1 : probability that particles move to the neighbor cell (flow direction)
162
Layer A
Inl.
Layer A
Layer B
P=
Layer C
Layer D
Layer E
31
Layer B
32
Inl.
pi,i
pi,i+1
pi,j
pi,j
31
pi,j = 0
Layer C
32
31
Layer D
32
31
Layer E
32
31
32
Out
2
0
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,i-1
pi,i
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,i-1
pi,i+1
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
31
pi,j
pi,j
pi,i
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
32
pi,j
pi,j
pi,i-1
pi,i
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pin
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,i
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,i-1
pi,i
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,i-1
pi,i+1
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
31
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,i
pi,i+1
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
32
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,i-1
pi,i
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pin
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,i
pi,i+1
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,i-1
pi,i
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,jj
pi,jj
pi,jj
pi,jj
pi,jj
pi,i-1
i-1
pi,i+1
pi,jj
pi,jj
pi,jj
pi,jj
pi,jj
31
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,i
pi,i+1
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
32
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,i-1
pi,i
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pin
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,i
pi,i+1
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,i-1
pi,i
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,i-1
pi,i+1
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
162
31
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,i
pi,i+1
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
32
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,i-1
pi,i
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pin
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,i
pi,i+1
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,i-1
pi,i
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,i-1
pi,i+1
pi,j
31
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,i
pi,i+1
32
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,j
pi,i-1
pi,i
Out
pi, j = 0
988
to the inlet position for these 4 cells. All other pi,j are equal to zero.
Since an MSW ow greatly depends on the type of feeding system
and chamber geometry, further study is needed to determine the
elements of ow matrix F, specic to the particular operational
conditions.
P is the transition matrix that contains the probabilities predicting the solid particle movement due to the motion of the
reciprocation bars. As shown in Fig. 5, the size of the transition
matrix is 162-by-162 including a total of 26,244 probabilities, same
size of ow matrix F. The main diagonal (p1,1, p2,2,.., pi,i, ., p162,162)
elements represent the probabilities that the MSW particles remain
in the same cell. As also shown in Fig. 4, pi,i1 is the probability that
the particle transits from cell i to the neighbor cell i 1 (along the
ow direction) and pi,ie1 is the probability from cell i to cell ie1
(opposite to the ow direction). pi,i32 is the probability that the
particle moves to the cell in the layer directly below the current cell
location(from cell i to cell i 32) and pi,ie32 is the probability that it
moves to the cell in the neighboring layer above (from cell i to cell
ie32). It should be noted that the probabilities in the transition
matrix P are always positive fractions and the sum of the elements
within each row of the matrix P equals one.
Since all of the solid waste enters at the inlet of the combustion
chamber, the initial state vector S(0) can be formulated as:
S0 1
0
(2)
Inlet
(S)
12 small particles in
layer B, C, E, and F
Outlet
(M)
12 medium particles
in layer
B, C, E, and F
1 0 pa rt ic l es in
layer D and E
(L)
12 large particles in
layer B, C, and E
1 1 par t ic l es in
layer C and D
32 sections
1 1 p ar t icl es in
layer B and C
Fig. 7. Visualization of particle path motion as a function of size: small particles (S), medium particles (M), and large (L) particles.
989
64 min for traveling the total chamber length of 6.4 m (32 cells):
i.e. 2 min/cell. In order to carry out the matrix calculations
required in this stochastic simulation, MATLAB 7.1 was used on
a Windows XP PC.
C Diagram
Plug Flow
Small
Medium
Large
3
2.5
2
t
1.5
=51min.
large-90
=69min.
medium-90
05
0.5
t
=106min.
small-90
0
20
40
60
80
100
Residence Time t (minutes)
120
140
F Diagram
1
Dimens ionles s Cumulative Conc entrationF
35
3.5
Plug Flow
Small
Medium
Large
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
t
0.3
=51min.
large-90
0.2
t
0.1
0
20
40
=69min.
medium-90
60
80
100
Residence Time t (minutes)
=106min.
small-90
120
140
Fig. 9. C (top) and F diagrams (bottom) for small, medium, and large particles with
a reciprocation speed of 90 recip./h.
990
condition, particles, whose size are less than the grate height, can
easily drop into the empty space left by reciprocating bars as they
move. Larger particles are less likely to drop into this newly created
vacancy because their comparatively larger size offers more
opposition to easily slipping into this limited empty space. After
several reciprocations of moving bars, the size segregation appears
a small particles
F Diagram
C Diagram
Plug Flow
30 recip. /h
60 recip. /h
3.5
90 recip /h
3
2.5
t =63min.
0
2
t =64min.
1.5
15
t =68min.
30
t =106min.
90
t =82min.
0.5
Plug Flow
0.9
15 recip. /h
4.5
60
15 recip. /h
30 recip. /h
0.8
60 recip. /h
0.7
90 recip /h
0.6
0.5
0.4
t =63min.
0.3
0.2
t =64min.
t =106min.
15
90
t =82min.
0.1
t =68min.
68min.
60
30
0
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Residence Time t (minutes)
110
0
40
120
50
60
70
80
90
100
Residence Time t (minutes)
110
120
b medium particles
F Diagram
C Diagram
1
Dimens io nless Cumulative Con centrationF
Plug Flow
4.5
Dimen sionless Exit Con centra tionC
15 recip. /h
4
30 recip. /h
60 recip. /h
3.5
90 recip. /h
3
2.5
2
t =63min.
63
0
1.5
t =65min.
30
t =62min.
15
t =67min.
60
t =69min.
90
0.5
0
40
50
60
70
80
Residence Time t (minutes)
90
Plug Flow
0.9
15 recip. /h
0.8
30 recip. /h
60 recip. /h
0.7
90 recip. /h
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
t =63min.
0
0.2
0.1
15
0
40
100
t =65min.
30
t =67min.
60
t =69min.
t =62min.
90
50
60
70
80
Residence Time t (minutes)
90
100
c large particles
C Diagram
F Diagram
1
Dimens io nless Cumulative Con centrationF
Plug Flow
4.5
Dimen sionless Exit Con centra tionC
15 recip. /h
4
30 recip. /h
60 recip. /h
3.5
90 recip. /h
3
2.5
2
t =58min.
t =61min.
30
15
1.5
t =54min.
1
0.5
0
20
60
t =63min.
0
t =51min.
90
30
40
50
60
70
Residence Time t (minutes)
80
90
100
Plug Flow
0.9
15 recip. /h
0.8
30 recip. /h
60 recip. /h
0.7
90 recip. /h
06
0.6
t =58min.
30
0.5
t =54min.
60
0.4
0.3
t =61min.
15
t =51min.
90
0.2
t =63min.
0
0.1
0
20
30
40
50
60
70
Residence Time t (minutes)
80
90
100
Fig. 10. C and F diagrams for (a) small, (b) medium, and (c) large particles: Dimensionless exit concentration C (left) and Dimensionless cumulative concentration F (right) versus
residence time (min) with different reciprocation speeds ranging from 15 to 90 recip./h.
Fig. 9 shows the residence time distribution (RTD, dimensionless concentration versus residence time t) for small, medium, and
large particles for a grate speed of 90 reciprocation/h. Residence
time distributions of owing materials were originally dened by
Levenspiel [11]. The motion of the reverse acting grate increases the
mean residence time of small and medium particles by 106 min
(68%) and 69 min (9%), respectively, while decreasing that of large
particles by 51 min (17%). In addition, two peaks of residence time
distributions for small particles prominently appeared when the
reciprocation speed exceeded 30 recip./h. As we discussed earlier, it
is reasonable that the difference of mean residence times with size
comes from the following reasons: (1) Small and medium particles
are pushed by the reverse acting grate because their diameters are
nearly the same or smaller than the height of the moving bars, h. (2)
Larger particles are less likely to be caught by the grate so that their
motion is less likely to be in opposition to the ow direction. (3) A
mode of transport, rolling down the top surface along the ow
direction, is available exclusively to those particles near the free
surface of the bed. These two opposing motions at the bottom and
the surface of the bed enhance MSW particle mixing and are
responsible for the different residence time distributions. Due to
the particle motion behavior (1)e(3), a vertical selectivity mechanism known as the BNE develops that tends to keep small particles
in the bottom of the MSW bed. This effect is manifested by the
presence of two peaks that appear only in the residence time exit
concentration distributions of the small particles. The full data set
of RTDs (C and F diagrams) for grate speed ranging from 15 to
90 recip./h is shown in Fig. 10.
Fig. 11 shows the mixing diffusion coefcient D for different
particle sizes and grate reciprocation speeds Rr. The mixing diffusion coefcient D for all particle sizes increases linearly for speeds
up to 30 recip./h. The D for medium particles has a weak linear
relationship with Rr, throughout the entire speed range from 0 to
90 recip./h. In contrast, the coefcient D for large particles increases
at a much slower rate and reaches a value of about 45 cm2/min
when the reciprocation speed reaches 90 recip./h. For small particles D increases exponentially to 192 cm2/min. When Rr < 30 recip./h,
these relationships of grate reciprocation speeds Rr and mixing
diffusion coefcient D can be described as follows:
8 2 h
< a d Rr db
h
DRr ; d; h
: d 2 hd
a h Rr
if d < h
(3)
if d h
991
Table 1
Mixing diffusion coefcient with different densities (full-scale test) [7].
Material
Density (kg/m3)
D (cm2/min)
Kaowool boards
Insulation bricks
Refractory bricks
225
480
770
109
88
27
Fig. 11. Mixing diffusion coefcients versus grate reciprocation speed for different
particle sizes.
992
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