Professional Documents
Culture Documents
August 2011
USER
GUIDE ON
PIG HUSBANDRY
National Agricultural
Advisory Services
Pig Husbandry
PIG HUSBANDRY
Pigs are kept for the production of pork and bacon. Most breeds, if properly
managed and fed are capable of producing either pork or bacon. The pig industry in
Uganda is characterized by low input low-output poorly managed pig production
enterprises. Small-scale producers in the rural areas have largely sustained the
industry. These producers keep on average 2-5 pigs under very poor hygienic and
management conditions. There are just a few commercial pig farmers in the country.
Unlike the dairy and beef industries, the pig industry has largely been unable to
attract any foreign and internal investment. This has been exacerbated by the
high costs of inputs especially in intensive pig production. The major constraints
to production include; diseases and parasites, poor breeding, capital investment,
inadequate advisory services, inadequate research, lack of organized marketing, lack
of processing plants and poor product quality.
Why do we keep pigs?
Pigs grow very rapidly from 1.5kg at birth to 90kg in 170 days only
Pigs can be raised on small land especially where land holdings are small
They produce many young ones.You can raise 20 pigs from one female pig
(sow) in a year
Pig production has low labour requirements.
Pigs are mainly fed on maize and other grains and root tubers which can
normally be bought at very low prices during peak seasons of harvesting.
Pigs can also be raised on pasture and other crop residues and agroindustrial by products
Pigs give quick returns on your investment
Pig Husbandry
b) Landrace
Has drooping ears, white in colour with long and big body. It has a long
straight snout. It is commonly crossed with the large white
c) Duroc breed
It is mahogany to red in colour. Has good mothering ability. It is resistant to
stress and is adaptable to various environmental conditions. It is very useful
in crossbreeding programmes.
d) Crosses
It is common to find crosses of Largewhite and Landrace. These crosses
are very good when used as sows for breeding
Selection of pigs for breeding
Select good gilts from sows of a superior breed that wean 9-10 piglets per
litter and that are known to be good mothers.
Selected gilts should have at least 12-14 teats so that a large litter can be
easily nursed.
Gilts should be healthy with strong legs and well developed body and thigh
muscles
Beginners in pig farming are advised to start with about 1-2 gilts/sows and
progress as more experience and skill is gained
Pig Husbandry
Management of pigs
Housing
Before you venture into pig production decide on the management system
you would wish to practice depending on the resources available. Both semiintensive and intensive systems will require pigs to be housed.
Housing is very important in pig production for the following reasons:
o It helps in disease and parasite control
o It reduces the labour in husbandry and management tasks
like feeding and handling
o It protects the pigs from harsh environmental and climatic
conditions
o Housing keeps out unnecessary intruders
o The pigs are easily observed when housed
Pig houses.
Pig Husbandry
sheets etc. These are expensive but are the best to use because they are
more long lasting.
Whatever material you use for the construction of a pig house it is advisable to use
concrete for the floor or to compact the floor hard.
Your pig house should besides the common pens have a farrowing pen (place
where the sow delivers).This should be clean, disinfected, dry and warm before
farrowing. Leave it for at least 7 days before sow is moved in. Provide fine
bedding e.g. shavings, sour grass, sawdust, sand or bagasse etc. It should be
maintained dry and soft.
Day of farrowing
Many piglets die at this time. Up to 35% of your piglets born alive may die
before weaning. The commonest causes of death at this stage are due to:
o Crushing of piglets by the mother
o Starvation
o Born weak
o Diarrhea
o Chilling (cold) etc.
6
Pig Husbandry
Management of piglets
o Once farrowing is completed make sure all piglets are nursing. Any
excess piglets for the number of functional teats should be transferred
to another sow. If there is no other sow, bottle feed with cows milk
sweetened with glucose. Transfer at 3-4 days of age without masking
odours.
o Clip the needle teeth, cut the navel cord leaving about 2.5 - 3.5cm
(1-1.5 inches) of which should be dipped in a 7% iodine solution.
o After 2-3 days treat piglets for anaemia with 2-3ml of injectable iron.
o Provide creep feed at 7 days of age. Change feed daily.
o Treat with iron again after 2 weeks.
o Deworm after 3-5 weeks and then move sow and piglets to nursery.
If litters are mixed in a nursery, litters should not be more than one
week difference in age and do not mix more than four litters per pen.
o Wean at 56 days (8 weeks).
o Remember to remove the sow from the piglets and not vice versa.
o Deworm piglets regularly
o Spray them for lice and mange mites prior to moving them out of
nursery at 7-8 weeks.
o Replace the sow after the 6th litter or after 4-5 years of age. If its
production is still good, leave it until its production falls below the
average of the herd.
o Seek advice from your extension worker/veterinarian wherever
possible.
Pig Husbandry
Piglets
Pig Husbandry
Health
Always keep your pigs healthy and look out for signs of disease.
Common diseases of pigs
Disease
Clinical signs
Treatment
Control
African swine
fever
Attempt control
measures only
Restrict movement
of pigs or meat
from affected areas.
Slaughter of all pigs
on the affected
farm followed by
disinfection.
Worms
Poor performance of
the pigs with low growth
rate, coughing in case of
lungworms
Antihelmintics
like Levamisol
and Piperazine
Mastitis,
Metritis and
Agalactia
(MMA)
Use antibiotics
and oxytocin
Good hygiene in
the pig pen
Piglet
anaemia
Give ferrous
sulphate
injections
or oral
formulations
Pig Husbandry
Slaughter
of pigs in
the affected
houses.
vaccination
Foot and
Mouth
Disease
Advisable to
institute control
Swine
erysipelas
Penicillin is very
effective and
is the drug of
choice
Mange
Use Ivomectin
(Ivomec),
tactic at
recommended
dosage levels
Lice
Use insecticides
like Ivomec and
tactic-acaricide
Routine spraying
with tactic or
treatment with
tactic
Parakeratosis
Give zinc
formulations
like zinc
carbonate or
zinc sulphate
NB:
For details on treatment of these diseases and others, consult a
veterinarian.
Keeping records
Records are essential for monitoring both technical and economic efficiency. They
should cover the following aspects;
boar performance
sow productivity
weaner growth
grower/finisher efficiency
10
F A R M I N G
P I G
Sustainable Livelihoods
for Rural Youth Project
Pig Farming
Breeding and keeping pigs for income and
food in the Solomon Islands
Russ Grayson
CONTENTS
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Farming pigs in the village . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
How to keep pigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types of pigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Breeding pigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pig houses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Feeding pigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Managing your pigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vi
1
6
8
10
11
19
24
CASE STUDIES: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
Maluu farmer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kwailabu village farmer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ferasubua village . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suvaa bay free range system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
30
34
37
Introduction...
Keeping pigs
Choose a pig keeping system that suits you.
Breeding pigs
Pigs must be selected carefully for breeding. Select types that suit
the hot tropical climate of the Solomon Islands. The Solomon Island
bush pig can be bred with imported varieties to produce a strong,
productive animal.
Pig houses
Pigs need shelter from the hot sun, rain and cold wind. A house with
a slatted or a concrete oor is best. Pigs kept in pens where the soil
gets muddy will get worms.
Feeding pigs
Like people, pigs need a balanced diet with the right amount of body
building (protein), energy (carbohydrate) and protective (vitamins
and minerals) food. Giving them plenty of food and water will make
them put on weight quickly and will get them ready for market.
We can grow much of their food in a pig food garden near the pig
house.
Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT
Income
selling for money,
breeding more pigs
Kastom
feast, bride price,
compensation
Glossary
This glossary was produced by John Faleka, Department of
Agriculture adviser.
breeding: the process of mating a male and female pig to produce
piglets
piglet: baby pigs of both sexes
gilt: a female pig that has not mated
boar: a male pig capable of mating
litter: a set of young pigs born at the same time
manure: waste from the pigs body
castration: removal of the scrotum of the young male pig
farrow: a sow giving birth to piglets
gestation: the period a female pig is pregnant (three to four
months)
lactation: the period after farrow when the sow produces milk for
its piglets
heat period: the time during which a female pig will accept a male
pig
grower: a person who grows pigs of both sexes
connement feeding: pigs kept and fed in a pen without being let
outside
weaner: a piglet removed from its mother at eight weeks
sow: a mother pig after having its rst litter
feed: pig food
Parts of a pig
Different breeds of pigs grow to different sizes and have different
colours and hair.
All pigs are covered in hair and use their snout for digging in the
soil for roots and worms.
ears
neck
shoulder
back
loins
rump
tail
eyes
snout
ham
jaw
forearm
shank
hoof
dewclaw
teats
hock
Notes
Pigs need a balanced, mixed diet made up of the three
food groups:
energy foods (carbohydrate)
body building foods (protein)
protective foods (vitamins and minerals).
Bought food is expensive. We save money if we grow
food for our pigs. Food can be grown in a pig food
garden near our pig house.
Water
Shelter
A clean house and pen The pig house must be cleaned regularly.
This stops the pigs becoming sick.
Space
Health care
TYPES OF PIGS
Two types of pig are found in the
Solomon Islands:
local breeds
introduced breeds.
These have been cross-bred to
produce pigs with the best qualities
of both.
Common breeds
The most common breeds found in the Solomon Islands include:
Duroc round, brown body with oppy ears
Land Race long, white body with oppy ears
Large White long, white body with erect ears
Large Black long, black body with erect ears
Bush pig smaller, grey/ patchy coloured body with long head
and snout
local cross-breeds bush pig cross-bred with imported pig.
Large white/
Large black
long, white or black
body with erect ears
Bush pig
smaller, grey/
patchy coloured
body with long
snout, thick
hair coat
BREEDING PIGS
Select breeds that are suitable for the hot, tropical climate of the
Solomon Islands. This includes local breeds.
Introduced breed lines that have been cross-bred with local breeds
should be adapted to the climate. They combine the hardiness of
local breeds with the productivity of imported breeds.
Breeds that are established in the Solomon Islands and that have
adapted to local conditions include:
Land Race
Duroc
Large Black
Large White
local breeds.
10
PIG HOUSES
The pig house provides shelter for your pigs and piglets.
There are different ways that pigs can be kept:
pigs may be kept in a house all the time
pigs may be kept in a yard (called a pen) a shelter in the pen
will be necessary to protect pigs from rain, sun and cold wind;
the shelter will have to be big enough to house all the pigs in the
pen.
Keeping pigs in a house all the time makes management easier. The
pigs can easily be fed, checked for disease and the house cleaned.
Pigs of the same size should be kept together so the bigger pigs do
not get all their food.
11
12
Materials
Use bush materials, especially sago palm for the roof, to build your
pig house. This saves money. Make sure the oors and walls are
strong.
The roof of the pig house can be made of galvanised iron or leaf.
Leaf roofs cost less.
13
14
15
nails: 3 - 1kg
garden for
growing
pig food
concrete oor
Concrete oor pig
houses last a long time
and are easy to clean
16
A pig house with a leaf roof and strong walls made of wooden planks. Photo: T. Jansen
some stones.
17
frame and
sides made of
bush poles of
cut timber
Stone oor
pig house
stones
18
FEEDING PIGS
Pigs need a balanced diet to stay
healthy. A balanced diet is made
up of:
energy food (carbohydrates)
body building food (protein)
protective food (vitamins,
minerals)
water.
Energy food
Body building
Energy foods
make the pigs
beans
cow pea
pigs:
soy bean
They provide
vitamins and
minerals.
wing bean
bush leaves
and vines
meat meal
grass
sh
legume leaves
shmeal.
sweet potato
sweet
potato
cassava
coconut
copra cake
taro
yam
rice
corn
cooking
peanut
tops
When sh are
bananas
kakake
sago palm
trunk.
cleaned for
cooking for people
to eat, the insides
can be cooked for
pigs.
banana
pawpaw.
Agriculture
Department
Field Ofcer John
Faleka says that
protective foods
are best given to
pigs a few hours
after the energy
and body building
foods.
19
Protective foods
Body building foods protein
Types of feed
Energy foods
20
Weaner
12kg+
8 weeks
2kg
0.5-1kg
Grower
23-50kg
3-4
months
3.5kg
1-1.5kg
Lactating sow
80kg+
2yrs +
8kg
2kg
80kg +
2yrs +
5kg
1.5kg
21
22
23
Feeding
pigs of the same size should be fed in a group; this prevents the
larger pigs eating the food of the smaller pigs
pigs should be fed at the same time each day;
- feed in the morning (energy, body building foods)
- give green leaves at midday
- feed in the late-afternoon (energy, body building foods)
pigs should be given fresh, clean water each day.
Housing
make sure young pigs are sheltered from cold winds
the pig house should provide shelter from hot sun and rain
sweep or wash the pig house oor every day to prevent lice, ticks
and other diseases
keep smaller pigs in a separate house to larger pigs
sows should be kept in a separate pen that is dry and protected
from cold wind; a farrowing rail will keep the newly born piglets
in a separate area so that the pig does not lay on them.
Check pigs
check the pigs for signs of disease when you feed them each
day
check that they have plenty of clean water and food; the pigs
skins will start to crack after two days without water and they
may develop sores.
24
Maluu farmer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kwailabu village farmer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ferasubua village . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suvaa bay free range system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
30
34
37
25
MALUU FARMER
Farmer:
John Faleka.
Location:
Maluu, North Malaita.
Type of system:
Intensive; pigs kept in houses.
The pig house is divided into rooms.
Each room is 2 x 2.5m.
The size of the garden where food for the pigs is grown is 15 x
20m.
Breeds:
John keeps imported breeds.
Products:
pigs for sale every three months
family and customary use
pig manure used on vegetable garden to make soil fertile
sells pigs at Christmas.
26
Number of pigs:
up to 10
at present: 5 adults 3 sows, 1 boar, 1 gilt kept in a separate pen.
Piglets are weaned at eight weeks, removed from the mother and
put into a separate room.
John says a farmer can start with three to ve pigs and increase
the number to 10 when enough food is grown in the garden to feed
them.
Feeding:
Feed from garden and manufactured food from PNG. Imported feed
adds to cost of keeping the pigs.
Water is given every day.
The food garden is 15 to 20 metres from the pig houses. The pigs are
given left-over food grown in the garden.
Categories of food:
body building feed - sh meal, Leucaena
energy feed - banana, cassava, grain, meal run, sweet potato,
kang kong taro
protective feed - green leaf tips, grass, banana leaf, sago palm
insides.
Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT
27
Housing:
The pig house:
is made of timber
is a long building divided into rooms
there is a room for each pig and a room for sows with a litter
has a slatted oor.
Management
Daily activities
Morning
Pigs given all categories
Midday
Evening
given.
Pigs washed sprayed
with water every day
to avoid the disease
scabies.
Rooms washed.
28
Diseases:
Pigs are sprayed with water every day to avoid the skin disease
scabies.
Wastes:
The slatted-oor pen is raised off the ground and is above a stand of
bananas. Wastes trickle down to provide manure to the bananas.
The area below the pens is cleaned and the manure put on a
vegetable garden to provide nutrients. The manure becomes compost
and nutrients for the crops.
29
KWAILABU VILLAGE
FARMER
Farmer:
Rose Adewane.
Rose started as a trainee with the
Sustainable Livelihoods for Rural
Youth Project in September 2003.
Location:
Kwailabu village, North Malaita. The
village is situated on a small island off
the coast of North Malaita
Type of system:
Intensive; pigs kept in houses.
Rose has two pig houses. One is 5 x 2.5m and has three rooms. The
other 4 x 2.5m and has two rooms.
Breeds:
Rose keeps imported breeds and a local pig used for cross
breeding.
Products:
Pigs are bred, reared then sold. The pigs are sold for Solomon dollars
or for shell money.
Rose says that people travel to nd pigs. They come to the village.
30
The pigs earn money and are of benet to the family because they
can be used for feasts. They are important for the village community
because they are used for bride price and as compensation.
Number of pigs:
Rose started with nine pigs. She rst bought a pig from her uncle.
She mated it and produced eight piglets.
In December 2003 she sold ve. Rose has four left.
Rose says that three to four pigs are all that can be kept because
there is not enough food for more.
Feeding:
Rose has made a pig food garden next to the pig houses. It measures
30 x 20m.
The garden soil is not very fertile. This limits the amount of food
she can grow and the number of pigs she can keep. Water is given
every day.
Types of food:
body building food sh
protective food cassava leaf, the large leaf of a local vine known
as salu halu that climbs coconut palms
energy food sweet potato, taro.
A large plastic bowl is used to serve food. A large clam shell serves
water.
Housing:
The pig house:
Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT
31
Management:
Daily activities
32
Rose has two pig houses sheltered in the forest. The trees provide shade and help
keep the pigs cool. Next to the pig houses Rose has a garden where she grows
food for the pigs.
Morning
Midday
Evening
Water given.
Diseases:
Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT
33
FERASUBUA VILLAGE
Farmer:
James Iroga.
James is the son of the village chief, Chief Kabina.
He started his pig system in September 2003.
He started with three youths to build a concrete oor, deep litter
pen.
Location:
Farasubua village, North Malaita. Ferasubua is a village on an
articial island off the east coast of North Malaita.
Type of system:
James has managed the system for two years.
Mixed rotational pig/ cropping/ kokorako (chicken) system:
the pen is approximately 60 x 100 metres in size and is divided
into three paddocks
cassava, sweet potato and alu (a leaf) is grown in one paddock
bean, sorghum and soy bean is grown in another; this paddock
also houses kokorako in a kokorako house with a laying box
where eggs are laid
the kokorako also forage in the pig area; they are let out to forage
every afternoon
the pig house is situated on the fence where two paddocks meet
the pigs are released into the adjoining paddock every
afternoon.
34
Breeds:
Cross-breeds of Landrace and local pigs.
Products:
Fattened pigs and young weaners are sold.
Pig manure is used as fertiliser in the garden.
Housing:
The pigs are kept in a deep litter, concrete oor housing and pen.
Management:
Daily activities
Morning
Water given.
Fed sh meal and meal
run.
Midday
Evening
Diseases:
None reported.
Information supplied by Charles Bole, Sustainable Livelihoods for Rural Youth Project.
35
fence
100m
bean, sorghum
and soy bean
fence
cassava,
sweet potato
and alu (a leaf)
Kokorako house
with laying box
kokorako
(chickens) are
let out to forage
in the afternoon
fence
36
A stone wall has been built across the land. The pigs live
in the forest behind he wall.
Stone wall
37
Smallholder Pigs
Page
5
6
8
9
10
11
14
15
19
20
21
22
26
28
29
30
32
33
35
37
39
40
44
46
48
49
50
51
52
53
56
57
58
59
60
61
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
White body
Landrace
Red colour
Large White/Yorkshire
Duroc
Belted colour
Tamworth
Saddleback
Other
Hampshire
Large Black
Remember that most commercial pigs will be a cross breed of Landrace/Large White and Duroc
Types of production:
Farrowing house the room where sows and gilts give birth and lactate
Gestation barn / dry sow house where the sows live while pregnant
Nursery the room where pigs live from weaning to about 30 kg
Grow/finish the room where pigs live from 30 kg until slaughter
Wean to finish a room where pigs live from weaning to slaughter
All-in/all-out the process where buildings are emptied of one group of pigs, thoroughly
cleaned and then populated with a new group of pigs
Batch one group of pigs
Batch farrowing a group of sows and gilts breed to farrow in a group
6
Three site production a system where pigs are reared on three separate farms classically
gestation and farrowing on one farm/site : nursery on another and grow/finish on a
third site.
Two site production a system where pigs are reared on two separate farms classically two
forms a) gestation, farrowing and nursery on one farm/site and the grower/finisher
on another farm/site.
b) gestation and farrowing on one farm and wean to finish on another
Some variations in gestation housing:
Crates/stalls, ESF (Electronic sow feeding), trickle feeding (feeding small amounts over
a short period of time), outdoor housed outside in arcs.
Gestation
115 days
Selection
Slaughter
Breeding
Nucleus farm
Remember that the male also has the prepuce on the ventral surface.
3. Weaned piglets
4. Labour
10
Handling
Young pigs may be picked up and will generally settle
Older pigs examine within a crate or restrain using a loop around the upper jaw behind the canines
Moving
11
Walkway
2 pig wide
Offset
entrance
12
Mixing pigs
Care is needed because:
1
2
3
Pigs will fight whilst they establish their pecking order. This happens whenever the group
is disturbed.
It takes 1-2 days to establish the pecking order, and performance may be compromised
during this period.
Pigs need time and space to work out their pecking order. After this, the weaker pig will
back down.
Pigs should be kept as much as possible in stable social groups, and mixing at any stage
between accommodation types should be kept to a minimum.
Avoid mixing in pens where sharp edges to feed troughs and drinkers protrude, and can
injure the pigs.
Always mix pigs of similar size.
As a general rule, never introduce less than 3 pigs into an established larger group.
However, it may be necessary to introduce 1 or 2 sows to dynamic service groups.
Low levels of lighting can reduce aggression when mixing. This must not be used for longer
than 1-2 days.
Resorting to the use of tranquilisers and masking sprays may indicate that the mixing
methods and facilities on your farm are inadequate.
For sows:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Allow plenty of space (eg if mixing sows, you need 3.5 m2 per sow) so that there is enough
space to get away if chased or threatened. Sows will mostly chase for less than 2.5 m.
Ideally only mix sows at weaning. Avoid mixing sows 5-21 days after service as this is when
the eggs implant and stress can result in high numbers of returns.
Use physical barriers in the pen such as big bales or plastic sheeting suspended from the
roof. This allows a beaten pig to get out of sight and quickly ends the fight.
Time mixing to fit in with management routines to best allow supervision, however mixing
in the evening may be best if you can arrange to be there to oversee this.
Use fresh straw at mixing it acts as a cushion if fighting occurs and increases surface grip.
Consider ad lib feeding when mixing.
Consider allowing physical contact eg through a gate, between a dynamic main group and a
sup-group to be mixed into it, prior to mixing. This may reduce fighting when they are
introduced.
Avoid re-mixing groups. If practical mix sows back into their original groups post weaning.
Avoid mixing in any form of cubicle system. Sows can be trapped easily and injured
consider a specialist mixing pen.
Consider breaking up the edge of the lying area with divisions so that sub-groups can have
their own areas.
Try closing off a section of a large yard system for a few days then penning the sub-group in
this area when mixing. This helps to establish a new territory for the smaller group.
13
Year 1
10 pig
finishing
shed
5 x 10 finishing unit
10 pigs every 4 weeks
Year 2
5 sows farrowing every
3 weeks breeding farm
supplying weaners
3 x 50 finishing units
different
communities
10 pigs per week
Year 3
14
Sleeping
Bedded with step
Inside area
Exercise
Thatch under
Roof for insulation
2.5m
high
1.5m
high
Gate
Water collection Wall Sleeping area Sloping exercise Monopitch Outside Feed/water
Insulated floor
1-2 degree
Wallow
Fence
15
West
Wind
direction
3 m wide
3.5 m
3.5 m
7 m in total length
Example of this style of building:
Orientation
In Uganda the big issue is hot pigs. Orientate the building so that the sleeping area is at the
west end of the building thus providing shade from the afternoon sun. The other
consideration is the wind direction to provide maximum ventilation.
Water collection
Collecting water from the roof can significantly reduce the amount of water which needs to be
brought to the pigs.
Ideally keep the water high so
that it can flow to the
individual pens and have an
over flow tank anyway for long
term storage. The tanks should
be sealed to reduce algae
growth.
Ensure the gutter and pipes are
well maintained
Biosecurity
Ensure that there is a 2 metre clear walkway around the building to reduce rodent and other
vermin/pests from entering the unit.
16
Timber protection
All timber which is placed in the ground should be protected from being eaten and rooting,
particularly from termites.
17
Side view of the entire house. Note the 2 metre biosecurity zone around the building
18
How does this fit into a three year plan for the community?
Year 1
Month 1
Build building for 10 finishing pigs learn the ropes of pig production
Income from composting.
Months 2 to 6
Build four more 10 finishing pig buildings this provides 5 buildings each with one month
supply of pigs. Thus income now coming in every month from pigs.
10x 150,000 shillings per month net 15,000,000 shillings a year.
Year 2
Build 4 more community finishing units
Income now 10x 150,000 shillings per week net 65,000,000 shillings a year
Year 3
Build a 5 sows a week breeding unit- supplying 50 pigs a week to one of the community
finishing units. Control the cost of producing the piglets net 78,000,000 shillings a year
19
V = BW (H/3)
W
B
A = BW
V = 0.262DDH
V = BW H
A = 0.785DD
V = 0.785DDH
V = (B W H)/2
H
B
H
W
A = (W H)/2
20
BASIC MEASUREMENTS
When on the farm, it can be useful to make estimates about the size of objects. However,
there are times when a tape measure is not easily available
Within reason it is possible to make some assessment using your own body features
For example:
2.5 cm (1) is approximately from the
tip of your thumb to the knuckle
Get to know your own measurements and note the exact measurement.
However, on a day to day basis using these simple measures will help you estimate
depth of water, length of a feeder or the rough dimensions of a pen
21
Spade
Machete/Panga
Saw
Measuring rope
Plumb line
Tape measure
Trowel
22
Hammer
Chalk
Tape measure
Animal marker
23
Stones
Bricks
Posts
Bamboo or sticks
Iron sheets
Water butt
Thatch
Nails
String
Concrete
Sand/aggregate
24
Boiling pan
Buckets
Measure
Boots
25
Composting manure
Forms
Solid
Liquid
Solid
Site
selection
Equipment
Method
Pit 1
Preparation
Pit 2
Maturation
Pit 3
Aeration
Pit 4
Storage
Note
26
Initial layers
Covering
Soil
Manure
Water
Dry grass
Soil/ash
Green Grass
Covering
Repeat
Pit 1
Prepare compost in layers month 1
Pit 2
Allow compost to mature
month 2
Pit 3
Pit 4
Aerate the compost each day month 3 Store and prepare for sale/use
Liquid
Method
Pole
String
Water
Faeces in
Sisal sac
Container
Uses
Solid
Liquid
27
Security fencing
Making your farm secure is important. Not only to keep unwanted human visitors but also to
reduce animal visitors and to stop your animals from straying, essential to maintain
biosecurity.
The type of fencing may vary with species. Pigs for example will burrow under fencing if
required and therefore the fence must go into the ground. Birds will obviously fly over a fence.
Basic Fencing -
Wicker fencing
Natural products
Thorn fencing
Close hedge
To stop animals
Stopping human
Humans are extremely difficult to stop. In general the fence will be extremely expensive.
28
10
0.4
1
1.2
0.2
30
1.2
3
3.6
0.6
50
2
5
6
1
70
2.8
7
8.4
1.4
90
3.6
9
10.8
1.8
110
4.4
11
13.2
2.2
Kg live weight
kg per day
Litres per day
Kg per day
Litres per day
90
7.0
0.7
28
2.8
110
7.5
0.8
30
3.0
Kg live weight
cm
metres
cm
metres
Food preparation
If swill feed is used, it is essential to boil the food thoroughly for at least 30 minutes. This is to kill any viruses that
might be present in the feed potentially African and Classical Swine Fever virus both which can result in
extremely high mortality in pigs. Feed should be used within 48 hours of collection.
29
Cassava leaves
Sweet Potato
meal
Sweet Potato
leaves
Maize bran
Rice bran
Ground nuts
Beans
Mukene little
dried fish
Blood meal
Brewers waste
Greens
Dodo, boo,
Cabbage,
napier, lablab,
mucina,
callandra,
lukoko
Positive
Negative characteristics
characteristics
Good energy
Very low minerals
source
Very low protein 1%
Cyanide in tubers need
processing roasting and
drying
Good protein Low sulphur aminoacids
21%
Cyanogenic compounds
Rich in lysine
Sun drying wilting,
Good minerals
chopping removes 90% of
these compounds
High fiber
Energy high
Protein low
Low in sulphur aminoacids
Lysine low
Trypsin inhibitor heat
treat
Good minerals
Good protein
20%
Silage good for
sows
Low in protein High in fibre
Low in protein High in fibre
Good fat 2x
Low in methionine, lysine
soya
and tryptophan
Good energy
Tannins
Good protein
Roasting and grinding help
Good lac sow
High protein
Low B vitamins
20%
Trypsin inhibitors
Good lysine
Tannins
Haemaglutinins
Steaming helps 75
minutes
High in protein Watch salt levels
Weaner Grow
finish
No
40%
of
ration
Adult
No
10%
40%
5% of
grain
50%
of
grain
50%
of
grain
40%
grain
40%
grain
10%
10%
50%
of
soya
50%
of
soya
Rich in leucine
Rich in lysine
2%
5%
5%
Minerals low
Low in isoleucine
May contain high salt
5%
roast
40%
of
ration
15%
High in fibre
High in water
content
30
Bones, hooves,
horns
Millet
Sorghum
Sunflower
meal
Sunflower
leaves
Banana
(not many in
Northern
Uganda)
Banana silage
Good protein
Good energy
High in energy
Medium
protein
Rich potassium
Good B6
Ascorbic acid
30% protein
Better ripe
Per day:
Growing pigs
will eat 5-6kg
Finishers 9kg
Sows in
lactation 20kg
Made in 4 days
and lasts 6
months
Poor lysine
Supplement sulpha and
tryptophan
High fiber 17%
100%
soya
2/3
soya
100%
soya
15%
10%
25%
50%
50%
50%
50%
diet
50%
grain
50%
grain
31
Body
Energy
weight DE
kg
7-12
12-18
18-30
30-65
65-110
60-130
Crude
Total
protein lysine
MJ/Kg
Dig
lysine
Crude
Fibre
NDF
Ash
Vit A
Vit D3
Vit E
mg/kg
16
16
15.5
14.5
14
13.6
12.5
22
22
21
19
19
14
16
1.8
1.8
1.5
1.5
1.25
0.85
0.7
1.6
1.6
1.3
1.3
1.1
0.7
0.52
1
1.5
2.0
3.0
4.0
5
6.5
3
4
6
10
13
15
24
7.5
6.0
5.5
5.
5
7
7
10,000
10,000
10,000
10,000
7,500
10,000
10,000
2,000
2,000
2,000
2,000
1,500
2,000
2,000
250
250
150
65
40
100
60
14
12.5
18
16
1.0
0.7
0.85
0.52
4.5
6.5
16
24
6.5
7
10,000
10,000
2,000
2,000
100
60
32
Food
Collect
Preparation
33
Feeding
Ideally feed 5 times a day
little and often. Have one
additional meal as water
only each day. Record eat
feeding time
With swill feeding it is fed as a restricted feeding option, therefore all the pigs need to eat at the
same time. This requires a long feed trough.
10
130
1.3
30
170
1.7
50
210
2.1
70
250
2.5
90
280
2.8
110
300
3.0
Kg live weight
Cm per pig
metres
34
Building a feeder
1
Calculate:
The number of pigs in the pen
The type of feeding system adlib or restricted
Final weight of the pigs
Determine the length of feeder required.
For examine for 10 pigs each @ 70kg on restricted feed- they require 3 metres
Place the feeder in the pen so that the pigs can be fed from outside the pen
5
6
35
1.5 bricks
10-14 cm wide
7
9
10
36
Bananas
14
14
Barley
25
27
25
25
10
10
Blood meal
Bone Ash
Brewers
Residue
10
Cassava dry
Cassava
leaves
Cotton seed
cake
10
20
21
14
16
14
20
17
18
17
21
23
Field beans
19
Fish meal
Ground nut
cake
11
12
10
11
Lucerne meal
11
Maize
37
25
Maize bran
Meat and
Bone meal
71
27
40
70
68
70
27
48
70
10
15
68
26
17
20
12
12
Oat
Red Ant hill
soil
Restaurant
waste
13
22
37
11
37
Rice bran
polish
Salt
Shells
Soya fat
13
Soya meal
Sunflower
meal
Sunflower
meal
Sweet Potato
leaves
Sweet potato
meal
Vitamin
premix
20
16
11
11
21
21
17
Wheat
Wheat
bran/pollard
42
42
20
30
41
41
10
15
39
20
18
Wood Ash
38
39
Irish Potatoes
NO
OK
Sweet Potatoes
OK +
NO
Tomatoes
NO
OK
OK
OK +
NO
OK
NO
OK
NO
OK
OK+
OK +
NO
OK
OK+
NO
NO
OK
OK +
NO
OK
Eggs
OK+
OK
OK+
NO
Animal Bones
OK +
OK
Banana Leaves
Cassava leaves
Cassava root
NO
OK+
Banana fruit
NO
OK
Bitter tomatoes
OK
OK+
Milk powder
OK+
NO
OK+
NO
Maize
OK
OK+
Maize husks
OK
OK+
40
NO
OK
OK +
Meckene - fish
NO
Soya
NO
OK
OK
OK +
NO
OK
OK +
NO
OK +
OK
Sorghum
OK +
OK
OK
NO
OK
OK+
NO
OK
Sunflower
OK+
OK+
OK
OK+
NO
OK
OK+
Shells
OK+
NO
NO
OK
Cabbage
Salt (NaCl)
Lemon/limes/oranges
NO
Egg shells
NO
Ground Nuts
NO
OK+
Beans
NO
OK
OK+
OK
OK+
NO
OK
OK+
Banana peelings
41
NO
OK
OK +
NO
Egg plant
NO
OK
NO
OK
OK +
NO
OK
OK +
NO
OK
OK +
NO
OK
OK
NO
OK+
NO
OK +
NO
OK +
OK
OK
OK
OK+
OK
OK+
Bottle tops
OK+
NO
OK
OK+
Papaya
OK+
NO
Rice
NO
OK+
Carrots
Restaurant food
NO
OK
OK
Avocado
Soap
Plastic pieces
NO
NO
OK+
Beer
Milk liquid
OK
OK+
Margarine/butter/cheese
Matooke
NO
OK
OK
OK+
Lupins
OK+
NO
OK
OK+
42
NO
OK
OK +
Maize cobs
NO
NO
OK
OK +
OK
OK +
OK+
NO
NO
NO
OK
OK
OK+
OK
OK+
Grass
NO
Apples
NO
OK
OK
OK+
Bread/bakery
waste/chapatti/injera
OK+
NO
OK
OK+
This photomontage aims to illustrate the wide variety of items that can go into a pigs diet and
a few items which cannot. Many items need further processing- but boiling for 30 minutes is a
great general start. Consult your local advisor or Green Warrior if you are concerned about a
particular food product or how to process the food to make it suitable for your pigs.
43
Only examine the pig in a well-lit area. Walk the pig on an even coloured floor.
Pigs do not like to cross lines, shades or wet areas.
What to look for:
Pigs with exceptionally long and coarse hair coats
Pigs with heads that appear too big for their bodies
Pigs which are stunted, compared with their litter mates
Look for bright clear open eyes avoid small shrunken eyes
Avoid pigs which are excessively dirty housed too hot
Avoid groups of pigs who are too huddled housed too cold
Length of the pig note 3 nipples in front of the prepuce in males and note position
and number of the teats
Ensure the gilt has an anus
If the boar is intended for breeding examine the testes, size, shape and consistency.
Any defect you note in a weaner or young grower is not going to be missed by the
butcher 20 weeks later.
44
Take a breath
Stand back and consider your prospective pig
Leg at each corner
Good loin development
Ideally a line dipping along the back indicating lean
Ideally a hollow in front of the tail and shape of the ham
Good growth for its age
Does it look like its breed, note its colour distribution and markings
Hair coat bright and clean
45
First day
Plenty of dry straw
Provide water as soon as the pig settles in the pen
Provide food at the end of the day make sure the pig knows the position of
the feeder.
The addition of milk to the feed (2:1) may help encourage appetite. If the pig
is over 30 kg the addition of a 0.5 litre of beer/ale to the food will assist the
pig to sleep.
Remove the feeding bowl
Turn all the lights out 1 hour after feeding.
Allow the pig to get a good nights sleep.
46
Draughty accommodation
47
Requirements
All new stock should be healthy on arrival.
You should not buy any pigs which look
sick see selecting pigs.
Separate boots and ideally covers for your
clothing should be worn in the isolation
area
Ideally these boots and overalls should be a different colour to normal.
48
Chilled piglets
Chilled weaners
Comfortable
Within a group of pigs there will be a selection of lying patterns. The main group of
pigs will sleep together in a pile, however, other pigs will be lying spread out but
with maximum contact with the floor. These separated pigs will be the more
dominant pigs. The lower order pigs will lie on the edge of the main group. Pigs
sleep with legs stretched out from the body.
Too hot
Pigs will be panting > 40 per minute
Pigs are generally dirty.
Lie away from other pigs, sometimes
against a cold wall.
They do not pile
Lie in any wet/cooler area
Pigs will dig into earth/bedded floors.
50
Defecation behaviour
Pigs are inherently clean animals and avoid lying in feaces. From a few days of age pigs will
become toilet trained to defecation in a specific area of the environment.
The defecation pattern of the pen provides a good long term indicator of comfort. The veterinarian
can see the area even without the pigs presence. Abnormal defecation patterns indicate a chronic
reduction in optimal environment.
Where the pen has a draught the pigs will defecate under the
cold dropping air (blue in the picture)
Abnormal defecation patterns can also limit other pen resources creating additional
stressors for example when pigs defecate into feeders, waters or over lying areas.
51
Pigs at Play
Any stockperson watching a group of pigs will soon be amused to observe their play activities.
Play prepares them for situations and teaches survival skills.
Pigs are extremely intelligent animals with a degree of complex behaviours that match and
may even surpass a domestic dog. Unlike cattle and sheep, pigs exhibit greater inquisitiveness
and individualist behaviour patterns. This can be practically demonstrated when moving a
group of pigs. In many ways pigs are more like people than they would wish to admit.
Providing an environment where pigs can explore their play behaviour can help relieve stress
and allow the pig to cope better if their environment is temporarily adverse.
Company
Pigs will gain comfort and support from other
pigs and other animals. Pigs should not be
kept in isolation. There may be obvious
exceptions when the pig is under treatment
for meningitis or a severe lameness. However,
once the pig is over the critical stage of the
condition it should be housed with other pigs
of a similar weight and age.
Environmental enrichment
Adult pigs
Adult pigs have a generally lower requirement
to play with items placed in their pen.
However, playing music to adult sows can
have a calming effect and has been used to
reduce savaging of piglets by gilts.
Farrowing sows can be provided with
chopped paper, straw and hay to allow them
to act out their nesting behavioural
requirements. Adult sows can be provided
with some chopped straw even while being
housed in stall accommodation. Note that the
bedding materials can cause disturbance to
the slurry system which if blocked would lead
to other significant problems.
Picture shows shredded paper
52
Balls
Chains
Purpose built
Pen layout/shape
Pen layout can encourage play behaviour.
However, note that in pens which are long
and narrow this can result in a running
game with large numbers of pigs running at
high speeds. As the pigs attempt to turn at
the end of the pens individuals may slip
and become injured including long bone
fractures. When designing the pen ensure
that this running behaviour is catered for
by providing chicanes which will slow the
pigs down.
53
54
Say hello
Observe behaviour
Clean up faeces
Check bedding
55
Friday
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
56
57
Action required
Early
Early
Early
Fairly early
Fairly early
Fairly early
Fairly early
Fairly early
Fairly early
Fairly late
Late
Very late
Very late
Very late
Caution
Look further
Look further
Look further
Intervene
Intervene
Intervene
Intervene
Intervene
Intervene
Intervene
Improve process
Improve process
Improve process
58
Inject in neck
59
Stockpeople basics
Normal and Abnormal Clinical Signs
Normal expected signs
60
Nursery weaning to 30 kg
61
Grow/finish 30 to 110 kg
62
63
Growth Rate
100
80
Weight
kg
60
40
20
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
Age in weeks
Weight
g/day
(kg)
Weeks
Days
28
215
7.0
42
395
12.5
56
630
21.3
10
70
660
30.5
12
84
715
40.5
14
98
800
51.5
16
112
965
65.0
18
126
1000
80.0
20
140
1100
95.0
22
154
1100
110.0
64
Transportation of pigs
1
2
3
5
6
7
Truck
Motor bike truck
Avoid motorbikes
Transport pigs when the weather is not too hot
Early morning or late evening is favourable time.
Splashing water over the pigs helps in warm weather. But do not overdo it
do not get the floor of the vehicle wet so the pigs slip on the flooring.
Have a non-slip floor, with good grip
If preparing the pigs for slaughter do not allow them to get too hot
65
66
67
Building costs
Estimation of the building costs. The excel spreadsheet is embedded, double click to
customize.
Water collection Wall Sleeping area Sloping exercise Monopitch Outside Feed/water
Insulated floor
1-2 degree
Wallow
Fence
Building costs - small building
The yellow boxes can be customised
Number required Cost per unit
Total costs
Floor
Stone/bricks
200
95
19000
Concrete bags
3.75
26000
97500
String
1
4000
4000
Walls
Posts
8
1200
9600
Bamboo
8
2500
20000
Gates
1
0
0
Nails kg
3
4000
12000
Roof
Wood supports
0
0
0
Thatch
10
1000
10000
Metal piece
2
28000
56000
Guttering 28g
1
20000
20000
Water container
1
6000
6000
Large water store
1
25000
25000
Outside run
Posts
6
1200
7200
Bamboo
2
2500
5000
Feeder and drinkers
Bricks
14
95
1330
Concrete
0.25
26000
6500
Utensils
Boiling pot
1
12000
12000
Plastic containers
2
10000
20000
Plastic measures
1
5000
5000
Brushes
1
1000
1000
Boots
1
6000
6000
Soap
1
400
400
Lime wash
1
2000
2000
Total costs
345530 shs @
157 $ US
Other tools which will be required
Iron bar
1
5000
Hammer
1
20000
Saw
1
20000
Trowel
1
3000
Spade
1
4000
Wheel barrow
1
90,000
Plum line
1
5,000
Measuring tape
1
5,000
Total others
152000
2200
68
10 pigs
Unit cost
Cost of purchasing the pigs
Movement licence
Total costs
30000 shs
2000 shs per pig
Total
Running cost
Based on a single pig
Weeks on the farm
Sale weight
Water usage
water costs
Feed per day
Labour costs
Health costs
Building cost returns
300000 shs
20000 shs
320000
18 weeks
80 kg
4 litres per day
100
400
1000
100
69,231
sh per 10 litres
sh
sh per day per 10 pigs
sh
sh
504 litres
5040 shs
50400 shs
Total costs
50400
504000
126000
1000
69,231
1050631
shs
shs
shs
shs
Building paid off in
2 years
Total building cost 400000
shs
Income
Compost
Sale income
Profit
(Income - cost)
180000 shs
1500000 shs
1680000
1360000 shs
Equivalent
2000 shs/dollars
$ 680.00 dollars
69
Adopt a pig
These pig farms are intended to be a community effort.
It is essential that the community takes ownership in the pigs and enjoy the profits of their
venture.
One suggestion is that when 10 pigs are purchased, the pigs are adopted by individual homes
or individuals.
It will then be expected that these people will then pay for the pigs initially and help with the
care, management, feed and watering of their pigs.
When the pigs are slaughtered or sold for future breeding, the money is divided between the
whole team. Note this should include any group whose pig unfortunately died during the
growing phase.
Note sufficient money should be set aside to purchase 10 more pigs (or whatever the group
size is) to perpetuate the project.
70
A MANUAL ON IMPROVED
RURAL PIG PRODUCTION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Pig breeds ............................................................................................................. 1
1. Local pig breeds .................................................................................................................... 1
2. Exotic pig breeds .................................................................................................................. 3
3. Crossbreeds ........................................................................................................................... 5
Chapter 2: Pig raising and housing systems ......................................................................... 7
1. Pig raising systems in the Lao PDR ..................................................................................... 7
2. Pigsty buildings .................................................................................................................. 10
3. Pens, floors and space requirements ................................................................................... 14
4. Different roof systems ........................................................................................................ 17
Chapter 3: Feeding systems ................................................................................................. 19
1. Traditional animal feeds ..................................................................................................... 19
2. Traditional feed processing ................................................................................................. 23
3. Commercial feeds ............................................................................................................... 24
4. Commercial feeds mixed with traditional feeds ................................................................. 25
5. General feed management .................................................................................................. 27
Chapter 4: Selection of breeding pigs ................................................................................. 33
1. Selection of boars and gilts ................................................................................................. 33
2. Productive sows .................................................................................................................. 34
3. Feeding and genetics .......................................................................................................... 36
Chapter 5: Breeding pigs ..................................................................................................... 41
1. Gilt management ................................................................................................................. 41
2. Dry sow management ......................................................................................................... 42
3. Training of young boars ...................................................................................................... 43
4. Oestrus cycle, natural and artificial breeding and farrowing date ...................................... 44
5. Practical points regarding heat detection ............................................................................ 48
6. Management of mating ....................................................................................................... 49
7. Management of the breeding boar ..................................................................................... 52
Chapter 6: The pregnant sow .............................................................................................. 53
1. Pregnancy control and records ............................................................................................ 53
2. Feeding and health .............................................................................................................. 54
Chapter 7: Farrowing ........................................................................................................... 57
1. The days before, during and after farrowing ...................................................................... 57
2. Heath care of the newly born piglets and sow .................................................................... 60
VI
APPENDIX of PHOTOGRAPHS
1. Breeds ................................................................................................................................. 99
2. Selection ........................................................................................................................... 100
3. Pig pens and floors ........................................................................................................... 101
4. Feeders and drinkers ......................................................................................................... 102
5. Nutrition: by-products and crops ..................................................................................... 103
6. Nutrition: traditional feed processing .............................................................................. 104
7. Nutrition: commercial feed practices ............................................................................... 105
8. Piglet care ......................................................................................................................... 106
9. Lactating sows and their piglets ....................................................................................... 107
10. Handling and vaccination ............................................................................................... 108
11. Diseases and abnormalities ............................................................................................. 109
12. Castration ........................................................................................................................ 110
13. Taking samples for laboratory ........................................................................................ 110
14. Large scale pig farming .................................................................................................. 111
15. Other pig pictures ........................................................................................................... 112
VII
The age at first heat is around 8 - 9 months with a body weight of 21 - 30 kg. The mature
live weight of females is about 42 - 48 kg. The age at first farrowing is 12 months, with a
farrowing rate of 1.5 per year and a litter size of 7 - 8 piglets. Piglets are weaned at 2 - 3
months and weigh around 7 - 8 kg. The male pig becomes mature around 6 months at 30 kg.
Muladt type 1
Muladt type 2
Characteristics of this breed are:
Muladt type 3
Characteristics of this breed are:
The body length is around 100 - 135 cm and height about 55 - 76 cm.
The body color is mostly black; the abdominal area is mostly black- white colored.
The snout color is white and the face is short
The ears are big and the back is curved.
Large White
Landrace:
The Landrace originates from Denmark and adapts well to Lao conditions. It can reach
80 - 90 kg live body weight at 5 - 6 months. The sow is a good mother with litter sizes of 10
- 12 piglets. This breed has a rapid growth and good quality of carcass. The breed is
mainly used as dam line crossing as the sows have a long body and udder with many teats.
Landrace
Duroc:
The Duroc breed originates from North America. It has a rapid growth rate and good
ability to adapt to varied tropical climatic conditions. The litter size is small: about 7 - 8
piglets per litter. They are used mainly as sire line for producing crossbreed pigs.
Duroc
Brown in color.
Medium sized ears and a bit fallen.
A large head with a short snout.
Big hips.
3. Crossbreeds
Improvement of local breeds:
Breed improvement is important in obtaining improved and high yielding animals. The
main purpose of breed improvement is to introduce a positive characteristic into a local
breed. For example: by crossbreeding an indigenous sow with an exotic boar; the
offspring is likely to inherit the body shape and good growth rate from its father and the
tolerance to environmental stress from its mother. Inbreeding between father and
daughter, mother and son, brother and sister, etc. must be avoided.
Selected sows of the offspring can be mated with the imported boar breed-line. Commercial
piggery uses this breeding system for 4 - 5 generations to reach the desired improved breed.
This kind of pig raising system is most common in rural areas for keeping local pig breeds.
Advantages:
The semi-intensive system (confined within a large area) can be found in suburban areas
or with communities specialized in fattenning local pigs.
Advantages:
Low cost of inputs as by-products and kitchen waste are used for feeding the pigs.
Disadvantages:
Pigs are difficult to control (e.g. catching for veterinary treatments).
Pigs can easily be infected with diseases (especially when new pigs are introduced into
the same area).
Advantages:
Easy to handle (feeding, water supply, monitoring health, detecting heat, farrowing,
etc).
Low risk of diseases when the farmer adheres to good sanitation practices.
The environment is kept clean and crops are not destroyed by scavenging pigs.
The manure can fertilize fish ponds or fertilize the field crops (or garden) of the farmer.
Disadvantages:
Farmer requires more management skills.
Special care is needed when Ivermectin is used to control mange or internal parasites.
Small residues of Ivermectin excreted through the manure can kill the fish in the pond.
Take care that the manure of treated pigs does not enter the pond for one week (e.g. use
gunny bags to cover slats and shovel away manure). Or alternatively, wash pigs with
mange problems outside the pen with Neguvon.
2. Pigsty buildings
Site selection:
10
Elevated pens with flat floors (often used for fattening pigs on large scale farms).
Pens with raised slatted floors (suitable for all pig systems, especially on small scale
farms).
cemented floor
Floor systems:
Distance between the slats should be 0.5 - 1.0 cm. A slatted floor should preferably be
sloping for easy cleaning.
11
Partition:
Many types of partitions can be used like wood, bricks, iron pipes, etc. Partitions should
prevent piglets from escaping and still allow easy manure removal.
different partitions
round poles
brick wall
wooden slats
12
Length
15-20 cm per pig
30-35 cm per pig
40-50 cm per pig
40-50 cm per pig
40-50 cm per pig
Width
20 cm
20 cm
35-40 cm
35-40 cm
35-40 cm
The feeding trough should be firmly anchored to the floor to prevent overturning and
wasting feed.
feeders
40
cm
20 cm
1m
20
cm
15 cm
60 cm
Drinkers:
The feeding trough can also be used to supply water. At large farms automatic drinkers
are used (bowls or nipples).
13
0.8 m
0.8 m
1.0 m
1.0 m
2.0 m
2.5 m
2.0 m
0.2 m
1.0 m
0.5 m
1.0 m
1.4 m
0.4 m
2.5 m
2.0 m
14
3m
2m
2m
1.0 m
Pregnant sows:
Per sow 1.5 - 2.0 m2
2.0 m
0.4 m
0.6 m
15
Lactating sows:
Per sow 4 - 6 m2
2.0 m
2.0 m
0.6 m
0.8 m
Weaner piglets:
Per piglet 0.3 - 0,5 m2
Breeding boars:
Per boar 6 - 8 m2
16
The site of the pen and the roof system should protect the pigs from hot sun and rain.
The roof should give enough shadow at the hottest time of the day.
17
18
Maize:
Maize is a very good animal feed.
It contains up to 65% carbohydrates (=high) and 9% protein. It
can be mixed and cooked with
other feeds, but not more than
40% in the mix ration.
grain of maize
maize cob
Soya beans:
Soya is a crop which has a high
nutritional value and is very good
for pig feeding. It contains 38%
protein (=very high). It should be
dried, milled or well cooked in
combination with other feedstuff
like rice bran, broken rice and
maize.
soya plant
Cassava (or tapioca):
Cassava is a root crop which is
used for pig feeding. It can be
mixed with other feeds up to
around 10 - 20% (never more
than 30%). First it should be
peeled and washed and then
sliced, dried and ground before
use. It should not be fed to pigs as
raw cassava with the skin,
because of toxic substances. The
sliced and dried cassava can be
kept longer.
cassava
19
long bean
cassava
leucaena
Vegetables:
Vegetables are used as supplementary feeds for pigs by boiling and mixing with other feeds
such as rice bran, broken rice and maize. They can also be given fresh. Suitable vegetables are:
yam
papaya
cassava
potato
sweet potato
Copra residues:
Residues from copra juice can be
fed to pigs as well. It contains 60 70% fat and 20% protein. It can be
mixed as 10 kg in 100kg feed (10%).
coconut
20
Rice bran:
Rice bran is very suitable for pig feeding.
It contains 11% protein and can be used
as the main ingredient. Rice bran can be
mixed with other feeds to 30 - 45%. Rice
bran can be kept no longer than 1 month
because it can become mouldy.
rice bran
Broken rice:
Also broken rice is very suitable for pig
feeding. It can be mixed with other feeds
up to 15 - 20%. Broken rice contains
about 8% protein.
broken rice
21
Forest products:
Pig feed can also be prepared with forest products (wild vegetables, wild bananas, wild
taro, etc). At the same time, food waste can be used (soup, rice, noodles etc). Below is an
example of a locally prepared supplementary pig feed from a forest product (taro).
salt
yeast
measure
mix
22
mix
mix
taro plant
vegetable
save money
rice bran
kitchen waste
broken rice
Local pig feed ration:
Ingredients
Soya beans
Rice bran
Maize
Broken rice
Cassava
Acacia leaves
Total (100%)
Crude protein (%)
Pig weight
15 - 30 kg
25
25
20
5
20
5
100
16
Pig weight
over 60 kg
15
35
30
5
10
5
100
14
23
3. Commercial feeds
Complete feed:
Complete feeds are factory manufactured according to specific feed formulations
appropriate to specific categories of pigs. There are many kinds of complete feeds such as:
feed for suckling and weaning piglets, fattening pigs, dry, pregnant and lactating sows,
boars, etc. Complete feeds can be fed directly to the pigs.
Concentrated feed:
Concentrated feeds are factory
produced with a high level of protein.
They must be mixed before feeding,
with other feeds such as rice bran,
broken rice, maize, etc. to made a
good, suitable home-made ratio.
24
Ingredients
Rice bran
Maize
Concentrated
Total (%)
Crude protein
fattener
feed
Pig weight
15 - 30 kg
40
30
30
100
16 - 17 %
breeder
feed
breeder
feed
Pig weight
over 60 kg
40
40
20
100
14 - 15 %
local
available
feed
Improved rural pig production systems, the use of crossbreeds of exotic breeds and a mix
of commercial feeds with local cheap available feeds (like rice-bran, maize and beans) is
preferably used. Lactating sows, piglets and weaners should have a rich home-made pig
feed ration, containing some commercial feeds.
25
Commercial feeds are expensive and have to be used efficiently. Also, when we make a
homemade feed ratio as above, we have to mix the different components correctly
(correct weight or volume). Farmers need to calibrate the container or scoop (a tin, part
of plastic bottle, etc.) that they use for feeding the pigs to know how many kilograms they
are feeding or mixing.
Replacing distillery waste with commercial feeds for sows, piglets and weaners:
breeder
feed
local
available
feed
Distillery waste (Lao-Lao waste) is much appreciated in the traditional Lao pig husbandry, especially for fattening pigs. It is advisable however, not to give this high valued
feed to pregnant and lactating sows and to piglets and weaners because of the alcohol
contents in the waste. These animals require high quality of feed and therefore distillery
waste needs to be replaced by other high quality feed like commercial feeds.
26
Feed storage:
Some raw materials like cassava,
maize and soya beans need to be
dried well before storing in a
barn or shed. Also complete feed
and mixtures of feeds need to be
stored dried to avoid moulding.
Moulded feeds are unfit for
animal feeding. The store needs
to be well protected against rats.
The growth rate depends on the intake of good quality and quantity of pig feeds. Every day,
each pig must get the right quantity of fresh feed. Stale or dirty feed will reduce their appetite.
27
28
When pigs reach 20 - 60 kg body weight, they are classified as growers and their
feeding regime, using complete feed, is as follows:
Growing pigs are fed 2 times in the day: morning and evening.
Growing pigs with 20 - 40 kg body weight: 1.5 - 2.0 kg per pig per day.
Growing pigs with 40 - 60 kg body weight: 2.0 - 2.5 kg per pig per day.
The above feeding practices are especially applicable to farmers with exotic breeds, good
feed and management.
29
The previously mentioned amounts of feeds are based on commercial feeds. The farmer
needs to calibrate his feeding container to know how much he is feeding. He also needs to
know approximately the weight of his pigs. Estimation of weights can be learned from
others (like traders and butchers) or by using scales.
When the farmer is using a cheap home-made feed ratio, it is difficult to know if the
farmer is feeding his/her pigs with enough energy and protein for maintenance and
growing. In these cases, as a rule of thumb, he/she must feed the pigs till they are satisfied
and do not scream anymore. When the farmer is fattening pigs, he/she should feed them
even a little bit more (one scoop extra).
30
Health problems and parasites can reduce growth efficiency by up to 50% and cause
uneven growth.
31
Boar
Castrate
Gilt
When the growing pigs reach 50 kg, their nutritional needs diverge according to sex
(gender). So it is preferable to pen gilts and castrated boars separately.
Good feed, effective disease control and a clean environment (pens) will improve pig growth.
32
selection of boars
select this one
do not select this one
The selection of a good breeding boar is very important for profitable pig production.
Selection criteria are:
Avoid inbreeding: do not select boars for breeding within same family lines.
Select offspring from a sow that has consistently farrowed and weaned large litters.
Select from a sow that has a good size and not less than 12 nipples.
The boar should have grown fast and be in good health with strong legs.
The boar should have a good reproductive organ.
Gilt selection:
selection of gilts
select this one
Proper gilt selection is important to obtain large litter sizes and piglets that grow fast.
Selection criteria are:
Avoid inbreeding: gilts should not have been mated by their fathers.
Select from a sow that has farrowed and weaned large litters (not less than 9 piglets).
The gilt should have a good size and not less than 12 nipples (same criteria for mother).
The gilt should have grown fast and be in good health with strong legs.
33
Signs of inbreeding:
A high incidence of hernia can be a
sign of inbreeding. Consider replacing the boar and sow(s) and do not
use pigs from litters with high
incidence of hernia for breeding. If
these replacements come from
another village then the likelihood of
relationship is very small.
2. Productive sows
The sow productivity is calculated from the number of piglets per litter and how many
litters she produces per year. Her lifetime productivity is the total number of piglets she
produced.
34
Therefore it is important to
know the farrowing and
nursing characteristics of the
sow: ease of birth, mothering
instinct, milking ability, etc.
35
Feed quality and quantity must be balanced so sows do not get too fat in pregnancy or too
thin during the nursing period. Both situations can cause reproduction problems.
breeder feed
36
local
available
feed
Growth efficiency, litter size and carcass quality are the main characteristics in the
selection of breeder animals.
Growing pigs must have the potential to grow rapidly and efficiently and produce a high
lean carcass of good quality meat. Below are growing targets for large-scale pig farming
in the Lao PDR using exotic breeds and good (commercial) feeds.
70 - 80 kg
60 kg growth in 3 months
with 180 kg feed
15 - 20 kg
37
An example of the calculation of feed conversion: 180 kg feed was needed to grow the
above pig from 15 - 20 to 70 - 80 kg. Feed conversion = 180 kg feed per 60 kg growth =
3.00 kg feed per 1 kg growth. Thus; the feed conversion is 3.0.
38
39
1. Gilt management
Gilts are young female pigs ready for first time breeding at around 8 - 9 months old.
Around this time gilts should be placed nearby a boar to stimulate heat, but they should
not be penned together with the boar. Gilts should be fed carefully to avoid over or
underweight. Usually they are fed around 2 - 2.5 kg per head per day. In addition, they
should be given fresh vegetables with the feed.
41
42
The training of young boars should start when they reach sexual maturity at around 8
months old. The best place for this practice is in the pen of the boar. A mature sow that is
well in heat should be introduced to the young boar. Give them time to get used to each
other. Do not allow the boar to mount the sow in front as such a practice might become a
bad habit forever. In the beginning, young boars should be given help: the farmer can
help inserting the penis into the vagina and let them mate successfully. During mating do
not allow interference by other boars.
Come on boy!
Right idea - wrong end.
43
Ensure a boars first service is accomplished with a right-sized female who is strongly on heat.
44
swollen vulva,
restless (agitated) and roaring,
frequent urination,
reduced appetite,
mounting,
vaginal discharge.
1. By observing heat symptoms (restless and mounting), vulva (reddish, swollen with
discharge) and touching the sow. Pressure on the back is applied (or one sits on the back)
to determine the correct breeding time. During the correct breeding time, the sow does
not run away and this is referred to as standing heat.
45
collect semen
46
Breeding day:
Gestation period +
Farrowing day:
Details mating
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Date
mating
14/08/2002
24/03/
38/11/2002 = 8/12/2002
(day: 38-30=8, month: 11+1=12)
Sow
number
Period
gestation
3m + 24d
3m + 24d
3m + 24d
3m + 24d
3m + 24d
3m + 24d
Expected
farrowing
Next
possible heat
21 days
21 days
21 days
21 days
21 days
21 days
47
Check sows for standing heat regularly, at least twice a day early morning and late
afternoon. The heat of a sow is short (only one day), so it is best to mate sows at around
12 hours interval (early morning and late afternoon).
48
6. Management of mating
49
natural mating
50
A breeding tip:
The age of mating depends on the age and weight of the sow. Well-developed gilts can be
bred at 8 - 9 months and farrow at 12 to 13 months old. Gilts of exotic breeds should
weigh at least 80 kg before breeding. Success of conception is higher at second or third
heat (do not mate at the first heat).
51
Breeding frequency
2 times per week
3 times per week
52
First mating
Mating
8 - 10 hours later
Second mating
53
Keep a record of
all sows mated.
Remember not to feed brewery waste (Lao-Lao waste) to highly pregnant and lactating
sows and their piglets.
54
Be careful to feed the correct amounts. Too much feed produces a sow that is too fat and
with too little feed the sow becomes too thin. Both situations will lead to farrowing and
suckling problems.
A vaccination program is
essential for good sow
performance.
55
Deworm orally (avoid injections during late pregnancy) and wash the sow as she is moved
into the farrowing crate.
56
Chapter 7: Farrowing
57
When we observe or assume problems with the birth of the piglets, the farmer needs to do a vaginal
check. Sometimes piglets can be stuck and the farmer can gently assist these piglets to be born.
58
Chapter 7: Farrowing
59
Disinfect the navel as soon as the piglet is born (use Iodine). Clip the eye-teeth and if
required shorten their tails (tail docking).
When piglets are kept on a wooden or concrete floor, the piglets need an iron injection
within 72 hours after birth to prevent anaemia (milk is iron-deficient). This is not necessary when piglets have a walking space with access to soil (soil contains iron). Piglets with
iron deficiency become white and hairy, start scouring and may die.
60
Chapter 7: Farrowing
A warm place for the newly born piglets away from the sow is important. This area
should be 27 30 degrees Celsius for the first 4 days and draft free. A piglet box can be
used (60 cm by 60 cm) and or a light to give warmth.
61
Good feeding practices of the sow are very important. The amount of feed needs to be
reduced on the day of farrowing till 1 - 2 days later. After that the feeding should be according to the sows needs and to the litter size and its condition.
On the day of farrowing no feed must be given to the sow, but ample water should be
available. During the second day and later the sow is gradually given more feed. A sow
needs a ration of around 2.0 - 2.5 kg per day for maintaining her body weight . For milk
production and feeding her piglets, an extra of 0.25 kg is required per day per piglet
(based on exotic/improved breeds with good feeds).
For example: the ration for a sow with 8 piglets is 4 kg per day:
2 kg + (0.25 kg x 8 piglets) = 2 kg + 2 kg = 4 kg per sow per day.
62
Newly born piglets need a clean, dry, draft-free and warm area or box to keep them
comfortable, avoid diarrhea and prevent weak piglets from dying. Such a comfortable
place can be dried rice straw on the floor with an electric or kerosene light above (at 1
meter height) to provide heat for the piglets.
63
A farrowing crate will prevent many piglets from being laid on.
64
A solution with a rehydration medicine (or a weak mixture of salt and sugar) can be
given to the weak piglet by a syringe, with or without a tube, or in the feed if the piglet is
able to feed by itself.
65
Prevention is better than cure. Make certain that all piglets receive iron and that the sow
is fully protected by de-worming and that the usual vaccination program against diseases
has been undertaken well before farrowing.
Hygiene standards in the farrowing house must be very high. It is essential to completely
clean, wash and disinfect between successive occupancies.
66
commercial
feed
broken
rice
crushed
maize
rice
bran
Male piglets that are not selected for breeding can be castrated at the age of 2 weeks old
(easy to handle and wounds heal quickly).
67
68
Own immunity
Maternal immunity
3 weeks
5 weeks
6 weeks
4 weeks
For the early weaned piglet every thing is critical: health and hygiene, nutrition and
housing. Everything in the nursery pen must be completely cleaned and disinfected
before a new group of weaner piglets is introduced.
69
The feeding regime for weaned piglets can be as follows (based on exotic/improved breeds
with good feeds):
Start feeding newly weaned piglets (4 weeks old) 200 - 250g per piglet per day.
Increase the ration each following week by 100g per piglet per day.
At 8 weeks (1 months later) they are fed 600 - 700g per piglet per day (3 times more
than at the start).
70
The young piglet grows very fast. Under good management it almost triples in size during
8 weeks in nursery. From 4 weeks weighing 6 7 kg to 12 weeks weighing 15 20 kg (weights
are for commercial pig breeds). Its growth performance during the nursery period, determines its potential for efficient growth in the fattening period (fattening to 60 - 80 - 100 kg).
Early weaners at
4 weeks: 6 - 7 kg.
8 weeks nursery.
71
72
73
When a truck loaded with pigs halts for a rest in the shade, pigs can be sprinkled with
water to reduce high temperatures. After arrival, pigs should take a rest for around 30
minutes and then be given water and feed.
74
Respiratory problems
manifest themselves as
coughing, sneezing, snout
distortions due to rhinitis,
pneumonia due to viruses and
bacteria.
75
76
boar
castrate
gilt
77
78
Feeder is too small for number of pigs. This gives too much competition at the feed trough.
Too many pigs in the pen results in slower and uneven growth, and sometimes social vices
such as tail-biting.
3. Insufficient access to water, usually through too few drinkers per pen. All pens must have
at least two drinkers in case one breaks.
4. Drinkers installed incorrectly so pigs have difficulty getting water.
5. Sick pigs must be treated promptly, or their condition will rapidly deteriorate and they
may die.
6. Bad edges on the slats or slats with gaps too wide will cause foot and leg damage.
7. Pigs showing social vices and their victims must be both promptly dealt with to avoid
losses.
8. Unevenness of size of pigs in a pen must trigger an alarm. Is there too much competition
for space, feeder or water? The cause must be found and corrected rapidly.
9. Dirty pens, especially in the feeding area, indicate pigs do not feel comfortable. The reason
must be found and corrected. Too hot? Too drafty? Floor uneven? Sloped the wrong way?
Pigs ill?
10. Gate divisions (piped fencing) over solid areas of the pen do not help the pig in deciding
where to sleep and where to dung. Use a solid wall on a solid floor for the sleeping area.
79
80
1. Record keeping
ear tagging
ear notching
81
Sow number:
Litter
number
Date
mating
Mother:
Date
No. born
No. born No. weaned
farrowing piglets alive piglets dead
piglets
Date
weaning
1
2
3
4
5
6
Also a weekly activity sheet should be maintained to monitor all the stages of production.
This sheet needs to record especially the number of pigs at different ages, breeding herd
productivity and the feed utilization.
Matings:
Farrowings:
Weanings:
Deaths:
Transfers:
Sales:
Feed deliveries:
Introductions:
Culls:
82
2. Production targets
In a breeding herd, each sow must produce as many piglets as possible each year.
This is related to 3 components:
1) number of litters per year,
2) number of piglets born per litter,
3) number of piglets weaned per litter.
An important factor affecting piglets weaned per litter is the number of live healthy piglets born.
In a growing herd, the pigs must grow fast and efficiently to reach their
desired slaughtering weight. Performance is related to 4 components:
1) minimal mortality,
2) good growth rate,
3) low feed cost,
4) high feed conversion.
83
Pig mortality reduces the number of pigs for sale. Pig mortality
must be minimized in all stages not just in the suckling period.
Stage
Max. allowable mortality
1) Suckling
12 %
2) Nursery
3%
3) Grower/finshers
2%
84
The most import daily routine to keep diseases away is by keeping the farm tidy and
clean. This means that manure is removed every day from the pen (or drops through the
slats). Manure pits or compost heaps should be removed from time to time and put on
the gardens or in the fields to fertilize the plants.
85
86
For growing pigs maintain strict age separation, so pigs born in the same weeks are kept
together. This will minimize disease spreading from older to younger pigs.
If necessary separate smaller or weaker piglets from dominating bigger piglets. This will
prevent the weaker piglets becoming even weaker as they can not eat enough.
87
Clean and desinfect a pen regularly, provide plenty of good quality feed and water.
Remove all germ sources as manure, urine, straw-bedding from sick and dead animals.
Control animal movements in and out villages.
Intra-muscular (IM)
vaccinations are in the
neck or in the hindquarters. Big pigs need
to be restrained.
88
We must be careful as new pigs may carry diseases that can cause problems in our herd.
These new introductions need to be kept for 2 - 3 weeks in a quarantine pen isolated from
the pig farm. During this time it will be apparent if the new pigs have diseases or not.
Provide plenty of good quality feed and water.
Pig Farm
Quarantine Pen
Resident Herd
Introductions
89
We therefore need to watch carefully the introductions when they are brought from the
quarantine pen into the pig pen. During this period of 3 - 4 weeks of adjustment they will
be exposed to the resident herd micro flora so that immunity can be acquired.
90
Swine Fever
vaccine
(freeze-dried)
Treatment: There are no medicines which can kill the virus. Affected pigs will die.
Prevention:
To prevent the disease, pigs should be vaccinated with
Classical Swine Fever vaccine.
During an outbreak, dead pigs should be buried to
reduce transmission of the virus and healthy pigs should
be kept away from sick pigs.
Do not transport sick pigs or meat from pigs that are
suspected to have the virus.
Classical
Swine Fever
vaccine
(freeze-dried)
91
Prevention:
92
Swine Fever
vaccine
(freeze-dried)
3. Roundworms
There are many types of roundworms that can live in the stomach, intestine or lungs of
pigs. They cause illness, weight loss and poor growth. The most important is a large
white worm (Ascaris suum). This worm lives in the small intestine and mostly affects
young pigs between 2 - 4 months of age.
1
2
Prevention:
Pigs raised in a clean pen can be treated for worms every
3 months.
If not kept in a clean pen, pigs should be treated every 4 weeks.
Newly procured pigs should be treated immediately on arrival.
Pregnant sows should be dewormed 4 weeks before farrowing.
Parasiticides
93
4. Diarrhoea in piglets
This disease can be caused by many different microbes, both bacteria and viruses. These
microbes can enter healthy pigs when they eat feed or water that is contaminated with
faeces from affected pigs. The microbes go to live in the small or large intestine.
Diarrhoea usually occurs in young pigs from the age of 1 week to 3-4 months.
Treatment: Prevent dehydration by giving fluids with a weak mixture of salt and sugar.
Vitamins and antibiotics can also help to make the pig stronger.
Name of Medicine
1
2
Prevention:
Keeping pigs in a clean pen is important
especially for sows with piglets.
Sows with young piglets should be raised
separately from other older, growing pigs.
Healthy pigs should be kept away from sick pigs.
94
Nutrient medicines
Swine Fever
vaccine
(freeze-dried)
5. Erysipelas
Erysipelas is an infectious disease caused by a bacteria that mainly affects young pigs (it
can also affect humans). Pigs show signs of red diamond-shaped plaques on the skin; the
spinal cord, joints and heart may be affected and it can kill the pig.
1
2
Prevention:
Pigs should be raised in a clean pen.
During an outbreak, healthy pigs should be kept
away from sick pigs.
Antibiotics
95
6. Mange
This disease is caused by a mite that lives in the skin. It is very small and cannot be seen by
the naked eye. The pig becomes irritated and scratches itself frequently. The affected skin
becomes red, crusted and thick. The pig does not eat well and grows poorly.
Transmission
occurs by close
contact with
affected pigs.
Mites live in the skin around the eyes, ears, snout, legs and
body. The pig scratches frequently and the affected skin is red,
crusted and thick. The pig does not eat well and grows poorly.
Ivomec
Prevention:
Affected pigs should be treated immediately and
kept away from unaffected pigs.
Pregnant sows should be treated 4 weeks before
farrowing to prevent mange.
Newly procured pigs should be treated immediately
on arrival.
96
Parasiticides
Ivomec
(Ivermectin)
Swine Fever
vaccine
(freeze-dried)
7. Cysticercosis
Cysticercosis is caused by a tapeworm that lives in humans. This tapeworm produces
eggs that are passed in the faeces. When a pig eats human faeces, the eggs hatch to
become larvae that migrate to the muscles where they form cysts. When humans eat pig
meat that contains the cyst, the cyst grows into a large tapeworm in the intestine.
Humans get ill from these worms. More dangerously, when tapeworm eggs are eaten
directly by humans, cysts may develop in the brain causing nervous disease.
Treatment pigs: There is no medicine to kill the worms and cysts in the pig muscles.
Treatment humans: Commonly available parasiticides for humans can kill the large tapeworm.
Prevention:
To prevent pigs having cysts in their muscles, pigs must be kept away from human
faeces. People should use latrines and pigs should be kept in pens.
To prevent human ingestion of cysts from pig meat, the meat should be very well
cooked before being eaten to destroy the cysts.
To prevent human ingestion of worm eggs, people should wash hands after toilet and
before touching food.
LAO-EU Livestock Project
97
98
1. - -
Breeds
1
- 1
Muladt type 1
- 3
3
5
-
7
-
Landrace
Singji
2
- 2
-
4
6
-
8
-
()
Muladt type 2
Large White
Duroc
Crossbred
99
2. -
Selection
Natural breeding
6
Select piglets of good sow
100
3.
2
-
-
3
-
4
5 -
Cemented floor
Wooden floor
101
4. -
1
-
3
-
Drinker-nipple
102
Wooden feeder
Self-feeder
Pig drinking
5. : -
1
Rice bran
Coconut
Maize
Taro plant
6 -
Nutrition:
by-products and crops
Broken rice
Soya seed
Cassava
Leucaena leaves
103
6. :
1
Forest taro
Boiling vegetables
Nutrition:
traditional feed processing
Water hyacinth
Forest products
6 -
8 --
- -
104
7. :
1
Nutrition:
commercial feed practices
105
8. -
1
Piglet care
Farrowing
3 -
Drying piglet
Ear notching
Disinfection of navel
Teeth clipping
8
-
Iron injection
106
Assistance at birth
9.
1
5 ,
6 -
Commercial feeds
107
10. -
1
Restraint
IM injection
SC injection
108
Examination
SC injection
Sterilizing equipment
11.
1
,
3
Mange
Diarrhoea
Umbilical hernia
Claw damage
109
12. -
Castration
1 ()
Disinfect
Remove
13. -
5
Recording
2 ()
Cut
----
--- -/ LAO-EU
/ Improved
Livestock
RuralProject
Pig Production
110
Disinfect
14.
-
-
1
-
-
3
Farrowing crate
5 -
4 -
, -
Piglets in nursery
Transport of fatteners
111
15.
1
Weighing weaners
Selling at market
Necropsy
Walking boar
Walking to market
Fatteners to abattoir
112
Washing boar
Zaria.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
Page
INTRODUCTION.................................................................
Advantages of Pig Production.............................................
6
6
8
8
9
10
12
13
13
14
14
14
15
16
16
20
20
25
26
28
28
28
PIG MANAGEMENT...........................................................
Daily routines.......................................................................
Management of pregnant Sows .........................................
30
30
32
33
36
37
38
38
39
41
47
48
56
56
57
57
58
58
58
58
58
MARKETING ANDPROCESSING......................................
Marketing.............................................................................
Kafanchan Pig Market.........................................................
Sources of Piglets...............................................................
Processing..........................................................................
Transportation ....................................................................
Carcass and Meat Quality ..................................................
Meat Hygiene......................................................................
60
60
61
62
62
62
63
66
APPENDICES....................................................................
Summary of Management Practices ..................................
Glossary..............................................................................
An individual Sow Record ..................................................
Boar Performance Record Sheet........................................
Herd Performance Record .................................................
Examples of Pig Production Record ..................................
Life Time Record for Sow....................................................
67
67
69
70
71
72
73
74
INTRODUCTION
Pig meat (pork) is a very important source of animal protein in human
diets. In fact, the F.A.O. Quarterly bulletin of Statistics, 1989 reported
that there is a greater output of meat from pigs (63.9 million metric
tonnes/year) than the combined output of meat from cattle, buffalo,
sheep and goats (58.9 million metric tonnes/year). Pig rearing is
popular in many parts of Nigeria, which has the highest pig population
in Africa (Adebambo, 1982). Even in the far North, it has been
demonstrated that pigs can be reared successfully as exemplified by
the existence of the biggest pig farm in the world in Kano between
1955-1965 (Mckay 1963). In the areas where pigs are reared on tree
range, they are most valued as a kind of savings to the farmer trom
where he can tap in times of cash shortage and emergency needs.
Commercial production under semi-intensive conditions is becoming
more popular because of its favourable rate of return on investments.
Advantages of Pig Production
The popularity of pig production is because of the following
advantages:
1.
2.
5.
6.
7.
Pigs under this system are given supplementary feeds. This makes
them have attachment to their owners. Examples of feeds given are
kitchen wastes, farm by-products such as cassava peels, brans of
cereals,fiuit pulps and maize cobs. This technique of supplementary
feeding to pigs makes them come back home daily to the farmer. Local
breeds of pigs predominate the free range system because they are
more highly adapted.
The disadvantages of the system though are numerous, losses
are high and productivity is low with the erratic and often seasonal food
supplies. This can result in irregular breeding of sows, slow growth
rate and high piglet mortality. Breeding is indiscriminate as no
particular attention is paid to selection of pigs on desirable traits. They
are particularly susceptible to infestation by parasites from various
sources.
2. Semi-Intensive
In this system, the animals are restricted to a limited area and
therefore the farmer takes the whole responsibility of feeding them.
Once in - while, the pigs are allowed into the fenced larger yard to
graze, wallow and exercise. Housing is mainly of very simple
construction and made from simple and inexpensive materials like
mud, bamboo and elevated thatched roof (fig 2). The animals are fed
on kitchen wastes, food by-products etc, and some level of managerial
skills are required. Productivity is better than under the free range and
therefore the herd sizes are bigger. Indigenous breeds are still
prevalent in this system but crosses between local and exotic breeds
are more commonly available.
Many small holder pig fanners practice the extensive system during
the cby season and the semi-intensive system during the rainy season
to prevent damage to crops. In this regard therefore, no fenced yards
are provided.
8
The housing provided for night shelter during the dry season is the
same as that used during the wet seasons. The semi-intensive system
can be recommended for small holders and beginning pig farmers. The
fanner can expand herd size and grow into a more intensive
management system with experience and a conducive marketing
environment. It is also easier to cut down should the prevailing
conditions demand a reduction in herd size.
10
Pig houses can be constructed above the ponds so that the manure
can drop straight into the fish ponds. T1lapia species offish are most
commonly used, often mixed with small population of carp and cat fish.
Pig manure can be used as organic manure to enrich soil for vegetable
gardening. While residues from vegetable products are in turn fed to
pigs.
4. Piggery Enterprises
Since profit motivation is the major determinant for commercial pig
production, it is always better to start on a small scale and then expand
as more experience is gained. Essentially, there are four pig
production enterprises.
a.
b. Farrow only - The farmer keeps a sow herd which produces weaners
which he sells to growing and finishing operators.
c.
Also, the site should preferably not be too exposed to cold. The
buildings should be on a slight slope to allow drainage and disposal of
eft1uent. The slope also makes it easier to design a pig-flow with the
farrow house at the top of slope and the fattening pens at the lower end.
This prevents cross-infection trom effluent between piglets and the
adult pigs. Again access road, water sources and space for expansion
must be put into consideration.
2. Flooring
Hard concrete or similar floors are recommended even in low
cost buildings made of local materials. This prevents the pigs
from rooting and digging up the ground and also permits cleaning
which minimizes the build-up of diseases and parasites. The
floor should
provide insulation against both cold and damp. Also the nature
of the floor surface is important. If the surface is too smooth
and slippery the animals fall and can cause injuries. If it is too
rough or abrasive, this can result in damage to feet and udders.
3. Walls
The walls should be of strong materials to restrain the pig and
ensure protection. Suitable materials include mud, wood,
bamboo sticks, stones and cement blocks. Provision should be
made for suitable flaps, windows and doors which can be opened
to allow maximum ventilation during hot periods and closed to
contain warmth at colder times. Smooth walls are most ideal.
4. Roofing
This is for shade and protection of the pigs from rain, sun, etc.
They can be made of traditional materials such as grass, reeds,
leaves, straws, thatch etc, which are ideal in the tropics from an
insulation view point.
13
14
20-50kg (Growers)
1m2
50-100kg (Finishers)
2m2
Dry sow
2.5m2
10m2
Boar
9m2
O.6m2(6.sq.1\)
O.6m6.sq. 1\)
Sows
1.Om2(1l.0sq. ft)
Boars
3.7m2(40sq.1\)
3.7m2(40sq.1\)
15
18
19
Indigenous Breed:
The indigenous pigs (fig 8)are usually of modest size with adults
reaching 100kg maximum but rarely weigh more than 60kg at one year
of age even under the best rearing conditions. In general the
indigenous breeds have smaller and shorter legs than exotic types with
the typical unimproved conformation of a large head, well developed
forequarters and relatively light hind quarters. These render them more
mobile and better able to forage and root for themselves.
They are sexually early maturing and females may show first
oestrus as early as three months of age. The skin is often black, brown
or occasionally spotted but rarely white. Generally, they are adapted to
traditional rearing systems in which the food consists of diverse
vegetable waste products. Indigenous sows show excellent
mothering ability, which results in very low piglet mortality without
sophisticated housing.
ii.
Exotic Breeds:
Exotic breeds were first brought in from Europe and constitute
the commercial herds being reared under semi-intensive and
intensive management systems. The following exotic breeds have
been tried and are of significance in Nigeria.
a.
Large White (Yorkshire): A very popular breed throughout the
world. It is fast growing, strong-framed with good body length. It
is renowned for its strength of legs. The females are prolific good
mothers and adapt well to confinement conditions. The breed is
widely distributed in Africa and is used extensively for crossbreeding. For instance, the Large White X Landrace female is the
most popular cross for commercial production. The white hair
and skin render the carcass more acceptable to consumers than
that from the coloured breed. However, shade and wallows are
essential for the breeds to prevent skin from sun bums (Fig. 9).
21
B.
Danish Landrace: The breed is easily known by its
forwardpointing loop ears. It is characterised by a long, smooth body
with light shoulders and well developed hams (Fig. 10). The breed is
prolific with excellent mothering ability and produces lean, fast-growing
progeny. The landrace has a higher level of susceptibility to stress than
some other breeds. It is highly favoured for cross breeding purposes.
22
24
25
group of pigs. Add the total feed consumption of the group that was
fed together and divide by the total weight gain of all the group to
get the feed efficiency of the group.
c. Litter Size: Is important, but it is a low heritable trait. Select
breeders from amongst large, healthy and well performing litters.
d. Conformation and Sex Characteristics: Pigs selected for
breeding must be physically healthy, have good strong legs, be
free from any defects and must not be too fat. It is important to note
that the genetic influence of the boar on the next generation is
greater than that of the sow since one boar will be used to mate
several sows. Boars must have two equally sized and firmly
suspended testicles, exhibit sex drive and be void of bad habits.
Gilts must have a good underline and udder with at least 12 well
spaced, fully formed teats.
e. Other Selection Criteria: For the small-scale farmer, the above
four criteria are adequate but for the large scale farmer and pig
breeding or testing stations, other criteria are commonly in use.
These include: furrowing rate, number of still born litter, average
pig birth weight, pigs weaned per litter furrowed, average weaning
weight, loin muscle area, carcass length, back fat depth, fat depth,
percent lean, mortality rate at weaning and in growing finishing
stage. Table 3 gives performance guidelines for assessing
production profile of exotic pigs under intensive management
conditions.
4.
C.
28
29
30
c.
d.
e.
31
All sows should be checked periodically to detect any one that has
returned to estrous so that they can be served again. The sows should
be kept in small groups to ensure that they all have access to adequate
feed. The feeds should be well fortified in order to meet the needs of
both the dam and foetuses. Feeding of green leaves and vegetable is
particularly important. Heat stress has been recognised to be a major
source of embryo losses especially during early pregnancy. It is
therefore important that pregnant sows should be shielded from
extremes of heat especially during the hottest months of the year
through the provision of shades and wallows.
3.
32
5.
Early Weaning
Recent developments in the commercial industry are in favour of early
weaning at about 4 weeks. The advantages are:
a. Losses in piglets due to overlying and starving are significantly
reduced.
b. Pigs can be adequately fed, and lack of uniformity in a litter can be
overcome.
c. Cost in sow feed can be slashed.
d. The sow looses less weight during nursing.
e. The dam can be rebred sooner to produce more litters.
f. Better producing sows can be retained for longer period.
g. Early weaning allows for streamlining of the production and market
supply; both weaners and market hogs can be sold.
A very high level of management is required for early weaning
and therefore it is not in general practice. However, a technique of
split weaning can be beneficial, whereby the large piglets are weaned
first and the small ones are left with the dam and weaned later.
6.
Weaners and Growers
The 3 week period immediately after weaning is a critical one for
the young pigs because a number of stresses may be encountered.
After pigs have overcome the stress of weaning and are feeding
properly, deworm them for the first time. Group the pigs according to
age and size. Large litters should be grouped together. This provides
an opportunity to record their feed consumption up to the time of
selection (at 5 months of age) and enhances the determination of feed
efficiency. Sick pigs should be separated for treatment. If there is need,
some weaner pigs can be sold at two months of age. Others (not for
sale) can be raised on self-fed rations until the finishing stage. At the
age of five months, the live weight of a fully grown pig should be 6480kg.
This means the pig is expected to gain 0.55 to O.68kg per day
over a period of three months. By then a healthy pig should be sexually
matured. Separate gilts and boars because the boars usually start
ranting. This is the time to select which pigs should be kept as
replacements in the breeding herd and which should be finished for
market.
7.
Record Keeping
The keeping of accurate records is absolutely essential for the
success of any pig enterprise. It gives a clear picture of the type of
operations, so that the exact degree of success can be measured.
Therefore, a good record of the number of pigs in herd, feed
consumption, mortality, medication and sales, should be kept. Also on
reproduction, details of boar performance, sow productivity, weaners
growth and grower/finisher efficiency should be recorded. Examples
of pig records are given in Appendices 3,4 and 5.
FEEDS AND FEEDING
Feed accounts for 55-85% of the cost of commercial pig production
depending on the level of intensification of the production system.
Feed is therefore the major operational cost item in a pig enterprise.
Pigs require feed to meet biological needs for maintenance, growth
and reproduction. The feed supplies nutrients which are extracted
through the digestive system of the pig and converted into the
metabolites (products) that are used to meet these biological needs.
There are six classes of nutrients required by the pig: Water, energy,
protein, vitamins, minerals and lipids. These nutrients can be supplied
by a wide variety of feedstuffs.
Feeding pigs for optimum production requires that feedstuffs be
combined in proportionate amounts that will provide the quantities of
nutrients needed by the animals. The feed so pre Fats contain 2.25
times the energy of carbohydrates but
pared must be given to the pig in the right quantity and quality. The
cost factor must also be used to determine the choice o feedstuffs that
supply them and how rations can be formulated for the different
classes of pigs.
1.
a.
b.
c.
d.
2.
Nutrient Requirements
The nutrient requirement for exotic breeds reared under
Nigerian conditions are given in Tables 4, 4A, 4B and 4C.
3. Feedstuffs
Most natural feedstuffs contain more than one nutrient. A
knowledge of feedstuffs locally available to the farmer or pig feed
producer is therefore most useful. Because it is very important to cut
down on cost of feeds, there is constant search for cheaper sources of
alternative feedstuffs to the conventional ingredients. Table SA gives a
list of ingredients and their nutrient composition while Table SB gives
the list of some local feedstuffs that have been extensively researched
with limitations on their uses.
It is important to recognise that growth rate on feed made from
low quality feedstuffs is often less than that obtained on feeds
formulate from conventional ingredients as shown in Fig. 16. The
farmer must carefully consider the economic benefits of using one
feedstuff or the other before using them.
Daily Feed
Weight Gain
Total Feed
Total Gain
Required
(Kg/head)
(Kg/head)
(Kg/head)
(Kg/head)
1-8 weeks (creep)
1.5
0.3
24.5
14.7
1.5
0.5
84.0
28.0
2.5
0.7
248.5
81.9
4.
i.
ii.
iii
Ration Formulation
To formulate a ration, the farmer needs:
The nutrient requirement of the animal;
The nutrient composition of the feedstuffs available.
A calculator
For pigs kept under extensive production system, the farmer may wish
to give only some kind of concentrate supplement e.g. groundnut cake.
If however, he has access to a crop like soyabean cheaply, he may wish
to mix a ration using soyabean with a cereal by-product such as rice
offal. How can such a farmer prepare a 15% protein ration from
roasted/boiled soyabean and rice offal?
The first thing is to find out:
i. The requirement for the nutrient which in this case is 15%
ii.The nutrient composition of the ingredient which is 40% protein
for soyabean, 5% protein for rice offal.
iii. Lets assume that the quantity of feeds to be mixed is 100kg.
The calculation of the proportion of soyabeans and rice offal that will
be mixed to give 100kg of 15% protein ration can be done by:
a. Algebraic Method:- Which is as follows:
Let Soyabean (SB) be ingredient A and Rice Offal (RO)B.
Step 1: We can write this statement (or equation) as:
(A x 40%) + (B x 5%) = 15Kg of protein.
Step 2: Multiply out to give equation 2
(OAA) + (0.05B) =15kg of protein
7l.4kg
0.35
RO.OS
0.10
0.25
Total=0.35
QuantIty of Soyabean =
0.10 x 100 = 28.6kg.
0.35
Quantity of Rice offal=
0.25 x 100 = 71.4kg
0.35
The Algebraic and Pearson Square methods are most useful when
only two ingredients are involved. They are most conunonly used for:
1.
Preparation of supplementary feeds
2.
Combining two ingredients that are to be added to a third
ingredient in the preparation of a supplement
3.
Combining concentrates with home grown grains and by products. Many feed companies do sell concentrates that a
fanner can mix with locally available grains and by-products to
produce a complete feed. If these are available cheaply, it can
save the fanner feed costs significantly.
The formulation of a complete diet from several ingredients that
contain all the nutrients in the right proportions is a complex procedure
(Table 6). Any farmer who wishes to do so should consult an animal
nutritionist for expert advice and assistance.
In general, the approximate proportions of feed ingredients to meet pig
nutrient requirement, based on conventional diets (rations) are known
to be:
Energy Sources ......................................65-75%
Protein Sources.......................................20-25%
CalciumlPhosphorus ..............................2-3%
MineralMtamin plus salt............ ..............1.5-2%
5.
V. Breeden Ration
Breeder ration is usually prepared to meet the requirement of the
breeding stock. Good litter size and healthy newborn piglets start with
the correct feeding of the sow at breeding time. Like the boar, she
should be in thrifty condition, neither thin nor fat when bred. This helps
the sow to conceive larger number of piglets when bred. Over fatness
impairs the reproductive capacity of sows and reduces sexual drive in
boars. Crude protein level should be between 15-16% and should be
high in fibre.
vi. Flushing
This is the practice of increasing the level of feed about one week
before mating in order to stimulate an increase in number of ova shed
in sows. This ration should have a higher energy. However, once bred,
the pregnant sow should be returned to the normal ration so as to gain
weight steadily through pregnancy. Feed the breeding stock an
amount of feed equal to 1.5-2% of the body weight. This means a 150
kg sow should receive between 2.25-3kg of feed daily.
The energy intake of breeding stock can be reduced either by
diluting the ration with fibrous-low energy stuffs (e.g. rice bran,
cassava peels, pulps) or by feeding smaller amounts. Feeding diluted
feeds is preferred because it satisfies the appetite. Breeder ration
should be well fortified with vitamins and minerals as deficiencies can
cause reproductive failures. The breeding stock should also have
access to plenty of green leaf herbage-grass and legumes. Sows on
pasture also get good exercise which is vital for their health and easy
farrowing. Silage can also be a good source of vitamins, minerals and
unidentified growth and reproductive factors.
After each farrowing (at least 2 days) sows should be fed 1kg of
rice bran to prevent constipation. The sow can be given less fibrous
and more digestive lactation rations a week after farrowing. Rushing
the sow back into full feed after farrowing is a major cause of low milk
yield 6. Methods of Feeding Pigs
Age and productive function of the animal dictate methods that
are available. Examples are as follows:
a.
Full Feeding: For maximum daily gain, it is usually necessary
to allow the pig access to feed at all times. Many different
designs of feeders can be used, but to minimize feed wastage,
constant attention to feeder adjustment is required. One feeder
should be provided for 46 pigs.
b.
On-Floor Feeding: This is suited particularly to controlled
feeding of finishing swine or the breeding herd. Feeding of pigs
in their sleeping are~ on solid floors encourages cleanness,
since pigs are less inclined to dung in their eating and sleeping
areas.
c.
Internal Feeding: Allowing breeding animals, especially
during gestation. access to a self-feeder every third day is a
labour saving technique. The number of times the animals
should have access to a feeder will depend on the condition
and gain of the animals. Regularity of schedule is important to
prevent undue concern and condition of animals.
d.
Liquid Feeding: This usually involves mixing predetermined
amounts of feed and water prior to or at the time of feeding This
method can eliminate feed dust in the feeding area and
minimize wastage.
HEALTH MANAGEMENT
A disease outbreak in a piggery can have disastrous
consequences The management practices already described, if
carefully followed, will minimize the occurrence of diseases. That
prevention is better than cure is very relevant in the pig industry.
A clean, sanitary environment provides the best prevention for
internal and external parasite which can be serious problems.
Confinement prevents pigs from contaminated fields and dirty lots.
Antihelmintics and other drugs, when properly used, aid in elimination
of parasites. Antibiotics also protect pigs against disease proliferations
and reduce disease outbreaks. They can also promote growth in pigs
when given at recommended levels. For diseases that can be
prevented through vaccination, a Veterinarian should be contacted to
provide such services routinely.
A basic knowledge of the main diseases which may affect a pig
herd is necessary so that a producer can diagnose the condition and
implement control measures as quickly, as possible. Some of the
common parasites and diseases that affect pigs are highlighted below:
1. Parasites: These are organisms which live on and obtain food from
the body of another, known as the host. They can live on the body (
external parasites) or within the internal tissues and organs (internal
parasites) of the animals.
External parasites mainly cause irritation to the skin surface,
often leading to wounds and increased susceptibility to other
infections. Some of the common external parasites are flies, ticks, lice,
mangemites, etc.
The internal parasites are more common to pigs on free-range..
An example is the round worm (Ascaris Lumbricoides) which causes
lots of damage to pig herds. The round worm can grow up to 300mm
long and 6mm thick in the small intestine. Heavy infestation leads to
inherit in piglets, weakness and loss of weight.
iii.
iv.
Toxins are produced which stimulated a massive fluid loss into the
small intestine leading to scours and dehydration.
Symptoms:
i. Scouring.
ii. Dehydration.
iii. High mortality rate.
iv. Staggering movement.
Control:
i. Avoid stressful condition.
ii. Give oral administration of antibiotic immediately. iii.
Ensure good farm management.
iv. Proper feeding of balanced ration.
v. Piglets must be given colostrum.
7. Salmonellosis: It is a disease of the intestinal tract caused by
salmonella Spp. of bacteria. Pigs of about two months are most
affected. Heavy worm infection triggers it off.
Symptoms:
i. Foul smelling diarrhoea.
ii. Pigs become gaunt.
iii. High temperature in affected pigs.
iv. Some deaths usually occur in a group of infected pigs.
Control:
i Ensure good management.
ii. Practice high level of sanitation.
iii. Feeding of antibiotics and sulpha
drugs.
8. Erysipelas: This is caused by a bacterium agent which lives in the
soil. Pigs can pick up the agent from soil or by animal contact and even
humans. In the acute form, sudden death is common.
Symptoms:
i. Sick pigs show marked constipation.
ii. High temperature (41-420C).
iii. Reddish - purplish discoloration of the earst
abdomen and
legs.
iv. Chronic stage leads to arthritis swollen joints, stiffness and
heart damage. Control: Routine vaccination programme is
recommended and once the disease is diagnosed treat immediately
with antibiotics.
MARKETING AND PROCESSING
1. Marketing:
The ability to market pigs at the right time is a major determining
factor to the success of commercial pig production. A recent
international conference on pig production in Nigeria identified
marketing as the number one constraint to increased commercial pig
production. It is true that the small holder who owns less than ten pigs
and sells only one occasionally does not have a marketing problem but
once you have to sell many animals at a time marketing considerations
must be paramount. The bulk of pigs in the tropics are marketed live.
There are basically, four market outlets as listed below:
a. Private Sales: These involve selling of one or more pigs to
localconsumers, other pig producers, butchers or middlemen. The
pig~ are sold live and prices are normally subject to bargaining. This
method is most common among rural small-scale producers. It has the
advantage of being the simplest. To ensure adequate prices for pig
farmers, marketing cooperatives are recommended.
3. Sources of Piglets:
For purchase of piglets, the farmer stands at an advantage if he
buys from accredited farms such as University Farms, colleges of
Agriculture, Animal Research institutes or other private pig producers.
If this is not possible, piglets then can be bought from open markets
like the one in Kafanchan.
4. Processing:
The ability of the pig industry to market large quantities of pork is a
necessary condition for the commercial growth of the industry.
Processing outfits are capable of buying many animals at a time,
process them into different products and distribute these products to
any part of the world. Furthermore, processing makes it possible to
harness all the by-products and convert to other uses as:
* Brisdes - for use in shaving and paint brushes.
* Intestines - for use as sausage casings.
* Blood - can be processed into human food or animal feed.
* Slaughter house by-products - processed into animal feed.
* Hoofs-used for gelatin and glue products. All these are usually
wasted under the prevailing pig marketing and slaughtering conditions
in the tropics.
5. Transportation:
Care must be taken while transporting pigs to the market or slaughter
house. Excessive stress on the pig can lead to mortality in transit.
a. Pigs to be transported should not be fed 12 hours before loading
b. Provide a loading ram if many pigs are to be transported at once to
the market. The loading ram should be properly designed to be at
the same height with the cart, truck or trailer.
ii.
iii.
9. Meat Hygiene:
It is important that slaughtering facilities maintain high sanitary
conditions because the products of slaughtered animals provide an
ideal breeding ground for bacteria. The carcass should be chilled
immediately after slaughter.
Refrigeration trucks in good working conditions should be used in
transporting meat over long distances.
It is necessary to provide for meat inspection in slaughter
houses in order to ensure that only healthy meat is approved for sale to
the public. Meat slaughtered on the farm should also be wholesome
and measures taken that no disease is circulated from the dead to the
living.
Appendices.
Appendix 1: Summary of Management Practices.
During Pregnancy:
* Control energy intake, but feed adequate protein.
* De-worm pigs and allow good exercise.
* Pasture with shelter preferred over total confinement.
Breeding Pigs:
* Purchase breeding pigs trom accredited farms.
* Use pigs selected for good genetic potentials.
* Do not use injured animals or those with deformities.
* Keep pigs cool in warm weather and provide dry place to
sleep at night.
* Boars can be used for service trom eight months of age.
* Carry out routine de-worming.
* Sows and gilts should have normal teats of 12 or more.
* Select gilts based on mothers performance.
* Treat pigs for external parasites and isolate sick ones* Mate sows or
gilts at least twice (24hrs. apart) at breeding time.
Farrowing Time:
*Prepare farrowing house in advance, clean and disinfect at
least 7 days before gilts are moved in.
*Allow rest period between farrowing.
*Keep farrowing unit warm.
Keep farrowing unit draft-tree i.e. no air intakes allowing
draft directly on pigs.
*Do not feed on the farrowing day.
Wash and spray gilts or sows with disinfectant prior to far
rowing.
*As part of pre-farrowing care, feed limited feed and laxative feed. *
*Give iron injection to piglets within 2-3 days. * Provide rail guards and
keep record of farrowing.
Lactating Period:
Keep pigs in confinement for good observation and management.
Maintain strict hygiene and keep predators away.
Observe schedule for castration and vaccination, spread over2-3
weeks. Deworm pigs at weaning.
Wean pigs at 7-9 weeks. Under good management 5-6 weeks could
serve.
Feed good creep feed to ensure: fast growth, heavy weaning
weight and uniform litters.
Provide for medication
Growing-finishing Pigs.
Feed balanced ration
Provide adequate housing free of drafts, dampness and dust
Deworm against internal parasites.
Confinement or pasture is good.
Schedule for vaccination should be observed. * Install facilities for
cooling pigs in hot weather.
APPENDIX 2 GLOSSARY:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
Remarks.
Remarks
European Comission
GCP/NEP/065/EC
Contents
Acknowledgements
iii
Introduction
iv
Breeds
Native Breeds
Jangali Bandel / Wild Boar
Pygmi Bandel
Hurra
Chwanche
Banmpudke
Pakhribas Black Pig
Dharane Kalo Banggur
Exotic Breeds
Yorkshire
Landrace
Hampshire
Duroc
Tibetan
Tamworth
Meishan
Crosses between native and exotic for Improvement of local breeds:
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
6
6
6
Breeding
Pure-breeding
Out breeding
In breeding
Effect of In-Breeding
Methods of cross breedy:
Cross breeding
Effect of Cross Breeding
Effect of Negative Selection
Best Breeding Practices to be Adopted in the Villages
Selection of Breeding Gilt
Selection of Breeding Boar
Heat detection - Common signs of heat
9
9
9
10
10
12
12
13
14
15
16
16
17
Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production
Feeding
Anatomy of the Digestive System
What you can feed to your pig?
What you cannot feed to you pig?
Formulation feed
Traditional pig feeds
Traditional feed processing
Feeding Forest Products
Feeding Alcohol distilling residues
vi
17
17
17
18
18
19
19
21
22
22
23
24
24
25
26
26
26
27
28
28
28
28
29
29
29
29
30
31
32
33
33
33
34
34
35
36
42
43
43
44
45
46
47
Housing Management
How to keep a healthy pig
Effect of bad housing
Selection of housing locations
Construction plan for a good pig house/shed
Space requirement for pigs
Different models/types of pig house/sheds.
Parasitic diseases
Internal parasites (Worms)
47
48
49
49
50
51
52
55
55
55
55
56
57
58
58
59
60
61
63
63
63
64
64
65
65
66
66
66
66
66
67
67
68
Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production
vii
Salmonellosis
Swine Dysentery
Post weaning syndrome (oedema disease)
Diseases of the Respiratory Tract
Influenza
Pleural Pneumonia
Atrophic rhinitis (inflammation of the nose)
Pasteurellosis
Porcine Respiratory and Reproductive Syndrome (PRRS)
Disease Causing Problems in Walking
Arthritis
Streptococcal infections
Greasy Pig Disease
Nutritional Disorders
Anaemia
Other Diseases
Foot and mouth disease (FMD)
Swine fever/Hog cholera
Anthrax
Vaccination Schedule for Pigs
References
viii
68
68
69
69
69
70
70
70
71
71
71
72
72
72
72
73
73
73
74
74
75
Breeds
Native Breeds
Native breeds of pig can be found throughout the country. They are a small body
size compared to other exotic and crosses pig types. There name varies from region
to region, for example: Jangali Bandel / Wild Boar, Pygmi Bandel, Hurra, Banmpudke,
Chwanche, Pakhribas Black Pig and Dharane Kalo Banggur. Their short description
is given below.
Pygmi Bandel
Found in throughout northern India,
Bhutan, and Nepal. Smallest, adult males
average 65 cm long and 25 cm tall.
Females are slightly smaller. Males average
8.5 kg in weight. Their coats have blackishbrown bristles over gray-brown skin.
Reproduction is seasonal, and the birth
peak coincides with the monsoon in late
April and May. Gestation is approximately
100 days and litters size 2 to 6, sexual
Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production
Hurra
Found in throughout Terai of Nepal. Kept
under scavenging systems. Their coats
have brown bristles on the neck portion.
Reached adultery at 226 days. Average
litter size is 5.72 and weaning size is
5.14 with birth weight 700gm. Matured
males average 45 and female 49 kg live
weight. Resistance to several diseases
and parasites.
Chwanche
Found in across the mid hills of Nepal.
Kept under semi-intensive systems.
Mostly found in black color. Reached
adultery at 219 days. Gestation period
is 114 days with farrowing interval of
222days. Average litter size is 7.33 and
weaning size is 6.0 with birth weight
800 gm. Matured males average 24 and
female 32 kg live weight. Resistance to
several diseases and parasites
Banmpudke
Bampudke is the domesticated form
of Jangali Bandel. Known as smallest
domesticated breed of pig. Color
varies red brownish to black. Reached
adultery at 187 days. . Gestation period
is 114 days with farrowing interval of
138 days. Average litter size is 4.7 and
weaning size is 3.4 with birth weight
650 gm. Matured males average 20 and
female 19 kg live weight. Resistance to
several diseases and parasites
Exotic Breeds
The most common pig breeds for commercial pig production are the Yorkshire,
Landrace, Hampshire, Duroc, and Tibetan, Tamworth and Meishan breeds and their
crosses. These breeds produce lean meat combined with efficient feed conversion
(3 kg of good feed is needed to produce 1 kg of pork). Compared to local pig
breeds, these commercial breeds are less resistant to diseases and suffer more from
hot weather and low quality feeds. Pure exotic breeds generally do not perform
well in rural pig production systems in Nepal.
Yorkshire
Yorkshire: white, long body, erect ears,
good mothers, live weight of a mature
male 300 450 and female 250 - 350 kg.
High prolificacy, with a litter size of 12,
weaning percent of > 70, and 7 pairs of
teats.
Widely used for upgrading local breeds
Landrace
Landrace: white, large drooping ears,
long body, good mothers. One of the
newest breeds of a Danish origin.
They are noted for having the highest
number of pigs per litter, average live
weight of matured male is 310 400 kg
and female is 250 330 kg.
Good for Bacon production. High
prolificacy, average litter size of 11 with a good weaning rate.
Hampshire
Hampshire: black, white belt, muscular.
Average live weight of matured male 300
kg and female is 250 kg.
Good for Bacon production.
High prolificacy, with a litter size of 9 with
high weaning rate.
Duroc
Duroc: red, muscular, partially drooping
ears, desirable as sires.
They grow the fastest out of all the other
breeds. Average live weight of matured
male 300 kg and female is 250 kg.
High prolificacy, with a litter size of 9 with
high weaning rate.
Tibetan
The Tibetan breed of pig is especially
adapted to the high hills, cold climate
and to being on pasture all year round. It
is characterized by:
Light body weight (mature wt about 35
kg .)
Black hair coat, with long and dense
bristles
Highly developed digestive organs; the length of the intestine is about 36 times its
own body length.
Ability to deposit fat in the body. The internal and visceral fat is about 15 percent of
bodyweight.
Muscles with a marble appearance and meat with a special flavor.
Low prolificacy, with average litter size of 5, weaning percent of 69, and 5 pairs of
teats.
Tamworth
Tamworth: Ginger, golden red to dark
red colored breed with a long head,
prick ears, a straight face and snout,
and a long, narrow body.
Mature boar may weigh 245 265 kg and
sow 200 300 kg. They produce smaller
litters than other commercial breeds. .
Meishan
The Meishan breed of pig was developed
in China and characterized by:
A black colored breed with short legs, big
stomach, deep back and very ugly face
are the major visible features.
Very high prolificacy, with a litter size of
14 -17 with average birth weight 900gm,
weaning of 11 - 12, and having 8-9 pairs
of teats.
Daily weight gain is 300 400 gm with FCR 5:1. An adult male weight about 450 kg
and female weight 350 kg average.
This breed is found in eastern Nepal.
Breeding
Pure-breeding
Mating purebred individuals of the same breed. The progeny has the same genetic
makeup. The major objective of pure-breeding is to identify and propagate
superior genes for use in commercial production primarily in crossbreeding
programs as well as to propagate and identify superior females for maintaining
valuable genetic material. Furthermore crossbreeding will not be worthwhile
unless superior pure bred individuals are used.
Yorkshire Male
Yorkshire Female
Out breeding
Mating individuals of the same breed but who are less closely related than the
average of the breed. There should not be a common ancestor for at least four
generation back in the pedigree of the boar and the females with which he is
mated. It is a useful mating system in purebred individuals.
Landrace Male ;
American
Landrace Female;
British
Piglets born
In breeding
Mating between individuals of the same breed but which are more closely related
than the average of the breed. This could be between as close individuals as full
sibs or sire daughter, mother - son. Pure breeding is a special kind of in-breeding.
The effect of inbreeding is the concentration of common genes in the offspring.
This high frequency of homozygous gene pairs applies to both desirable and
undesirable traits. Many undesirable traits e.g. hernia and cryptorchidism involve
recessive genes thus inbreeding perpetuates their expression phenotypically. In
breeding causes decrease in litter size and increases mortality. Inbred sows are
inferior in milking and mothering ability. It delays sexual maturity in gilts and boars.
Inbred boars have less sexual libido. Inbred gilts have fewer eggs during oestrus
and farrow smaller litters than those out bred.
Effect of In-Breeding
Sow with newly borne litters about 12 piglets.
Male and Female piglets taken by another farmers to his home.
Breeding between the same siblings.
Female giving birth about 9 piglets
10
About 25 % less no of smaller and weak piglets are born as compared with first
sow and some of them were borne dead
Male and Female piglet taken by another farmers to his home
Breeding between the same siblings about six piglets.
About 50 % less no of vey smaller and weak piglets born as compared with the
first sow, some of them were borne dead
Male
Female
Breeding between full sibling
11
F1
F2
Cross breeding
Mating two individuals from different breeds thus introducing into the progeny a
gene combination that is different from that existing in either parent or in the breed
of either parent. Cross breeding can involve two or more breeds, depending on
the desired result. The sole purpose of cross breeding is to take advantage of the
observed improvement in performance of the progeny above that of either parent
- hybrid vigour or heterosis.
Male
Male
12
Female
Female
Male
Hampshire Female
Duroc Male
13
Hampshire Female
Landrace Male
14
For crossbreeding; male piglet exchanged between villages. Every year breeding
male must be changed with un-related herd to avoid inbreeding problems.
15
8 months
100-120 kg
2-3 days
Gilts first day and Sows- Second day
2 services at an interval of 12-14 hours
18-24 days (Average 21 days)
2-10 days
114 days
The sow/gilt will not stand still when pressure is applied to her back.
The swelling of the vulva disappears.
Stage - 1
Stage - 2
Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production
17
Standing test
in estrous sow
Stage - 2
18
The sow should not be given any feed on the day of weaning.
The next day feed about 4 kg/day. This is called flushing and should be done for
a maximum of 10 days or until the service takes place.
Put the sows in groups (stress stimulates heat)
If there are heat problems, change the type of feed for a few days.
Maintain a good climate; see to it that there is sufficient light in the house.
Sows should not be too fat or too thin when they are served. It is important to
keep this in mind when determining the ration during the suckling period.
Culling
Sows that are difficult to get in-pig (pregnant) which only manage to rear small
litters should be sold off.
Boars which are infertile or moderately infertile should be culled
19
Approach
Sniffing of genitalia
Champing
Courting song
Head to Head
Mounting attempt
Sniffing of genitalia
Mounting copulation
Immobility response
standing
20
Assistance
Young boars may need assistance in
lining up their mate. Make sure your
hands and wrists are clean and your
fingernails are trimmed.
Pigs mate slowly. The boar may take
a minute or more to reach the point
of ejaculation.
21
22
physically adept and sexually active. Nutrients other than energy should be
provided to meet the minimum daily recommended allowance of the National
Research Council. See Appendix A for details.
Boars tested individually or in small groups in close confinement should be
managed upon completion of the test in a manner to develop physical
hardening and to stimulate sexual arousal and libido. Where possible, this
should be done before delivery to their new owners and might include the
following: a) Shifting boars to different locations. b) Providing fence-line contact
with cycling females. This may be especially important where the
aggressiveness of the boars precludes mixing them together.
Although boars tested in large groups and in less confined settings are likely to
require less physical conditioning and sexual stimulation before use, they may
also benefit from exposure to the management procedures described for boars
reared in close confinement.
23
covered with a double layer of cheesecloth to separate the gel fraction. The
volume of semen obtained is quite variable between boars but averages generally
between 200-250 milliliters (about 1 cup). If the sperm concentration is high, the
semen will be milky in appearance. Boars with watery or bloody semen should be
evaluated by a reproduction specialist. Usually 70 to 80 percent of the sperm
should be motile immediately after collection. Low sperm motility is not a serious
matter unless the condition persists for several months. Boars that produce semen
with no sperm or only a few sperm should be rechecked several times at weekly
intervals. If the condition persists, the boar should be culled. The first ejaculate of a
new boar may not provide an accurate test and should not be used for evaluation.
Test Mating. To complete the soundness evaluation, two or three gilts should
be bred and carefully checked as to whether they return to estrus within 4
weeks. Exposure to conditions or microorganisms on the new farm may have
produced temporary infertility. High environmental temperatures, stress of
transportation, illness, lameness, or injuries causing high body temperature can
alter sperm motility and reduce fertility for up to 8 weeks.
24
In order for the seed stock producer to measure performance to acceptable offtest weights, delivery of boars and gilts to the buyer is seldom earlier than 5.5
months of age. Sexual maturity and reproductive performance also are highly
age dependent. The minimum age for successful breeding in boars is 7.5
months. Gilts should be bred on the second or third heat to take advantage of
the expected increase in ovulation rate that usually occurs following puberty.
25
Colostrums Substitute
Colostrums Substitute is a complete
nutritional colostrums substitute for
newborn piglets containing sources of live,
viable natural-occurring micro-organisms
that need to be substituted when sufficient
amounts of colostrums are not available to
the piglets because of poor milk letdown
or when the sow will not allow the piglets
to nurse.
Colostrums Substitute may be frozen, as a powder, for longer shelf life. It is highly
recommended that all breeders and rescuers have Pet Pig Colostrums Substitute on
hand during farrowing in case of emergency.
Teeth Trimming
It is usually necessary to trim the piglets'
teeth to prevent them biting the udder.
The piglets are born with needle sharp
teeth which may injure the sow's udder
and prevent the sow from letting the
piglets suckle. The piglets would then
be left to starve. Only the points of the
teeth should be removed. If any more is
26
The needle-sharp
teeth of piglets
being trimmed
A teeth trimmer
27
Feeding compost- must be of good quality and supplied daily. Compost of poor
quality may contain bacteria.
Wood ash can also be put into the pen. This will not provide iron, but it does
contain other important minerals.
Tail Cutting
Cut the tip of the tail within 4-7 days. This prevents tail chewing, which can lead to
infections. A piece of chain can be hung down from the ceiling for the piglets to chew.
Creep feeding
NB: The sow's milk yield also begins to decrease just as the growing piglets require
feed.
28
Feeding program
For the first two days the piglets should be fed at regular intervals 5 times a day, for
about 10 minutes each time. On the third and on the fourth day they should be fed
four times a day, and after that 3 times a day. After 14 days, increase the quantity of
milk at each feed, but gradually decrease the number of feeds per day. Gradually
change over to more solid feed, so that by the age of about three weeks they
should be able to take regular feed. If no nutritious feed is available they should
continue on milk for a while longer. The weaker ones can be fed four times a day for
a longer time. The figures in the table are maximum quantities - it is better to give
too little rather than too much feed. There should be a continuous supply of water,
which should be boiled to avoid any contamination.
As soon as possible, the orphan piglets should move onto regular food. This should
be of good quality, protein-rich, and easily digestible. Note-despite the amount of
care they receive, hand-reared piglets will never grow as fast as those reared by a
mother sow.
Weaning
Successful early weaning of pigs requires skill and attention to detail in all areas.
Weaning is a great challenge to the young pig. Knowledge of the nutrient
requirements, health status and growth patterns for modern breeds of early-weaned
pigs continue to develop. Early weaning of piglets at 14-21 days increases sow
productivity through the potential increase in the number of litters per sow per year.
Selection of Replacement
Boars must be replaced when they become too large to serve most of the sows
on the farm.
Boars usually have a maximum working life of between 18 and 24 months. This
means they should be replaced when they are 30 to 36 months old.
29
It is very important to keep record of the boars' use so that infertile ones can be
detected and replaced as soon as possible.
A low sex drive (libido) can also be a problem. Some boars are slow workers and
are sometimes reluctant and only now and then willing to work. Attention must
be given to these boars so that they can be replaced if necessary.
If replacement gilts are not available when needed or if they do not comply with
the requirements, the gilts should be bought. It is advisable to buy them from
the same farm where the boars come from, because in this way the previous
owner can advise you on the breeding policy for a small pig farm.
Culling of sows
Culled sows must be removed from the farm and sold as soon as possible. It
does not pay to keep culled sows on the farm to gain weight before they are
sold. As soon as the sow's udder has returned to normal after weaning it is wise
to send her to the abattoir. Replacement gilt can then be brought into the herd
immediately.
Reasons for removing sows from the herd are usually not known beforehand.
Therefore, replacement gilts should always be available so that the number of
breeding sows on the farm always remains the same. Some of the major
reasons for culling are reported by big piggeries;
% of sows to be culled
17
12
5
6
12
14
25
4
5
100
Sows that farrow regularly and rear large litters (nine or more piglets) and are
free of other problems and diseases should rear five to six or even more litters
before they have to be removed from the herd. A sow is usually removed from
the herd when her litters start to become smaller (two small litters in succession)
or when she does not readily come on heat after weaning.
Castration
Male piglets are castrated to prevent their meat from boar taint. Castration also
makes them more manageable when they become sexually mature. Castration
should be done in the first two weeks of a piglet's life. The animals should be fit
and healthy. If this is not the case it is better to postpone the operation. Two
people are needed when castrating a piglet.
One person will carry out the small operation and the other person will hold the
piglet. The pen should be dry and very clean to prevent infection to the wound.
The knife should be thoroughly cleaned with a disinfectant. One person takes
the pig by the hind legs and holds it firmly between his or her legs. The piglet's
head should point towards the ground.
A pig is held securely between the legs of the assistant with the scrotum exposed and testicles rounded out
31
Step 4: Hold the exposed testicle with the left hand while
the cord is twisted twice.
Feeding
Good feed is necessary for growth, body maintenance and the production of meat
and milk. You can use locally available feeds that are less expensive, but can
Oesophagus
Oesophageal region
Pyloric region
Small
Intestine
Caecum
Terminal ilum
Colon
Rectum
Enteric problems
Bloody gut (PHE)
Clostridal
Coccidiosis
Dysentery
Epidemic diarrhoea
Parasites
Porcine enteropathy
Rotavirus
Salmonellosis
TGE
Toxins
Colonic problems
Campylobacter
Colitis
Cryptosporidia
Salmonellosis
Serpulina pilosicoli
Swine dysentery
Trichuris suis
Rectal problems
Rectal prolapse
Rectal stricture
33
34
Formulation feed
Creep feed
Creep Feed is the baby piglets first and most important dry food. It contains
20% protein that is highly fortified with milk by-products and is available in
small, chewable, highly palatable pellets for easy digestion.
A combination of protein source, milk replacer, vitamins, amino acids and rich
feed ingredients makes this complete feed the ideal start for young healthy
piglets.
Feed ingredients in descending order: corn, soya bean meal, barley, wheat bran,
vegetable protein, oilseeds extracts, fatty acids, feed phosphate, pig vitamins,
and trace minerals.
Creep feed (about 20g per piglet per day) or a good home-made mixture with
fine rice bran, broken rice and milled maize grains. Clean drinking water must
always be available.
Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production
35
36
37
38
39
41
Breeder feed
Locally
available
feeds
42
1
Water
2
Salt
3
Yeast
4 Churn
and mixed
properly
Mixed properly
8
5
Add
chuped sweet
potato,
vine/leaf
6
Mixed
7
Add
some
grains
Don't feed
to a young
piglets
Feeding
43
Local alcohol can be made from millet, rice, maize, sweet potato, yam (Phul Tarul),
banana, etc. Most popular for pig feeding is distillery waste from millet and rice,
protein content ranged from 17 to 33% (mean of 23%) in dry matter basis. It
should be mixed with other feeds such as rice bran, wheat bran, maize/millet
flour, and broken rice etc. Distillers residues can be fed to fattening pigs, but not
to pregnant or lactating sows. Yet, these animals require high quality of feed and
therefore distillery waste needs to be replaced by other high quality feed like
commercial feeds
Pig weight 30 - 60 kg
20
30
25
5
15
5
100
15
44
Feed kg /day
0.66
1.0
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Feed type
Sow and weaner/starter
Sow and weaner/grower
Sow and weaner/grower
Finnisher
Finnisher
Finnisher
NB: When feeding animals any sudden changes can lead to loss of production. Thus
feed changes should be as gradual as possible.
Length
15-20 cm per pig
30-35 cm per pig
40-50 cm per pig
40-50 cm per pig
40-50 cm per pig
Width
20 cm
20 cm
35-40 cm
35-40 cm
35-40 cm
Height
10 cm
15 20 cm
15 20 cm
15 20 cm
15 20 cm
Good pig appetite is important. Pigs will eat more fresh clean feed than if it is
contaminated, stale or moldy. Clean feed troughs daily. Sufficient feeder space is
necessary, so each pig can eat what it wishes every day. On many farms feed waste
is 15% or more. Feed waste must be avoided as much possible:
Pigs must be fed on time: this makes the pigs familiar to the feeding regime. Pigs
need to be fed according to their sizes and ages. Troughs must be anchored so they
cannot be turned over
Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production
45
40cm
20cm
100cm
15cm
15cm
60cm
Drinkers
The feeding trough can also be used to
supply water. At large farms automatic
drinkers are used (bowls or nipples).
All pigs need sufficient clean drinking
water. A pregnant sow: 10 - 12 liters
water per day. A lactating sow: 20 - 30
liters per day. A growing pig: 6 - 8 liters
per day. A boar: 12 - 15 liters per day.
Not enough water can reduce daily feed
intake. Ample clean water must be available to drink at all times.
46
Housing Management
Elements for a good housing
3
Provision for farrowing pan
5
Provision of piglet nest/ box
47
7
Suitable size of drinkers
Wooden poles
Wooden/
Stone slates/Bricks
Cement floor
10
9
Suitable floor space
Introduction of healthly
Improved breeding male
Breeding
between
selected
Regular
vaccination,
drenching
and veterinary
serrtvices
Iron and
vitamins
supplements
48
Proper feeding
Slow/retarted growth
and poor health
Dysentery/Diarrhea
Parasitic Infection
Effect in
Human
health
49
Wooden/Stone slates/Bricks
Cement floor
50
Pregnant Per
sows
sow
1.5
- 2.0
sqm
Lactating Per
sows
sow 4
- 6 sqm
Weaner
piglets
Per
piglet
0.3
0.5
sqm
Model
Remarks
A flat, solid floor is
usually made from
cement (but not
polished to avoid
slipping) or from hard
soil. The floor should
be sloping away to
the rear to facilitate
cleaning with water.
Pregnant sows need
a quiet environment.
Therefore individual
pens are some- times
used for pregnant
sows. In hot climates
pregnant sows are
alternatively housed in
small groups of three.
Lactating sows need
a quiet environment.
Therefore individual
pens are used. There
should be provision
for; farrowing pan,
heating and cooling
arrangements, Piglet
nest/ box, creep feed
/starter feed for piglets.
A flat, solid floor is
usually made from
cement (but not
polished to avoid
slipping) or from hard
soil. The floor should
be sloping away to
the rear to facilitate
cleaning with water.
Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production
51
Pigs
Space
Category required
Breeding Per
boars
boar 6
- 8 sqm
Model
Remarks
Special care is required
to prevent boars from
escaping to the gilts
and sows that are on
heat (strong and high
partitions).
52
53
Parasitic diseases
Parasites are divided into external and internal parasites.
Kidney worms
Steohanurus
Mange,
Lice, Flies
Stomach worms
Trichostrongylus
Hyostrongylus
Lungworm
Oesophagus
Liver
Trachea
Large intestine
Trichuris
Oesphagostomum
Small intestine
Ascaris
Strongyloides
Trichinela
Macracanthorhynchus
Coccidia
55
Roundworm
Roundworms live in the gut and take food from the pig. The pig can therefore
become thin. Giant intestinal roundworms (Ascaris lumbricoides) are common
around the world, especially in warm, moist climates. These worms are large, about
the size of a pencil. The infection begins with the ingestion of eggs which are
usually present in contaminated soil, or on fruits and vegetables grown in infected
soil.
Symptoms
Anorexia in advanced stages.
Anaemia loss of condition.
Weight loss in later stages.
When the worms die suddenly after treatment, they can block the gut and cause
sudden death
Prevention
Control with medicine in the food is useful and provide clean and dry pens.
Rotational grazing and periodic disinfection of pastures.
Separation of young ones from adults.
Washing sows before farrowing.
56
Periodic deworming
Herbal treatment: herbs such as moringa are considered to be antihelmintic
( able to kill intestinal worms)
Tapeworm
Tapeworms are flat and long ribbon like creatures which are common in all parts
of the world. Tapeworms do not have a digestive system so they receive their food
through their skin as they absorb our nutrients. They especially absorb folic acid
and vitamin B-12. These parasites may cause what is referred to as verminous
intoxication as they put out and leave dangerous waste products in our bodies.
These tapeworms can roll themselves into a ball and can be felt on the right side of
the abdomen under the liver.
Pork measles is caused by tapeworms which live in the muscles of pigs. They do not
usually affect the pig, but can lead to pain and the pig may find it difficult to move
around. When people eat undercooked measly pork, the worms develop inside the
people, and can make them very sick.
Symptoms
Poor growth
Rough grey hair coat
Swollen belly
Emaciation
Anaemia
Prevention
Prevent the pigs from wandering about where they can feed on human faeces
Make sure that people working with pigs use toilets (hygiene and sanitation)
Deworming
57
External parasites
External parasites mainly include mange, lies and myiasis.
Mange
It is caused by small parasites called mites that live in the skin. They provoke severe
itching and irritation. Nowadays sarcoptic mange in pigs has been reported in all
major swine producing countries and is prevalent in Brazilian swine herds. Lesions,
or scabs, on the animals may start on any part of the body, but usually appear first
on the head, around the eyes, nose, or ears; lesions may progress to hyperkeratosis
and exfoliation of epidermal debris.
Symptoms
The pig becomes itchy, and scratches and rubs against the walls of the sty and
other objects with the skin between the legs, around the eyes, ears and neck
being principally affected.
The coat looks dull, and there are bare patches, heavy crusts, and lines on the
body that look like ribs
Restlessness and itching which can be very severe
Red pimples on skin, which turn into crusts and scabs. Later the skin looks very
rough, is thickened and covered with flakes scratching. Skin may show red spots
or bite wounds
Thick skin and rough hair coat
Anaemia in severe cases especially in piglets
Death in severe cases
Prevention
Wash the sow before farrowing at least twice at a one week interval.
Boars should be washed at least four times a year.
Treat gilts upon entering the farm and before serving.
Wash all pigs at the beginning of fattening if mange is already a problem.
58
Maintain proper animal nutrition and health program to reduce severity and
spread of mange. Recommended control products are: ivermectin (1%
injectable), or malathion (1% spray).
General cleanliness.
Treatment
Remove scales and dirt with soap and water and a stiff brush.
Afterwards the pig should be washed with organophosphate compounds.
Repeat this treatment several times
Ivermectin injection is a very effective treatment against mange and all other
parasites. Spraying the animals with cattle dip also kills many parasites on the
skin
Herbal treatment: Smearing with coconut oil can be an effective control in cases
of light contamination
Lice
These are blood suckers that also cause irritation of the skin. The hog louse is the
largest louse species (6,4mm) commonly associated with domestic animals. It is
found most frequently in the folds of skin behind the ears and between the legs.
The blood-sucking activity of hog lice results in much irritation and discomfort to
swine
Symptoms
Itching
Skin may show red spots or bite wounds.
Thick skin and rough hair coat.
Anaemia in severe cases especially in piglets.
59
Prevention
General cleanliness
Treat piglets before putting them in fattening house. Fatteners don't need to be
treated
Treat gilts before first service
Treat boars twice a year
Treat new stock on arrival and seven days later. Piglets below three weeks
should not be treated
Treatment
The insecticide benzene hexachloride is a very effective remedy (0.1 - 0.25%
solution) against lice. Treatment should be repeated after 7 days since the
insecticide only kills adults and not eggs.
Lice can be kept away to a certain extent by planting a pole sturdily in the
ground at an angle of 45 with an old sack wound around it immersed in crude
oil or used motor-oil.
Myiasis
Disease caused by flies, which lay eggs in the wounds. The eggs hatch into larvae
which live and feed on the flesh and developed into pupate, and fall off when they
mature, creating more wounds.
Symptoms
Infected wounds look very wet and dirty and the edges can be covered with a
grey mass which are the eggs of flies.
Later on, larva can be seen as screw-shaped pinkish worms crawling through the
wound.
The pigs show annoyance and try to find a shabby place.
Death may occur.
60
Clean the wound daily with water and disinfectant then apply insecticide on
wound to cover edges too.
Best working insecticides are the long-acting ones e.g. diazinon or supona.
Good mange control program to prevent wounds smooth walls and floors.
Do not use sharp objects.
Avoid overcrowding to reduce fighting.
Tail docking, ears notching and castration should be handled properly and the
umbilical cord disinfected.
Deworming
Those dewormers that are currently approved for use are effective and usually
safe when given according to label directions. These include ivermectin (Ivomec),
fenbendazole (Safe-Guard), levamisole (Tramisol, Levasole), pyrantel (Banminth),
dichlorvos (Atgard) and piperazine. Their activity varies somewhat, so refer to Table
1 for the appropriate use.
The deworming schedule should include prebreeding for all breeding stock and
prefarrowing for gilts and sows, prevention of Strongyloides and roundworms in
baby pigs, and one or more dewormings in weanling and growing pigs. Specific
strategic schedules should be arranged with your veterinarian.
Boars - every 6 months
Sows - 2 weeks before farrowing and after weaning
Piglets - 1 week after weaning
Fatteners - 1 week after weaning and 3months latter
Gilts - 1 week after weaning, 3 months and at 7months of age at least 2 weeks
before service
Compound
All of them
Fenbendazole
Fenbendazole, pyrantel
Fenbendazole, dichlorvos
All of them
Fenbendazole, ivermectin, levamisole
Fenbendazole, levamisole
Fenbendazole
Levamisole, ivermectin
61
62
Anaphrodisias
When the sow does not come on heat
Symptoms
No heat signs; This could be caused by low body weight due to poor feeding,
overweight, mineral deficiency, intestinal worms, chronic disease, the animal
has just given birth, heavy infestation with parasites
Prevention
Improve feeding of mineral-rich feeds.
Regularly deworm your animals.
Allow the female to stay with the boar.
Treatment
Gilts should not be treated at all because they may show anaphrodisias after
every litter, if this hormone is used
Sows should be treated on the same day as weaning, and in very severe cases, 3
weeks after weaning
Repeating treatment is of no use
Leptospirosis
Symptoms
63
Vaccination and hygienic measures. Vaccines are not available for all types of
the diseases and vaccination may not prevent bloody urine.
Treat all sows with injection or streptomycin before serving.
Use antibiotibics especially streptomycin for all ages.
Brucellosis
Symptoms
Anorexia, fever, stiff legs, occasional lameness, early abortion (returns to oestrus
5 - 8 weeks after service as a result of infection of service)
Infection later in pregnancy gives rise to litter with mummified, still born or
weak piglets.
Bloody vulva discharge and endometritis.
Retained placenta.
Boars usually develop orchitis (inflammation of one or both testicles) and
epididymitis within seven days of infection.
The testicles are swollen and painful and permanent sterility can be the result.
Uterine Prolapsed
Symptoms
64
Uterine prolapsed reduction is often not possible since it is very traumatic and
the best therapy is to amputate the whole uterus. However 50% of sows do not
survive this operation, therefore slaughter should be considered.
Mastitis
Bacterial infection causes an
inflammation of the mammary organ and
results in changes in milk production.
These bacteria enter the wounds in the
udder.
Symptoms
Swollen, hot and painful udder.
Absence or reduction of milk in the
affected udder.
Sow refuses to suckle her piglets. As a result, piglets squeal due to hunger.
Sow has depression and often fever.
Prevention
Treatment
Endometritis (bacteria)
Symptoms
65
Birth diarrhoea
Symptoms
Acute diarrhoea in piglets is watery, yellowish grey and within a very short time
piglets become thin with sunken eyes due to dehydration.
Death can occur within 2 - 3 days. Death in piglets can occur even within one
day before any sign of diarrhoea is observed.
Prevention
Keep pens, feed and watering troughs clean.
Separate affected animals from healthy animals.
Do not change abruptly an animal's ration.
Make sure that piglets have sufficient colostrum within 36 hours of birth
Treatment
Vaccination
Plenty of drinking water with electrolytes
Use of antibiotics.
Herbal medicine: Fresh leaves of guava or star apple. This will treat the
symptoms only.
66
Acute haemorrhagic or necrotic inflammation of the gut during the first and
second week of birth.
In acute cases the diarrhea is watery with an orange-red color due to blood and
its often bubbly.
In later stages, shreds of dead tissues can be found.
Piglets are weak and don't suckle. They get pale and die within a few days.
Vaccination
Make sure that piglets have sufficient colostrums within 36 hours of birth
Keep the pigs warm
Cleanliness
Contact the veterinary
Transmissible Gastroenteritis
Transmissible gastroenteritis is a common viral disease of the small intestine that
causes vomiting and profuse diarrhea in pigs of all ages. It spreads rapidly. Piglets
less than one-week old rarely survive the disease.
Symptoms
Very high mortality mainly in piglets upto 14 days old.
The piglets often vomit and have severe greenish-yellow watery diarrhoea,
dehydration.
In sows the diarrhoea is greyish, they vomit, abortion may occur.
In fatteners the symptoms are like those in sows.
Fat diarrhea
Symptoms
67
Post diarrhea
Symptoms
Diarrhoea with no traces of blood.
Death from dehydration or blood poisoning (septicaemia).
Salmonellosis
Symptoms
High fever, dullness, anorexia, weakness, nervous symptoms.
Bluish-red coloring of the ears, limbs and the centre of the belly.
Bloody spots all over the body.
Wasting and persistent grayish diarrhea sometimes mixed with blood and
shreds or necrotic material from the gut.
Swine Dysentery
Known by a number of names, including bloody diarrhoea, hemorrhagic enteritis
bloody scours and black scours. It affects pigs of all ages, sometimes causing death.
Symptoms
In acute cases wasting and passing of diarrhoea containing varying amounts of
mucus, blood and necrotic material.
Fever.
In chronic cases, pigs have greyish or brownish faeces, rough hair coat and low
growth rate.
68
Prevention
Treatment:
Some herbal medicines (moringa tree leaves) can be used to relieve the
symptoms of diarrhoea and dehydration
Use antibiotics as prescribed by a veterinary doctor
Influenza
Symptoms
69
Pleural Pneumonia
Symptoms
Acute cases show anorexia, high fever, laboured respiration, red or blue
colouring of ear-tips, belly, legs and end of tail.
Death within 4 - 6 hours of onset of clinical symptoms.
Blood stained froth from mouth or nose.
Abortion.
In chronic cases, anorexia, coughing and depressed growth rate.
Hygiene
Use antibiotics as prescribed by a
veterinary doctor
Pasteurellosis
Symptoms
70
Coughing
Breathing through the mouth
Hygiene
Use antibiotics as prescribed by a veterinary doctor
Arthritis
Symptoms
71
Streptococcal infections
Symptoms
Septicaemia (blood poisoning) which may cause immediate death.
Young pigs rarely recover
Sudden death in older pigs.
Fever, nervous signs and arthritis mostly in weaners and fatteners.
Nutritional Disorders
Anaemia
Symptoms
Pale skin, weak piglets with high respiratory rate.
Jaundice
Blood stained faeces.
Early death
72
Feeding compost- must be of good quality and supplied daily. Compost of poor
quality may contain bacteria.
Wood ash can also be put into the pen. This will not provide iron, but it does
contain other important minerals.
Other Diseases
Lesion; on foot
on tongue
on teats
73
Quarantine.
Boiling of swill.
Restriction of movement of meat from
infected areas
Vaccination
Disinfection
No therapy (treatment)
Anthrax
Rare in pigs and associated with contaminated feed containing meat.
Symptoms
Oedema and swelling of the neck region.
Dysponea (breathing difficulty).
Fever, anorexia and passage of bloody feaces.
Sudden death.
Time of vaccination
Spore vaccine
Swine Erysipelas
Tuberculosis
B.C.G vaccine
Warning: Do not administer any medicine and drug within 72 hours of slaughter for food.
74
Duration of
Remarks
immunity period
One season
One year
One season
To be repeated every
2 or 3 years
Hentie Breedt
CONTENTS
1.
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................1
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
8.5.5
9.
Manure spreaders and sprinklers and the use and application of manure ...68
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2
2.
Between the boundaries of maximum and minimum temperatures, the thermal neutral
zone prevails. At temperatures below the minimum critical temperature, the body
will not be able to produce sufficient heat to make up for heat loss. Death because of
hypothermia (too little heat) will occur. Heating above the critical maximum
boundary, that is where the metabolic rate is too low, will cause an increase in body
temperature and death due to hyperthermia or heat stress.
Piglets are very prone to hypoglycaemia, or low blood glucose content, during the
first seven days after birth. It commonly occurs due to a lack of feed because the sow
suffers from agalactia (no milk flow). The lower the ambient temperature, the sooner
this fatal condition steps in. Heat stress due to too high temperatures is an important
contributing factor to agalactia. Other clinical symptoms of hyperthermia in sows are
an increased body temperature (up to 42 C), rapid pulse, immobility and diminished
appetite.
CHAPTER 3
3.
3.1
3.2.1
Grouping
Pigs grow larger when they are housed in groups instead of individually. However, if
the total floor surface for pigs with a live body weight of 60 kg and more is smaller
than 0,5 m per pig, the growth rate may be lower. A large number of pigs on a
limited floor surface in the same pen will result in diminished growth rates and feed
utilization, cannibalism (such as tail biting), dung and urine soiling of the pens and
heat stress.
The ideal group size is determined primarily by the size and weight of the pigs,
environmental conditions, feeding and pen changing practices. Grouping and large
groups are not advisable with the use of hayless and/or slatted floors. Grouping of
eight to 12 pigs per pen during the growth stages of 45 kg to 115 kg live body weight
apparently has good growth and feed utilization results (refer to Chapter 5). Pigs with
a live body weight of less than 45 kg may be grouped together in larger numbers,
provided that the social hierarchy can be established early.
3.2.2
Changing pens
Changing pens means transferring a litter or group of pigs from one type of pen to
another, from birth to weaning or slaughter stage.
When changing pens in large intensive units, it is important to handle the pigs with
care. It is therefore essential to create favourable conditions while planning and
arranging pens, passages and troughs to ensure that they do not suffer any discomfort
or undue stress.
The major objective of changing pens is to ensure the economical utilization of the
available housing, especially for growers and finishers. By changing pens, a saving
of up to 36% of the floor surface for sleeping space may be achieved. The saving is
possible because pigs require floor space of varying sizes, as they grow bigger. If
they are kept in the same pen from birth to marketing, floor space is wasted. If pens
are changed only twice, there already is a saving of 31%. When changing pens, the
following needs to be kept in mind:
With single pen systems, the litter is housed in a single pen from birth or weaning to
slaughter stage. Pigs housed in a single pen system show about 2% better growth rate
and 13% more efficient feed utilization than pigs that change pens in the normal
fashion. Also, there are fewer cases of tail biting and cannibalism, while pens need
not to be disinfected as often. The system also requires less labour.
The disadvantage of the single pen system is that it makes specific demands
regarding the planning and erection of the building. Because of the various different
sizes of pigs and the fluctuating number of piglets per litter, pens cannot be used
optimally. This increases the housing costs.
Compared to other aspects, such as the climate in the building, transport methods,
removal of manure and run-off, health and hygiene, pen changing is relatively
unimportant. The larger and more intensive the pig production unit becomes, the
more desirable it is to provide separate housing for each of the different life stages of
the pigs. Pen changing then becomes an essential activity in the production system.
3.3
CHAPTER 4
4.
4.1
Objectives of ventilation
The objective of ventilation is the control of the ambient temperature and humidity,
the provision of fresh air, the removal of harmful gases and the movement of air.
4.1.1
The ability of pigs to create heat and increase the temperature of the ambient
micro environment.
The relative increase of solar heat inside the piggery.
The relative effect of total insulation, partial insulation (roof) and no insulation.
The important role of ventilation to curtail temperature increases during warm
conditions.
Temperatures inside buildings can be controlled effectively with the use of natural
ventilation, provided that the design of the building, as well as the layout and construction are
done properly.
4.1.2
Controlling humidity
Humidity plays an important part in the micro climate conditions inside piggeries.
The ideal is to keep pigs in a relative humidity range of between 45% and 75%.
Relative humidity values of more than 80% and less than 40% should be avoided.
This may be brought about randomly by means of natural ventilation, or by means of
controlled ventilation and proper management.
4.1.3
4.1.4
4.1.5
Air movement
Draughts cause the temperature to fall due to evaporative cooling, that is to say
increases in both the lower critical and upper critical temperatures occur. The graphs
in Figure 4.3 give approximate indications of how the effective temperatures on the
skin surface are lowered due to air movement. Draughts should be avoided. Air
movement should be limited to the minimum during winter. During summer however
air movement should be used to cool the environment by means of judicious
ventilation control.
4.1.6
Light
Artificial lighting is not usually required in piggeries. Translucent flaps or shutters
usually allow enough daylight to enter the building. Even solid flaps will allow
enough daylight into the building when they are opened and closed for ventilation
purposes.
4.2
Ventilation control
An important facet of production management in a pig production unit is proper
ventilation control. Inadequate ventilation could have the following results:
More deaths
Poor health
Lowered production performance
Unsatisfactory working conditions
Increased maintenance costs for buildings and equipment
In most parts of South Africa, the climate conditions are such that natural ventilation
is adequate.
4.2.1
The stack effect occurs when warm air inside the building rises and gets replaced
with cold air lower down. It depends on the following:
The temperature difference between the air inside and the air outside the building,
namely t.
The height difference between the inlet and outlet points, h.
The areas of the inlet and the outlet vents, A1 and A2.
The buildings in Figure 4.4 are designed in such a way that, when the flaps are fully
opened, the stack effect will ensure sufficient air replacement to provide oxygen and
remove gases. It may even cause the temperature in the building to drop notably,
although there is little airflow.
The wind effect develops due to pressure differences generated when the wind blows
over the building. The pressure forces effect air movement or natural ventilation
through the building.
10
4.2.2
4.2.3
11
Apply damp proofing to the floors and insulate the floors with no-fines concrete
(Appendix A), especially in wet areas.
Insulate the roof where high temperatures can be expected.
The following are important points to consider when planning the layout of
buildings:
12
4.2.4
Ventilation control
The ventilation of a modern piggery entails the following:
4.2.5
Mechanical ventilation
The principle of mechanically ventilating pig housing facilities is described in
Appendix B.
13
CHAPTER 5
5.
5.1
14
The feed trough has to be placed in such a way that wood shavings on the floor are
not eaten with the feed. Each boar requires a trough of between 460 mm and 600 mm
long, 150 mm to 200 mm high and 500 mm wide. The condition of the boar is
important because he cannot be allowed to become too heavy for the sow.
A boar needs about 10 to 15 litres of drinking water per day. High quality drinking
nipples (12 mm in diameter) with a flow rate of at least 2 litre/min are commonly
used. If the drinking nipple is placed at a 90 angle with the vertical, the height from
the floor has to be between 550 mm and 650 mm. If it is placed at an angle of 45,
the required height is 650 mm to 750 mm.
Because pigs are in the habit of defecating where they drink water, their water has to
be placed in the dunging area. To prevent the feed from getting wet or soiled by urine
or faeces, the feeding trough has to be placed as far away as possible from the
dunging area and the drinking nipple.
The boar pen has to be cool, well ventilated and free of draughts. If possible, the
temperature in the pen should never go higher than 22 C for long periods. Boars that
are exposed to temperatures of higher tan 32 C may become infertile for up to six
weeks thereafter. Sufficient roof insulation is essential for proper temperature
control.
If there are problems in keeping the boars cool due to high ambient temperatures,
they may be sprinkled with water, or moistened with water in some other way. Pigs
do not sweat and cooling is brought about through evaporation. For this reason,
sprinklers are preferable to moistening because moistening only cools the air, while
sprinkling wets the pig and causes the skin to cool through evaporation.
5.2
15
Alternatively, the sow may be placed in a pen directly next to the boar right after she
weaned her litter. The pens are divided by a pipe partitioning. A direct connecting
gate may be placed between the pens (Figures 5.2A and 5.2C). The gate is opened
and closed from the service passage. The boar is allowed access to the sow twice
daily by simply opening the gate. This avoids unnecessary moving of the sow from
her place to the boar and back, and makes it easier to manage the boars oestrus
identification problems. The arrangement as mentioned above also has a calming
effect especially on the boars. As soon as the sow has been served and does not want
to stay with the boar any longer, she is moved to an individual pen close to the boar
pen. If it is confirmed after three weeks that conception has taken place, she is moved
to a crate partition or to group housing where she remains until her 12th week of
pregnancy.
An alternative is to follow the same construction as in Figure 5.2A, but to leave out
the gates that link the boar pen with adjoining pens. All movement from and to the
boar pen then takes place via the passage.
For individual feeding, the sows are placed in pens of about 1,8 m adjacent to the
boar pen. The sows are kept in the same building as the boar. For this reason, the
same temperature and ventilation requirements apply as those for the boar.
Temperatures of between 9 C and 22 C are acceptable, with an optimum of 16 C.
The relative humidity should be between 40% and 70%.
16
Slatted floors, with a width of one third of the length of the sow pen, are frequently
used. The slats keep the sows relatively dry and clean, and facilitate management of
the system significantly. A drinking nipple with a 12 mm diameter is placed 550 mm
to 650 mm high at an angle of 90, or 650 mm to 750 mm high at an angle of 45
above the slatted floor. The estimated water requirements of a non-pregnant sow is
five litres per day and the required water flow rate two litres per minute. The feeding
trough measurements are the same as those for boars.
The sow and boar stable has to make provision for pens adjacent to the boar pens
where gilts can be placed in groups of four. The boars that are placed next to the gilts
should preferably be older boars that are more relaxed and have more experience.
Hand servicing should be supervised and requires a lot of patience because it may
take a while.
17
5.3
5.3.1
Length:
Height:
Width:
460 mm to 600 mm
150 mm to 200 mm
300 mm to 500 mm
18
water should be provided per nipple should be about two litres/min. Nipples that are
placed at an angle of 90 with the vertical have to be 550 mm to 650 mm above
ground level, and nipples at an angle of 45, 650 mm to 750 mm above ground level.
Drinking nipples are often placed above the feeding troughs to ensure that water
spills only into the trough.
5.3.2
19
Where possible, sows with the same body weight and condition have to be grouped
in the same pen with a floor area of 3,9 m to 4,9 m per sow. The area includes a
sleeping area of 1,3 m to 1,8 m, a dunging passage of 1,3 m to 1,8 m and an
individual eating space of 1,3 m per sow. The height of the pen wall must be
1 200 mm. A gate 1 200 mm high and 750 mm wide, consisting of mild steel rods
with a diameter of 12 mm and spaced about 50 mm vertically, must be provided.
Group housing can also be done semi-intensively by merely placing a roof over the
pens and keeping the sides open. This layout requires less material and construction
costs, but could possibly create problems regarding the regulation of temperature and
ventilation. Instead of using wall partitions between pens, vertical trellis partitions
consisting of mild steel pipes 20 mm thick, or else mild steel 12 mm in diameter,
spaced 50 mm to 75 mm vertically, can be used.
Where slatted floors are used, the slats should cover one third of the length of the
pen, and the drinking nipples should be installed above the slatted floor to prevent
water from spilling on the floor. Use can also be made of a shallow manure channel
with a flushing system (refer to paragraph 8.3.5).
5.3.3
5.4
Farrowing pens
5.4.1
General
The most important considerations regarding housing during farrowing and the first
seven to ten days thereafter, are to supply optimum temperatures to the sow and her
litter and to limit deaths among the piglets through trampling or overlying.
Approximately 30 farrowing pens, 1,8 m to 2,0 m by 2,2 m to 2,5 m big, are required
for a 100-sow unit. A large variety of farrowing pens is commonly used. Very good
results are obtained by using the two alternative Holderness type pens as shown in
Figures 5.4A and 5.4B. The sloped sides, which force the piglets to defecate on the
slatted floor, are typical of these pens. Because the system requires more material and
20
due to construction and other practical problems, it is not very popular. Figures 5.5A
and 5.5B show a farrowing pen with parallel sides, which is easier to construct and
which requires less floor space per pen. The measurements indicated allow for a
large enough pen to keep the sow and her litter there until they are weaned at five
weeks. The height of the partitioning between adjoining farrowing pens is between
500 mm and 600 mm.
21
Sows should be placed in disinfected farrowing pens one week before farrowing to
allow time for adjustment to the new surroundings. The sow or gilt is washed and
treated for scabby skin, not less than two days before she farrows.
The floor of the farrowing pen has a gradient of 1:50 in the direction of the manure
channel. The floor ends in a manure channel or is linked to slatted or perforated
floors to direct all urine away from the sow. When any kind of perforated floor is
used, care should be taken that the sows nipples cannot be damaged. Expanded
metal is not recommended. No-fines concrete is strongly recommended as flooring
material (see Appendix A). If possible, the level where the sow lies should be 25 mm
higher than the level where the piglets move around. It allows the piglets greater
access to the sows nipples. To a certain extent, it also prevents the piglets from
creeping underneath the sow where she can squash them.
To create more pleasant working conditions for labourers and to facilitate the
removal of manure, farrowing pens are placed over slats. Placing the pens on a
perforated sheet over a shallow manure channel (see Figure 5.5B) underneath the
sow, requires more labour. It is also more difficult to clean this system. The spaces
between standard concrete slats are, however, too large for piglets because their feet
get stuck. A grid floor consisting of flat (6 mm 20 mm) and round (10 mm
diameter) mild steel rods welded alternately onto a framework should rather be used.
The spaces between the rods should be maximum 10 mm across in the direction of
the farrowing crate to prevent the sow from slipping. Concrete and plastic slats may
also be used. The vertical partitions between adjoining farrowing pens, usually round
mild steel rods 8 mm in diameter, vertically spaced 50 mm apart and 500 mm high,
should be removable to allow for repairs to the grid floor.
The temperature requirements of the sow that is between 10 and 22 C must be
observed. Daily variations may not exceed 4 C to 5 C. As mentioned before, the
optimum temperature for piglets in the creeping pen is between 27 C and 32 C. The
temperature requirement of newborn pigs are, however, between 32 C and 37 C.
Cold will lower the resistance of piglets against disease. Piglets kept at 21 C are five
times more prone to serious bouts of diarrhoea than those kept at 35 C. Cold
piglets need more feed than warm piglets, but eat less.
22
5.4.2
5.4.3
23
24
heating is that the floor surface is also heated, meaning that the piglets are heated
from underneath. With the use of infrared lamps or heaters, the floor often remains
cold. The disadvantage of underfloor heating is that it takes a while to get warm,
especially when cold weather unexpectedly sets in. A heating method, which is
increasingly becoming popular, is the use of heated rubber mats in the creeping area.
The efficiency of these mats is very high, while the electricity consumption remains
low compared to other heating methods.
It is preferable not to place the creeping pen too close to the sow, because the heat
may cause her discomfort and stress. If the creeping pen is indeed placed close to the
sow, sufficient insulation should be provided between the pens. Generally, the
creeping pen is positioned in front of the sow away from her nipples. An additional
heating lamp behind the sow will reduce the mortality of the newborn pigs. The
piglets must be able to easily find the heated creeping area after birth.
5.4.4
Water supply
A drinking nipple with a diameter of 12 mm is placed at a height of 500 mm to
600 mm (if the nipple is at an angle of 90 with the vertical),or a height of 600 mm to
700 mm (for a nipple at an angle of 45), above or next to the sows feeding trough.
The lactating sow needs about 18 to 23 litres of water per day at an average flow rate
of two litres/min. The piglets get a drinking nipple or water trough in the dunging
area. The drinking water requirements of piglets are in the region of 0,70 to
1,0 litres/day. A nipple with a 6 mm diameter should be used for the piglets. If the
nipple forms an angle of 90 with the vertical, it should be installed at a height of
100 mm, and if the angle is 45, at a height of 150 mm. To limit the mortality of
piglets due to dehydration, the drinking nipple can be set up to continuously drip
somewhat.
5.4.5
Feed supply
It is preferable to equip the litter with a creep feeder. A small, simple self-feeder
100 mm high, 150 mm wide and 250 mm long, which is filled twice or three times a
day, is sufficient to prevent the feed from becoming stale and mouldy. The feeder can
also be equipped with hooks and hooked over the dividing wall between adjoining
pens to prevent the piglets from shoving it around. The self-feeder is placed
approximately halfway between the creeping pen and the slatted floor, against the
dividing wall. Milk powder strewn on the floor will encourage the piglets to eat.
The sow gets a concrete trough 460 mm to 600 mm long, 150 mm to 200 mm high
and 300 mm to 500 mm wide at the front of the farrowing crate. As mentioned
before, the drinking nipple is often placed above the feeding trough.
5.5
25
5.5.1
26
27
5.5.2
All-in-all-out pens
These pens are designed in such a way to accommodate all the litters of the sows that
give birth in the same week in an enclosed section of the building when they are
being weaned. The piglets then remain in this part of the building until they are
transferred to a grower unit. All piglets enter the unit during the same week and leave
the unit during the same week. That part of the building, which has been occupied by
the group, can then be disinfected properly.
Institute for Agricultural Engineering
28
In a 100-sow unit, not more than five sows should farrow per week. The building is
then designed in such a way that each section contains six weaner pens. Each litter
occupies a pen, while the weakest piglets from the five litters are grouped in the sixth
pen. After the piglets have been weaned at five weeks, they remain in this part of the
building for another five weeks, until they are ten weeks old All piglets are moved to
the grower pens at five weeks. A week is allowed for sterilising and cleaning that
part of the building. If a pen is occupied for five weeks and cleaned for one week, a
building with six sets of pens, each containing six pens, therefore altogether 36 pens,
is required.
5.5.3
5.5.4
Early weaning (21 days) means that sows spend 61 days less to wean five litters,
which means that she can have 2,54 litters per year instead of 2,34, as is the case
with sows that wean their litters at 35 days.
Creeper feed intake per piglet weaned at 21 days up to the age of eight weeks is
14,1 kg compared to 10,7 kg per piglet weaned at 35 days.
Sows that wean at 21 days show an increase in weight of 66,4 kg over five
cycles, compared to an increase of 52,3 kg in sows that wean at 35 days.
Groups of pigs that wean early produce 20% more piglets aged eight weeks.
29
If the litters are separated, 14 pens will be required for a 100-sow unit, and if they are
kept together, 20 pens will be required. The pens consist of a pre-fabricated steel
frame with a trellis fence 600 mm high. A floor area of 0,2 m to 0,4 m is allowed
per piglet with a weight of up to 35 kg. The floor should be covered with high quality
plastic, woven mesh or perforated steel plate. However, the surface of the area near
the feeding trough has to be solid. Care should be taken to ensure that metal slatted
floors do not rust easily. The partitions between the pens should be of a kind that will
allow the piglets to communicate with one another while drinking and dunging on the
perforated part of the floor. The pen is installed over a flushing channel to help with
cleaning and the removal of manure.
Because the decks are on top of the floor, special care should be taken to ensure that
there are no draughts from underneath. Roof insulation is essential and roof and side
ventilation must be regulated. Temperature regulation for decks is not difficult. The
temperature should be kept between 17 C and 25 C.
If possible, and for better results, piglets from the same litter should be kept together
(about ten piglets). The mixing of different litters may cause stress, which in turn
could cause a drop of as much as 13% in the growth rate.
Flat deck housing allows for better control, easier management and treatment of the
piglets and inhibits the spreading of disease. An all-in-all-out system is maintained to
enable the disinfection and cleaning of pens. A disadvantage of the system is that the
pens are rather expensive. The high cost of replacing worn pens is the major reason
why this system is seldom used in new units.
5.6
30
35
Trough space
Rationing
(mm)
200
Trough space
Ad lib feeding
(mm)
50
60
240
60
90
280
70
120
300
75
Pig weight
(kg)
Growers and finishers require about five to ten litres of drinking water per day at a
flow rate of 600 ml to 750 ml per minute. Drinking nipples at an angle of 90 with
the vertical are installed above the slatted section at a height of 450 mm to 550 mm
for growers and at 550 mm to 650 mm for finishing pigs. For a nipple at an angle of
45, the required height is 550 mm to 650 mm for growers and 650 mm to 750 mm
for finishers.
In pens with a feeding passage in the middle, it is essential to ensure that the gates on
either sides of the passage are not directly opposite one another. If the gates are
directly opposite one another, the pigs will communicate across the passage and soil
the whole pen.
31
In most regions, housing which is open at the front can be used for finishers, because
they are now able to resist low temperatures for some time without any detrimental
effects. However, controlling the ventilation in the building is very important. A pig
with a body weight of 54 kg produces 80 W sensible heat. Therefore, 100 pigs with
the same weight will produce 8 kW heat. Sufficient ventilation must be available to
remove the body heat and to replace the old air with fresh air. With proper
ventilation control, it is possible to regulate the temperature inside the building if the
temperature outside is lower than the temperature required by the pigs. Furthermore,
ventilation prevents the build-up of harmful gases, as well as breathing problems.
Roof insulation is recommended to prevent radiation heat from the roof. Asbestos
roofs do not insulate as effectively as is commonly believed. Asbestos tends to
become black after a while which causes the roof to absorb heat which is then
radiated into the building. White paint on blackened asbestos roofs will lower the
temperature inside the building.
32
33
The handling of waste in grower and finishing houses is the same. Two methods are
used, namely the clean flushing system and dry manure handling system.
34
Pens that are built back-to-back, with two feeding passages along the outer walls,
have slatted floors in the middle of the building on either side of the border
between the pens. Partitions between the pens are installed at the joint dividing
wall, also by means of trellises. Channels without any gradients underneath the
slatted floors are flushed clean by means of a syphon-flushing tank. All floors are
built with a slope of 1:50 in the direction of the slatted floors.
35
CHAPTER 6
6.
6.1
Introduction
Before calculating the housing requirements for a certain production unit, the
following questions have to be answered:
Assumptions
6.2
If any of these assumptions are changed, the housing requirements will change
accordingly.
Seven single boar pens are needed. Five are for working boars and two for young
boars (Figures 5.1 and 5.2).
36
Management system
The boar remains in his pen. The sow is brought to him for servicing, or the gate
between the adjoining boar and sow pens is opened. The boar is only allowed into
the passage when he has to identify a sow on heat.
6.3
Management system
After the sow has weaned her litter, she is kept in a single sow pen near the pen
of the boar that has to service her, for at least 35 days, or in a group pen designed
for weaning sows.
Needed
One sow pen is therefore sufficient for:
365 81 = 4,51 sows
100 sows therefore need:
100 4,51 = 22,2 pens, approximately 22 pens
Recommendations
Rather make provision for 25 single sow pens (Figures 5.1 and 5.2), that is five
sow pens per working boar pen, or alternatively, 30 single sow pens, six per boar
pen.
6.4
Management system
After the sow has weaned her litter, she is kept in a single sow pen near the boar
pen for at least 35 days. After this, the pregnant sow is moved to the facilities for
pregnant sows. The pregnant sows are therefore kept here from 28 days into
their pregnancy until seven days before farrowing.
37
Needed
One standing place is sufficient for:
365 182 = 2,01 sows per year
That is, for 100 sows:
100 2,01 = 49,8 or 50 standing places are required
Refer to Figures 5.3A and 5.3B regarding the physical layout of the pens.
6.5
Management system
Eight gilts aged 100 days should be selected each month. At 160 days, the best
four gilts are finally selected from the group and the rest are marketed. From the
age of 180 days, the gilts are brought into contact with a working boar, but they
are not serviced until the age of 211 days (100 kg). Gilts are housed in groups of
four at the age of 100 days.
Needed
A. Number of groups per year = 48 4 = 12 groups
Number of pens required = 24 6 = 4 pens
PLEASE NOTE:
From the age of 100 to 160 days, the gilts are kept in finishing pens. That
is to say, provision has to be made for four additional finishing pens.
38
PLEASE NOTE:
6.6
From the age of 160 days, the gilts are kept in the servicing house.
Provision has to be made for two to three gilt pens, each of which can
house four gilts, plus two pens, each of which can house a young boar in
the servicing house.
Management system
The sow has to be cleaned and disinfected in an area for this purpose a week
before she is to farrow. She is then placed in the farrowing crate. The sow and her
litter remain in the crate until the piglets are 35 days old, after which the litter is
moved to the weaner pens and the sow to the servicing facilities. The crate is then
thoroughly cleaned and disinfected during a rest period of four days.
=
=
=
=
Needed
Make provision for 100 2,3
One crate is sufficient for 365 46
Therefore, 230 litters need 230 7,9
PLEASE NOTE:
6.7
7 days
35 days
4 days
46 days
=
=
=
Figures 5.4A and 5.4B and Figures 5.5A and 5.5B show a plan for farrowing
pens.
Management system
On weaning day, the piglets are put in groups of 20 according to live body weight
and moved to the weaner pens where they remain until they are 70 days old. At
70 days, the piglets are transferred to the grower pens. However, all weak piglets
are regrouped and kept in the weaner pens until they weigh approximately 20 kg.
After a pen has been vacated, a rest period of seven days is allowed for cleaning
and sterilizing the pen before the next group of piglets is let in.
39
=
=
=
35 days
7 days
42 days
Needed
Number of sows
Number of litters/sow/year
Total number of litters
Number of piglets/litter
Total number of piglets
Minus 10% deaths
Number of piglets weaned
Number of groups of 20
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
100
2,3
230
10
2 300
230
2 070
2 070 20
103,5 or 104 groups
Make provision for 14 weaner pens because weak piglets are kept in weaner
pens for longer than 35 days.
Feeding system
Ad lib, creeper pellets are supplied in a self-feeder (which does not spill).
6.8
Refer to Figures 5.7A and 5.7B, Figures 5.8A and 5.8B and Figures 5.9A and
5.9B for general weaner housing.
Management system
Piglets are moved from the weaner to the grower pens at age 70 days. Groups are
not mixed again at this stage. Only the small and weak piglets are removed from
each group and kept in the weaner pens for a longer period.
Alternative
Producers are free to group the piglets at 70 days according to live body weight in
two sub-groups and to house them in groups of 10.
40
=
=
=
50 days
7 days
57 days
Needed
Facilities to house 20 piglets per group, that is:
2 070 20 = 103,5 or 104 groups
Number of groups per pen per year is:
365 57 = 6,4 groups
Number of grower pens needed:
104 6,4 = 16,3 pens
PLEASE NOTE:
Alternative
If the piglets are put in groups of 10, then 36 grower pens will be needed.
Feeding system
Ad lib, growth meal is provided in self-feeders up to the age of 20 days. Spilling
should be limited to the absolute minimum.
6.9
Refer to Figures 5.10A and 5.10B, Figures 5.11A and 5.11B and Figures 5.12A
and 5.12B for general information on grower housing.
Management system
Piglets are kept in their relevant groups of 20 up to the age of 120 days. After
they have been weighed at the age of 120 days, the piglets are put in groups of
10 according to their weight and moved to finishing pens. If the little boars are
not castrated, the groups should not be made up according to weight, but
according to sex. The groups of finishers will therefore consist of eight to ten per
group, depending on the percentage of pigs that is marketed at the growth stage
of 45 kg.
Needed
Facilities to house 104 2 = 208 groups of eight to ten piglets each per year.
Number of groups per finishing pen per year:
365 67 = 5,4 groups per pen
41
Make provision for 42 finishing pens plus the four pens needed for gilts as
discussed, therefore a total of 46 finishing pens.
Feeding system
From the age of 120 days up to the age of marketing, limited feed is given in
troughs.
6.10
Figures 5.13A and 5.13B and Figures 5.14A and 5.14B show plans for general
finisher housing.
Additional needs
Besides the needs mentioned above, provision also has to be made for the following:
6.11
Special equipment
Drinking water nipples: 12 mm nipples for large pigs, 178 per 100-sow unit
6 mm nipples for piglets, 44 per 100-sow unit
Shallow feeding bowls for piglets from the age of seven days to 35 days in the
farrowing area, that is 30 per 100-sow unit.
Measurements:
Depth 60 mm
Length 300 mm
Width 150 mm
Self-feeders serve as dividing wall between the sleep area and the feeding
passage.
Covers over sleeping area for weaner pens: 14 per 100-sow unit
42
PLEASE NOTE:
Effective production and management not only depend on optimal housing, but
also on a breeding policy scientifically planned in advance, and the keeping of
an effective record system.
Table 6.1: Housing requirements for a 100-sow unit if some of the production
assumptions mentioned are changed
Standard
Alternative 1
(Change 1)
Alternative 2
(Change 2)
Needs as calculated in
the preceding
discussion.
Boar pens
Sow pens
24
24
20*
Gilt pens
Standing places
for pregnant sows
50
50
56*
Farrowing crates
30
30
26*
Follow-up pens
14
28*
10*
Grower pens
18
36*
14*
Finishing pens
42
46*
32*
Type of pen
43
CHAPTER 7
7.
7.1
General
Diseases in pigs can be divided into two categories:
Specific infections and/or contagious diseases brought into the unit, or already
present in a latent form.
Secondary health problems, which develop or are promoted by environmental
factors, and therefore more dependent on management and housing.
The following factors are important in any intensive pig production unit.
7.1.1
Quarantine facilities
This is necessary for the housing of animals brought into the unit from outside.
Simple pens some distance from the main unit are usually adequate. They have a
variety of functions, namely:
7.1.3
Transport
It is preferable that no delivery vehicle should drive around inside the security fence.
Provision has to be made, for instance in the case of feed deliveries, to deposit
deliveries in storage tanks which are placed on the border of the fence.
If vehicles have to enter the area, it is important to provide a dip-tank filled with
disinfectant to drive through. Shoes also have to be disinfected.
44
7.1.4
Storage facilities
This applies to especially feed and bedding. Tanks or silos for the storage of feed
should be scrutinized to ensure that both the cover and the joints are watertight.
Damp feed with resulting mouldiness can cause great stock losses. Facilities for
storing bedding are essential, as damp or soiled bedding can cause health problems.
7.1.5
Water supply
Depending on the source and the extent of the contamination of the water, provisions
for the purification of water have to be made, especially for the farrowing and weaner
houses. It may sometimes also be necessary to use water for dosing individual groups
in specific buildings as treatment against certain diseases.
7.1.6
Insulation
Maintaining optimal temperatures is always important, especially in the farrowing,
weaning and servicing areas. Roof insulation has to be considered for this purpose.
7.1.7
7.1.8
7.1.9
Foot dip
This should be built at a convenient spot close to the servicing and dry sow buildings.
A place to wash and dip the sows before they are transferred to the farrowing house
should also be provided.
7.1.10 Cooling
Fridge facilities are essential for storing vaccines and medicines, as well as material
for laboratory research.
7.1.11 Destroying dead animals
The carcasses should preferably be buried. They should not be dumped on the dungheap where they are exposed to flies which in turn will spread disease (refer to
paragraph 8.4).
45
46
CHAPTER 8
8.
8.1
8.2
47
Table 8.1: Expected amount of dung and urine, as well as the total amount of
liquid manure produced per pig during the various production stages
Production stage
Pregnant sow
Lactating sow weaning at 5-6 weeks
Piglets
4 kg to 11 kg (3-4 weeks)
11 kg to 22 kg (6-9 weeks)
Growers
22 kg to 57 kg (9-16 weeks)
57 kg to 91 kg (16-22 weeks)
Average for growers (22 kg to 91 kg)
Dry feeding
Wet feeding
8.3
8.3.1
11,5
20,5
16,1
28,7
1,1
2,3
1,5
3,5
3,4 to 5,1
7,4 to 9,1
4,8 to 7,4
10,4 to 12,7
7,0
12,0
9,8
16,8
The handling of solid manure, that is to say manure and bedding, requires a lot of
labour. The following are usually needed:
Solid concrete floors inside the building where bedding can be placed. The floor
should have enough of a slope (1:50 to 1:100) to allow the drainage of urine to
one side of the building. An opening is usually provided in the outer walls of the
buildings to allow urine and spilled drinking water to drain into a canal parallel to
the long side of the building.
There should be a large enough concrete floor outside the building where the
mixture of manure and bedding can be scattered for long-term storage or
composting. Provision should also be made to catch the drainage in a storage tank
from where it can be applied directly to farmlands.
Front-end loaders or other machinery to transport, mix and turn the manure.
Different types of scrapers pulled by a chain or cable, or mounted to a tractor.
Storage of the manure should be done without causing a nuisance. There should also
be possibilities for partial or full treatment while the manure is being stored.
The solid manure, which is usually mixed with some bedding, can be stacked in
wind-rows. It should be constructed and positioned to allow water to drain from the
wind-row, without collecting effluent water. Treatment of solid manure, which is
being stored for long periods, is essential to avoid the nuisance of stench and flies.
The cheapest method to treat manure is by means of composting. This is a process
through which the organic material is converted to a stable humus by aerobic
bacteria. Aerobic bacteria need oxygen to survive, and oxygen has to be provided in
the form of air, or else anaerobic wasting will take place, resulting in bad smells and
the development of harmful gases. The most common method to aerate the material
is to regularly turn the wind-row, or to blow air mechanically through the wind-row
by means of a centrifugal fan.
48
8.3.2
Deep storage channels under slatted floors, which are seldom emptied.
Shallow channels under slatted floors, which are regularly flushed clean.
Open channels, which are flushed clean regularly.
Wide concrete alleys, which are regularly flushed clean.
8.3.3
Slatted floors
The development of slatted floors, whether covering part of the pen or the whole pen,
has made the handling of liquid manure possible. Slatted floors leave the pens dry
and relatively clean and require less labour.
Concrete slats are the most common and durable kind, but they also are the heaviest,
demanding sturdy support. The recommended spacing between concrete slats for all
buildings in a piggery, excluding the farrowing pens, is 20 mm for slats with a width
of between 75 mm and 100 mm. Wooden slats disintegrate, bend and are chewed by
the pigs, leading to uneven spacing between the slats. These are not recommended.
Round metal rods, alternated with flat rods, are preferred for using in farrowing
houses. Spacings of 10 mm are recommended. This is to prevent the feet of piglets
from slipping through the rods and getting stuck. High quality plastic slats may also
be used. They come in separate slabs, which are fitted into each other, making
replacement easier. Examples of the kinds of slats most often used in piggeries are
shown in Figure 8.1.
49
Slatted floors with collecting channels underneath are very expensive. When
selecting a floor plan, the habits of the animals have to be taken into consideration to
avoid contact between the animal and his manure. This can be done as follows:
Feeding places have to be far away from the manure accumulation areas to
prevent contamination of the feed.
Drinking places must be put over the slatted area because animals tend to urinate
while they drink.
The partitions that enable animals in adjoining pens to communicate have to be
placed over the slatted area because pigs defecate and urinate while
communicating.
Pigs such as growers and finishers are usually messy, but dry sows are not. In the
case of growers and finishers, which also by far produce most of the manure in a
piggery, it is recommended to cover the total floor area, or at least two thirds of the
floor, with slats (refer to Figures 5.10 to 5.14). For gilt, dry sow, boar and weaner
pens, a slatted area over a one-meter wide channel will be sufficient. Expanded metal
floors are not recommended because they may damage the feet and nipples of the
animals. Untreated aluminium bars are also not recommended because of possible
corrosion damage.
8.3.4
50
first filled with water up to a depth of about 70 mm to prevent flies from breeding in
the initially semi-solid manure. Manure from the slatted floors, plus the urine and
spilled drinking water fill the channel. The manure slurry should not be allowed to
get deeper than 200 mm underneath the slats. The manure and slurry volume can be
assumed to be about 1,5 m to 2,0 m per month per sow unit, that is 10 pigs of 60 kg
each.
To make proper use of the deep channel storage volume, unnecessary dilution of the
slurry, by for instance leaking drinking nipples, should be avoided. A serious
disadvantage of the system is that solids tend to build up on the bottom of the
channel. This leads to the build-up of toxic gases and gases with an unpleasant odour,
which may have a negative influence on the performance of the animals. When large
volumes of slurry are moved, for instance, when manure is being dumped, toxic and
suffocating gases may be released. These include sulphuretted hydrogen (H2S),
methane (CH4) and carbon monoxide (CO), caused by the anaerobic decomposing of
organic material. A sudden release of a large volume of toxic gases can even cause
the animals to die. For this reason, buildings have to be ventilated properly,
especially when the deep channel is being emptied. It has become obvious from
experience that the deep channel storage system is not recommended for Southern
Africa.
8.3.5
51
Experience has shown that when a slope of one to two percent is used together with a
smooth channel floor, the channel should not be less than 40 m long. This will ensure
that the flushing water moves fast enough to clean effectively. The length of the
building can, however, be doubled by using a centrally situated cross-channel for
receiving the flushing water from the bottom of each building.
When a slope of one to two percent is used, a channel floor with built-in cross-lips,
as shown in Figure 8.4, will maintain a liquid level, which will prevent manure from
getting stuck to the concrete. Local experience has taught that channels of up to 80 m
long can be flushed effectively if they have built-in cross-lips (see Figure 8.4).
52
If the building has a horizontal channel with no slope, a cross-lip of 150 mm across
the discharge end of the flat channel floor will at all times maintain a corresponding
water level in the channel. This water will prevent manure from sticking to the dry
concrete floor between flushings (see Figure 8.5). A low water level can also be
obtained by installing a weir at the discharge end. Good results can be obtained by
building 300 mm deep channels absolutely level without any cross-lips over a
distance of 35 m. Construction of these channels is also much easier.
A possible alternative is to use the open channel system in grower and finisher
buildings. A potential problem is the spreading of disease and the transmission of
antibiotics. The open channel system allows animals direct contact with the flushing
water and is therefore not recommended for working sows and working sow units.
When the animals lie in the open channel while it is being flushed, their skins get
wet, offering a cheap and simple way of evaporation cooling. In this way, the
summer performance of animals can be improved.
Open concrete channels of one meter wide, 50 mm to 100 mm deep, with a slope of
one to two percent on the long side of the building, drain towards a cross channel
alongside the building and from there to a lagoon (see Figure 8.6).
53
8.3.6
Flush systems
Flush systems for manure removal are classified as:
The flushing tank with sluice gate or valve discharge is the most popular system
because it is simple and easy to conduct. Details about flush tank designs are shown
in Figures 8.7, 8.8 and 8.9.
54
55
Building costs are low because the tank can be placed at ground level against one
wall joined to the end wall of the building.
A simple and inexpensive sluice gate may be used.
The tank may be filled by means of an inexpensive low-powered pump.
To prevent the tank from accidentally overflowing, a floater-control inlet may be
installed as illustrated in Figure 8.9.
Because of the large flushing volume, usually about 3,0 m per flushing, only one
flushing per day or one every two days will be necessary.
Institute for Agricultural Engineering
The disadvantages of a flush tank with a sluice gate discharge are that:
Although greasing will help, it is difficult to prevent the sluice gate from leaking
when it is in use.
Steel sluice gates with mechanical linkage are subject to corrosion.
Manual labour is required to open the sluice gate for flushing.
A possible disadvantage of the flush tank with pipe discharge is that if the diameter
of the pipe is too small, the discharge will be too slow to remove solid manure from
the channel floor, especially at the bottom end of long buildings. This disadvantage
can be overcome by means of built-in cross-lips, which will maintain a minimum
liquid level in the channel (see Figure 8.4).
Tipping tanks are mainly used for small volume flushings, as at farrowing houses.
Experience has shown that large tipping tanks are expensive to build and service. A
typical tipping tank is shown in Figure 8.10.
The size is almost limited to a content volume of 380 to 570 litres because more
expensive bearings and axles are required to handle large volumes.
Strenuous labour conditions are required for regular maintenance of bearings and
56
8.4
tanks.
Corrosion of metal construction materials can occur.
It is impractical for long buildings due to the small volume discharge; the
maximum recommended building length is 24 m.
Open tank construction does not allow for a controlled release of flushing water in
order to limit the flushing time to ten seconds.
8.5
8.5.1
57
sludge.
8.5.1.1 Single or double lagoons
A second lagoon, smaller than the primary anaerobic lagoon, is generally
recommended for intensive pig units which recirculate the lagoon liquid for channel
flushing where pigs have direct access to flushing water. It is believed that the second
lagoon will provide a certain degree of protection against disease-carrying organisms
carried over from the first lagoon.
A second lagoon has the following advantages:
When the primary lagoon is desludged from time to time, liquid manure inflow
may continue into the second lagoon.
Lagoon liquid from the secondary lagoon may be used to irrigate pastures, since
toxic copper will concentrate in the slurry of the primary lagoon.
A secondary lagoon does not have to be of specific size, since the occurrence of bad
odours will depend on the size of the primary lagoon.
8.5.1.2 Design considerations for anaerobic lagoons
Location
For the sake of convenience, the lagoon has to be adjacent to the piggery, or as close
to it as is practically possible. It is also done to keep the cost of channels and pipes
conveying the liquid manure to the lagoons as low as possible. Lagoons have to be at
least 300 m from residential areas at a place where prevailing winds will carry bad
odours away from houses.
Soil and foundation
Lagoons should be located on soils of low permeability, which seal quickly.
Retention time
Normal liquid manure and flushing water storage capacity should be enough for at
least 90 days. In dry regions with high evaporation rates, the retention time may be
longer than 200 days.
A lagoon has to be at least 2,0 m deep, but preferably even deeper. The lagoon can be
deeper than 6,0 m to keep the surface area as small as possible in order to minimize
bad odours, to keep evaporation losses and salt build-up as low as possible, to
encourage mixing due to rising gases, to reduce land area requirements and to
minimize temperature variations during winter time. A minimum of 0,6 m freeboard
above the design water surface should be provided for.
Lagoon volume, odour and nitrogen losses
Anaerobic lagoons function well over a wide range of input loads up to a given
58
lagoon volume. Volume, rather than surface area, is the basis for anaerobic lagoon
design. The possibility of bad odours and sludge build-up decreases as the lagoon
capacity increases, but nitrogen losses will then increase. The criteria for the size of a
lagoon, for reasons of minimizing bad odours and for reasons of conserving nitrogen,
are therefore not compatible. If odour control is the main aim, for instance near
residential areas, the lagoon volume per unit of body weight should be as large as
possible. If nitrogen conservation is the main aim, the lagoon volume should be
small.
Criteria for the size of an anaerobic single lagoon without removal of solids prior to
loading are shown in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2: Sizing criteria for anaerobic single lagoons
Lagoon volume m per kg body mass
Volume
N conservation
Average
0,06
0,12
0,19
Local experience has taught that a volume of 0,07 m/kg body mass will be sufficient
for single lagoons in piggeries without creating undue problems with bad odours,
provided bedding is left out of it. With this value as guideline for South Africa, the
recommended lagoon volume for a 100-sow unit = 1 000 standard pigs of 60 kg each
= 60 000 kg body mass
= 4 200 m or more.
Sludge build-up
Cellulose matter, such as straw, sawdust or woodchips, is not degraded by anaerobic
bacteria as rapidly as fat, proteins or soluble carbohydrates. Bedding material and
undigested cellulose may result in rapid sludge build-up, especially in overloaded
lagoons. The expected lifespan (in years) of unseparated manure as inflow until the
lagoon is half-filled with slurry is shown in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3: Expected lifespan of lagoon (in years)
Year
Small, N conservation
Average
6,1
12,2
12,9
The removal of bedding and undigested cellulose from the lagoon inflow by means
of screening or sedimentation is essential. It ensures a long, useful lagoon lifespan
and prevents overloading of the available lagoon volume, which may result in bad
odours.
Embankment
The minimum top width should be 1,5 m. The side slope on the dry side of the
embankment should not be steeper than 2:1. The side slope of the wet side above the
59
design water level should be constructed in such a way as to meet the requirements
for soil stability. Expert advice should be obtained. The top of the embankment after
compacting should be at least 600 mm higher than the maximum design water level.
Where overflow is allowed, an overflow with a minimum capacity of one and a half
times the maximum daily inflow rate, 300 mm above the maximum design level, may
be installed to protect the wall against overflowing due to rain showers or when the
overflow regulation system is not working. When the wall has reached the desired
height, it should be covered with topsoil, planted with grass and fenced off.
Inlet and outlet
The inlet and outlet of double lagoon systems should be located at opposite sides to
prevent short-circuiting and under-utilisation of lagoon volumes by active bacteria.
The inlet pipe of a lagoon should preferably discharge below the water surface level.
The inlet, outlet and general construction of a lagoon system are illustrated in
Figure 8.11.
Buried PVC or polyethylene piping may be used to convey manure to the lagoon
because it will not be affected by the highly corrosive nature of manure. PVC or
polyethylene pipes are also most suitable for recycling lagoon water. Pipes of
160 mm in diameter must be buried 300 mm to 600 mm underground to prevent
damage and deterioration.
Institute for Agricultural Engineering
60
Pipes connecting two lagoons (double lagoon system) should be at least 100 mm in
diameter. A disadvantage of pipes is that they can easily become blocked. For this
reason, open concrete channels are often rather used to convey manure and water to
the lagoon. The measurements of the channels depend on the volume of liquid
manure that has to be conveyed. A disadvantage of open channels, which are not
properly managed, is that canal flow can be impeded due to grass and weed growth
over the sides of the channel.
Various configurations can be used to prevent floating solids from ending up in the
second lagoon. Three of these are illustrated in Figures 8.12, 8.13 and 8.14. The inlet
shown in Figure 8.12 should be about 300 mm below the outlet. The cleaning process
can then easily be conducted from the outlet point at the second lagoon. The structure
in Figure 8.13 uses a T-piece to prevent solids from entering. The bottom part of the
T should be 300 mm beneath the water surface and the T-piece should be within
1,0 m from the wall for cleaning purposes. The third type consists of an impregnated
timber baffle, nailed to an impregnated pole, which has been driven into the bank.
The pipe slope of the latter two types should be about 1:1 00.
61
Salinity
A large lagoon surface increases the evaporation rate and consequently also the salt
content. When lagoon water is recycled to flush out the manure, the salt accumulates
faster. A moderate increase in salinity stimulates biological activity. By allowing the
salt concentration to increase beyond an electric conductivity value of between
800 mS/m and 1 000 mS/m (or between 8 mmhos/cm and 10 mmhos/cm), the
bacterial activity decreases, bad odours get worse and rapid slurry accumulation is
encouraged. In this way, the lifespan of the lagoon is shortened. The relation between
biological activity and salt content in an anaerobic lagoon is shown in Figure 8.15.
62
63
A feasible method to remove sludge is to empty the lagoon first and to then dredge it
clean by means of a dragline. If the lagoon bottom is solid, a tractor with a front-end
loader or scraper blade may be used. This method is quite expensive.
A more practical method is to partially empty the lagoon, to agitate the sludge, and
then to pump the slurry mixture in a liquid manure spreader.
A third alternative is to agitate the whole of the lagoon contents, without emptying it
first, and to then pump the diluted sludge mixture through a large-bore sprinkler
irrigation system onto the farm-land. A long-shaft propeller agitator or a liquid
manure chopper agitator may be suitable.
Phosphorus, copper and zinc are concentrated in lagoon sludge. The sludge layer
contains:
When the dredged-out sludge is applied to farmlands, the high copper and zinc
contents should be kept in mind. The direct distribution of metal rich sludge on
pastures should be avoided to prevent sensitive animals such as sheep or calves from
contracting copper poisoning. A soil and irrigation expert should be consulted.
8.5.2
64
operating effectively. Depending on the volume of the manure tank and the diameter
of the area covered by the agitator, it may be necessary to use two agitators with a
communal propeller motor. An old differentiating shaft or right-angled propelling
may be used for operating the agitators. A three-phased 2,0 kW to 3,0 kW electrical
motor operates the agitator by means of V-belts and universal joints.
65
As mentioned before, the volume of the manure tank depends directly on the period
the manure and liquid manure have to be stored before being pumped out. The
maximum depth required for proper functioning of the tank and agitators is 3,0 m
However, a freeboard depth of at least 500 mm has to be allowed. The sidewalls and
bottom of the tank should be at least 230 mm thick and constructed of reinforced
concrete or a double brick wall in order to ensure sturdiness and stability. All metal
parts of the agitators should be painted with paint that will protect the steel against
corrosion.
Liquid manure can be carried to the manure tank by means of underground pipelines
or open concrete channels. Make use of submersible pumps, centrifugal pumps with
open or half-open impellers, which are suitable to pump separated or unseparated
liquid manure effectively.
8.5.3
66
Both the static and the vibrating screens are best suited for diluted slurry. With thick
slurry, both screens tend to become overloaded, with the result that less slurry flows
through and that solids are wet. Thick slurry can still be diluted.
67
A problem often encountered with wedge-wire and vibrating screens is the build-up
of bacterial slime, which causes the openings between the wires to become blocked.
A successful method to combat the problem is to wash the screens with a chlorinefree slimicide. The process takes about ten minutes. Chlorine attacks stainless steel,
especially on welding seams.
A third and popular type of mechanical manure separator is the roller brush
separator. It is a circular drum consisting of a steel screen with openings of between
0,5 mm and 0,1 mm, mounted at an angle and slowly rotated by an electric motor.
Liquid manure and solids flow from the unit over the separator. The water falls
through the screen openings, while the solids slowly move out as the drum rotates.
8.5.4
8.5.5
Manure spreaders and sprinklers and the use and application of manure
There is a difference between solid manure spreaders and distribution equipment for
liquid manure. Solid manure spreaders with rear delivery or side delivery offer a
practical method to distribute solid manure evenly over farmlands. The disadvantage
of this type of spreader is that it requires high labour costs. Soil compaction by
wheels, as well as traction problems on wet soil, is a common occurrence.
Institute for Agricultural Engineering
68
Liquid manure slurry is handled with tank spreaders. The liquid manure can be
applied by:
All liquid manure tankers have the same disadvantages than the solid manure
spreaders.
The most common method to distribute diluted slurry is by means of a pipeline and
big gun sprinklers. Where solid manure has been separated, ordinary irrigation
sprinklers can be used. Pipes can either be laid on the surface or buried.
Animal manure can be applied and utilized in the following ways:
69
CHAPTER 9
9.
TRANSPORTATION OF PIGS
Large sums of money are lost every year due to bruising and especially deaths during
the loading, unloading and transportation of pigs. It is therefore essential that pigs
reach their destination as healthily and as speedily as possible, and with the least
amount of stress. To achieve this goal, it is important to be informed about the
various aspects, which may influence the loading, unloading and transportation of
pigs.
9.1
Animal behaviour
Because of a pigs wide visual field and poor observation of depth of field, it is
extremely sensitive to changes in the brightness of light. For this reason, contrasts
between light and darkness, such as shadows at loading and unloading facilities,
should be avoided.
Loading ramps should be positioned north/south to prevent pigs from looking into
the sun while they are loaded. This also implies that loading should be done early or
late in the day.
Curved loading ramp passages with solid walls are more effective than straight ones.
The reason for this is that pigs only notice the vehicle after they have advanced far
onto the loading ramp.
9.2
Stress
Some pigs are genetically predisposed to stress, which poses one of the biggest
problems in the transportation of pigs. Pigs that show signs of stress during
transportation should be allowed to rest, otherwise they may die. Symptoms of stress
are suddenly lying down, panting, trembling and red blotches on the skin. However,
some pigs have genetically engineered low stress levels.
Exhaust fumes of diesel vehicles have a detrimental effect on pigs.
Stress due to high ambient temperatures is one of the main causes of death during
transportation. Pigs should not be transported if the ambient temperature is higher
than 26,5 C. If it cannot be avoided, the pigs should be cooled by means of a
sprinkler system. The graph below (Figure 9.1) illustrates the combined influence of
temperature and humidity on porcine stress.
70
Loading facilities
Pigs should be loaded in such a way as to prevent injuries.
Use a ramp not steeper than 25 (slope of 1:2,2) and as near as possible to the level of
the truck to enable the pigs to safely step up and down. Steps of 100 mm 300 mm
work better than a relatively steep ramp.
The rails on the ramp must be high and strong enough to prevent a pig from breaking
through. There should also be no gaps between the rails of the ramp and those of the
vehicle.
9.4
71
The rails or panels should not cause bruising, injuries or fractures. The height of the
rails must prevent pigs from falling or jumping out. A height of about 1,0 m is
recommended for rails.
Pigs kept in confinement are not used to exercise and should not be chased up the
loading ramp, because it will increase their heartbeat. Pigs are then inclined to lie
down to allow the heart rate to return to safe levels.
Never throw water on a pig that has collapsed. It may experience shock and die.
Rather wet the area around the pig and allow it to cool through evaporation.
Also never use an electric prod on pigs. The shock will increase the heartbeat, which
may give the pig a heart attack and cause him to die.
The driver of the vehicle should be trained to handle the pigs with care. He should be
able to drive properly, to pull away smoothly and to slowly drive around corners.
Pigs seldom fight during transportation. In any case, pigs that are familiar with one
another should be kept together at the abattoir. This will minimise down-gradings
due to injuries caused by fighting. Prime cuts are always the first to be bruised during
fights.
Be patient and use common sense when transporting pigs.
72
CHAPTER 10
10.
10.1
General considerations
The layout of piggeries should be planned in such a way that it facilitates the
supervision and management of the various breeding and growth stages. The
proposed layout (Figure 10.1) includes the most important basic principles. Though
these can be adapted to the specific needs of individual breeding farms, it is advisable
to stick to them as closely as possible.
The following should be kept in mind:
10.2
Disease control
Because of the management importance of disease control, the layout of the piggery
should be designed with this in mind. Visiting pig breeders, sales representatives and
delivery vehicles, which move from one piggery to the next, pose the greatest danger
in the spreading of disease. To eliminate infection through these sources, the
following precautions can be built into the layout:
73
10.3
Feed is delivered from outside into the feed silo, which is built into the fence, or
into feed tanks, which are filled from outside by means of an air-pressure or an
auger pump.
Pigs are moved into or out of the piggery by means of a loading ramp opposite
the finishing building. Vehicles should load and unload from outside the security
fence. A sterilising foot dip should possibly be placed in the passage prior to the
loading ramp to allow incoming animals to first walk through the bath on their
way to the quarantine quarters or housing facilities.
Visitors should park outside the fence near the office. They should enter the
reception area through a separate entrance from where they can communicate
with the manager over a counter. A bathroom with wash, shower and toilet
facilities should lead from the reception area. Visitors should be supplied with
sterilised overalls, boots and headgear. A sterilising foot dip should be installed at
the back door of the bathroom. The back door should be locked to limit visitors to
the reception area until they are allowed into the unit.
Layout of buildings
The layout of buildings should be such to allow for a logical flow from the top to the
bottom of the piggery unit. While there is a continuous flow of sows between the dry
sow quarters, the service quarters and the farrowing quarters, the buildings are placed
downhill in this order. The following two buildings, that are the weaner and grower
pens, are placed on the same terrace close to each other. From the grower building a
separate fenced passage leads to a point between the finishing buildings lower down.
10.4
Supervision
The office should be situated directly opposite the buildings where the service and
farrowing pens are because they require the most supervision. Most of the buildings,
as well as the feed and herding passages, should be visible from the office.
10.5
10.6
Choice of building
The building plans provide for alternative types of buildings for weaners and
growers. Small changes to the size and arrangement of the layout are inevitable,
depending on the choice of building plans, but the sequence of the buildings should
not be changed.
10.7
74
Workshop/machinery parking
A workshop can be placed in the bottom corner of the unit where there is enough
space to park and turn machinery.
10.9
10.10
Future expansion
Provision for future expansions is imperative, even if the possibilities seem remote.
Provision has been made for an additional 100-sow unit in the plan layout
(Figure 10.1). The road for tractors and trailers around the 100-sow unit is necessary
to eliminate problems with turning. The road is adapted as indicated for the second
unit. Further expansion can be done either on the other side of the second unit or on
the other side of the road opposite the side fence of the office, or even above the
existing unit.
75
76
APPENDIX A
NO-FINES CONCRETE FLOORS
No-fines concrete is concrete composed of only coarse aggregate, cement and water. No-fine
aggregate or sand is used. Furthermore, the cement and water mixture is sufficient to coat the
stone particles, so that they stick together at the points of contact. The spaces that are created
between the stones are then equally distributed. To differentiate between no-fines and normal
concrete, the latter is called dense concrete.
No-fines concrete is much lighter than dense concrete (about 1 500 kg/m compared to
2 400 kg/m for normal concrete with stone and sand) and much weaker. Even so, it is strong
enough for all types of floors, except those that are subject to heavy concentrated loads, or
reinforced suspended floors.
Another advantage of no-fines concrete is that it is easy to mix and lay. Because it forms a
coarse surface, the top surface adheres strongly. Because this type of floor dries quickly, a
suitable covering can be laid within a few days of the end of the damp-curing period.
Finally, no-fines concrete floors are economica1. Not only is the cement content low, but the
foundations also do not need the usual layer of coarse granular material or damp-proofing
membranes.
Proportions
One bag of cement to 0,3 m of stone is recommended for all types of floors. This mixture
only requires 3,3 bags of cement per cubic metre no-fines concrete.
Mixing water
The quantity of water needed for the mixing process is critical and should be managed
carefully. Just enough water should be used with the cement to form a paste or slurry of such
consistency that it will coat the stones evenly. If it is too wet, the paste will run down into the
voids in the bottom layers of stone, thus not only defeating the object, but also weakening
those parts of the no-fines concrete from which the paste has run down. With the right
amount of water, the paste will not run down, but will be stymied where the stones touch. The
layer of paste between the stones then dries up and gives the concrete its strength.
Usually about 20 litres of water is needed per bag of cement, but slightly more will be needed
if the stone is porous or rough-surfaced, or smaller than usual.
Stone
The stone should be clean, hard and durable. The stones should be of the same size, if
possible. The recommended size for floors is 20 mm stone.
Round or cubic stones are best and elongated, flat stones should be avoided.
77
The quantity of stone should be measured in a measuring box. Where possible, the right
amount of stone for one bag of cement should be used to avoid having to split bags of
cement.
Mixing
If mixing is done by machine, it is best to wet the stones first with half the water. Thereafter,
the cement and the rest of the water can be added and mixed until the stone is evenly covered
with the paste.
For manual mixing, it is suggested that the cement and water are first mixed in a separate
container. This mixture is then poured over the stone and the two mixed thoroughly on a nonporous mixing surface.
Placing
A layer of no-fines concrete of between 75 mm and 100 mm thick is required. It should be
laid in panels. Rakes are useful for levelling no-fines concrete. Heavy shovelling is not
necessary. It should only be compacted enough to bring the stone particles tightly together. A
light roller can be used in some places.
Toppings for no-fines concrete floors
The topping should be selected to satisfy all requirements. With most domestic and other
applications with light wear of the topping, a 20 mm topping of cement-sand mortar will be
adequate with a mixture of 130 litres sand on one bag of cement. In all other cases, a topping
of medium or strong concrete made with 9,5 mm stone should be provided, the thickness
being chosen to suit the duty, within a range of 40 mm to 50 mm thick.
Damp curing of no-fines concrete
Because no-fines concrete dries out very easily, special care should be taken to keep the
concrete wet, so that the cement has time to harden.
The topping should also be thoroughly damp-cured to develop resistance to wear. By damp
curing the topping, the no-fines concrete underneath is also damp-cured. At air temperatures
above 15 C, no-fines concrete and other toppings should be kept wet for at least five days.
At lower temperatures, longer periods are required.
78
APPENDIX B
MECHANICAL VENTILATION
Artificial ventilation can be obtained by means of extractor fans, which are installed in the
ridge of the roof. Fresh air is sucked in through controlled openings on the sides of the
buildings. Low airflow is thus created, which is beneficial for, among others, flat decks and
other types of weaner housing. Pre-heated air can be let in through the ceiling by means of
another system.
Another form of mechanical ventilation is by blowing fresh air into the building by means of
fans installed in the roof, while stale air is allowed to escape through controlled openings in
the sidewalls of the building. This type of system is also intended to bring about a slow
airflow rate. Once again, the air can be pre-heated to obtain temperature-controlled buildings,
especially for weaners.
Where buildings are ventilated entirely mechanically, it is essential to install a warning
system to inform the manager of power failures and other defects. A stand-by generator is of
the utmost importance. An alternative use of mechanical ventilation is to install it in
combination with natural ventilation to allow for switching from one system to another in
extreme weather and climate conditions. Table B1 gives guidelines for the ventilation rate for
different types of pigs.
Table B1: Guidelines for ventilation rates to establish fan capacity
Minimum ventilation
Winter
(m/s per sow)
Maximum ventilation
Winter
(m/s per sow)
Ventilation
Summer
(m/s per sow)
0,0095
0,037
0,24
Growers
9-18 kg
18-45 kg
45-68 kg
68-96 kg
0,00095
0,0024
0,0033
0,0047
0,0071
0,0095
0,012
0,017
0,017
0,023
0,034
0,047
0,0047
0,0057
0,0071
0,017
0,019
0,021
0,057
0,085
0,12
Type of pig
79
The following illustrations, Figures B2, B3 and B4 show the placing of fans and the
ventilation effect it causes.
Because of high building costs, buildings with natural ventilation are more economical in
terms of both fixed and running costs. If it is at all possible, natural ventilation should get
preference in buildings, provided that the principles as mentioned above are strictly adhered
to. Mechanical ventilation may, however, be used with good results, provided it is done with
discretion, and then only in exceptional cases, such as early weaner housing.
80
81
12
Pig Husbandry