You are on page 1of 468

Ministry of Agriculture,

Animal Industry and


Fisheries

August 2011

USER
GUIDE ON
PIG HUSBANDRY

National Agricultural
Advisory Services

Pig Husbandry

NAADS - July 2011

PIG HUSBANDRY
Pigs are kept for the production of pork and bacon. Most breeds, if properly
managed and fed are capable of producing either pork or bacon. The pig industry in
Uganda is characterized by low input low-output poorly managed pig production
enterprises. Small-scale producers in the rural areas have largely sustained the
industry. These producers keep on average 2-5 pigs under very poor hygienic and
management conditions. There are just a few commercial pig farmers in the country.
Unlike the dairy and beef industries, the pig industry has largely been unable to
attract any foreign and internal investment. This has been exacerbated by the
high costs of inputs especially in intensive pig production. The major constraints
to production include; diseases and parasites, poor breeding, capital investment,
inadequate advisory services, inadequate research, lack of organized marketing, lack
of processing plants and poor product quality.
Why do we keep pigs?


To produce meat fairly quickly and to get some income from it


To produce industrial goods such as leather and bristles etc.
Pigs produce very high value manure which is useful for enriching our soil

What are the advantages of pig production?








Pigs grow very rapidly from 1.5kg at birth to 90kg in 170 days only
Pigs can be raised on small land especially where land holdings are small
They produce many young ones.You can raise 20 pigs from one female pig
(sow) in a year
Pig production has low labour requirements.
Pigs are mainly fed on maize and other grains and root tubers which can
normally be bought at very low prices during peak seasons of harvesting.
Pigs can also be raised on pasture and other crop residues and agroindustrial by products
Pigs give quick returns on your investment

Common Breeds of pigs found in the country


a) Large White
It is white in colour with erect ears and a ditched face. It produces many
piglets and is fairly hardy

NAADS - July 2011

Pig Husbandry

b) Landrace
Has drooping ears, white in colour with long and big body. It has a long
straight snout. It is commonly crossed with the large white

c) Duroc breed
It is mahogany to red in colour. Has good mothering ability. It is resistant to
stress and is adaptable to various environmental conditions. It is very useful
in crossbreeding programmes.
d) Crosses
It is common to find crosses of Largewhite and Landrace. These crosses
are very good when used as sows for breeding
Selection of pigs for breeding



Select good gilts from sows of a superior breed that wean 9-10 piglets per
litter and that are known to be good mothers.
Selected gilts should have at least 12-14 teats so that a large litter can be
easily nursed.
Gilts should be healthy with strong legs and well developed body and thigh
muscles
Beginners in pig farming are advised to start with about 1-2 gilts/sows and
progress as more experience and skill is gained

A sample of mature large white sow.


4

NAADS - July 2011

Pig Husbandry

Management of pigs

Housing

Before you venture into pig production decide on the management system
you would wish to practice depending on the resources available. Both semiintensive and intensive systems will require pigs to be housed.
Housing is very important in pig production for the following reasons:
o It helps in disease and parasite control
o It reduces the labour in husbandry and management tasks
like feeding and handling
o It protects the pigs from harsh environmental and climatic
conditions
o Housing keeps out unnecessary intruders
o The pigs are easily observed when housed

Pig houses.

Materials used for construction of a pig house


a) Local materials: wooden poles, bamboo poles, grass thatch etc. These are
cheap but do not last long.
b) Manufactured/purchased materials: Blocks/bricks, cement, galvanized iron
5

NAADS - July 2011

Pig Husbandry

sheets etc. These are expensive but are the best to use because they are
more long lasting.
Whatever material you use for the construction of a pig house it is advisable to use
concrete for the floor or to compact the floor hard.

Care of the Sow and baby pigs

Your pig house should besides the common pens have a farrowing pen (place
where the sow delivers).This should be clean, disinfected, dry and warm before
farrowing. Leave it for at least 7 days before sow is moved in. Provide fine
bedding e.g. shavings, sour grass, sawdust, sand or bagasse etc. It should be
maintained dry and soft.

Sows and piglets.

Day of farrowing
Many piglets die at this time. Up to 35% of your piglets born alive may die
before weaning. The commonest causes of death at this stage are due to:
o Crushing of piglets by the mother
o Starvation
o Born weak
o Diarrhea
o Chilling (cold) etc.
6

Pig Husbandry

NAADS - July 2011

These losses can be minimized by having somebody present at farrowing. Other


causes should be identified and precaution taken.

Management of piglets
o Once farrowing is completed make sure all piglets are nursing. Any
excess piglets for the number of functional teats should be transferred
to another sow. If there is no other sow, bottle feed with cows milk
sweetened with glucose. Transfer at 3-4 days of age without masking
odours.
o Clip the needle teeth, cut the navel cord leaving about 2.5 - 3.5cm

(1-1.5 inches) of which should be dipped in a 7% iodine solution.
o After 2-3 days treat piglets for anaemia with 2-3ml of injectable iron.
o Provide creep feed at 7 days of age. Change feed daily.
o Treat with iron again after 2 weeks.
o Deworm after 3-5 weeks and then move sow and piglets to nursery.
If litters are mixed in a nursery, litters should not be more than one
week difference in age and do not mix more than four litters per pen.
o Wean at 56 days (8 weeks).
o Remember to remove the sow from the piglets and not vice versa.
o Deworm piglets regularly
o Spray them for lice and mange mites prior to moving them out of
nursery at 7-8 weeks.
o Replace the sow after the 6th litter or after 4-5 years of age. If its
production is still good, leave it until its production falls below the
average of the herd.
o Seek advice from your extension worker/veterinarian wherever
possible.

NAADS - July 2011

Pig Husbandry

Piglets

Suggested targets to achieve








Reproduction rate 10-11 pigs born alive per litter


2 litters/sow/year 20-22 pigs born alive/sow/year
Survival rate 85% of pigs born alive should be reared to weaning (1718.7/sow/year
Growth rate 90kg liveweight in 170 days with a carcase yield of 77% or
500gms/day over a life time
Food conversion efficiency of 3.5kg
Aim at marketing the pigs for slaughter as porkers at the age of 4-6 months
when they will have attained the weight of 45-65kg
Production life span of at most 5 years for the sows.

Feeds and feeding


Feeds take about 70% of the total cost of production.Therefore use feeds efficiently
and economically in order to make profit. Use cheaper, lower grade feed stuff and
supplement with more nutritious feeds. Provide feed requirements according to the
different categories of pigs and the condition e.g. piglets, weaners, growers, pregnant
sows and sows, suckling piglets.
What should you feed your pigs?

Carbohydrates/Energy feeds: e.g. maize, corn, sorghum, cassava, sweet


8

NAADS - July 2011

Pig Husbandry

potatoes (root & vines), banana peels etc.


Protein/Body building feeds: e.g. bloodmeal (upto 5%), cotton seed meal
(upto 10%), fish meal (upto 5%), meat and bone meal (upto 5-10%), milk
and milk by-products and soya bean meal (upto 10%), sunflower meal
(upto 15%).
Minerals: calcium, phosphorus, iron etc
Vitamins: These are purchased and added to the feed ration
Water: Water must always be available. Water is very important and yet it
is always forgotten.

Health
Always keep your pigs healthy and look out for signs of disease.
Common diseases of pigs
Disease

Clinical signs

Treatment

Control

African swine
fever

Fever, dullness, loss of


appetite, huddling together,
incoordination, coughing,
discolouration of skin to
bluish, fluid eye and nose
discharges, vomiting and
diarrhoea

Attempt control
measures only

Restrict movement
of pigs or meat
from affected areas.
Slaughter of all pigs
on the affected
farm followed by
disinfection.

Worms

Poor performance of
the pigs with low growth
rate, coughing in case of
lungworms

Antihelmintics
like Levamisol
and Piperazine

Deworm pigs every


three months after
weaning

Mastitis,
Metritis and
Agalactia
(MMA)

Sow fails to release milk after


farrowing. The udder may be
swollen and painful

Use antibiotics
and oxytocin

Good hygiene in
the pig pen

Piglet
anaemia

Signs appear mostly in piglets


of 3 weeks of age, pale
mucous membranes and skin,
dullness and diarrhoea

Give ferrous
sulphate
injections
or oral
formulations

Put red soil in pig


pen or give iron
injection to young
piglets

NAADS - July 2011

Pig Husbandry

Slaughter
of pigs in
the affected
houses.
vaccination

Foot and
Mouth
Disease

Fever and vesicles on the


coronate and sometimes on
the lips and tongue

Advisable to
institute control

Swine
erysipelas

Sudden death, loss of


appetite, red and bluish
appearance of the skin and
ears. Diamond shaped skin
lesions which may become
necrotic

Penicillin is very
effective and
is the drug of
choice

Clean the pen and


disinfect. Treat the
in contact pigs with
penicillin.

Mange

Itching and scratching


especially at mid-day, scabs
on the skin, wrinkling and
hardening of the skin, loss of
the hair and shaking of the
head if the ear is affected

Use Ivomectin
(Ivomec),
tactic at
recommended
dosage levels

Treat the pigs


whenever they are
entering a new
pen which has
been cleaned and
disinfected

Lice

Lice will be seen in the folds


of the skin especially in the
neck and at the base of the
ears

Use insecticides
like Ivomec and
tactic-acaricide

Routine spraying
with tactic or
treatment with
tactic

Parakeratosis

Similar signs to those of


mange but with no itching
and scratching

Give zinc
formulations
like zinc
carbonate or
zinc sulphate

Ensure that there is


enough zinc in the
diet.

NB:
For details on treatment of these diseases and others, consult a
veterinarian.
Keeping records
Records are essential for monitoring both technical and economic efficiency. They
should cover the following aspects;
boar performance
sow productivity
weaner growth
grower/finisher efficiency

10

F A R M I N G
P I G

Sustainable Livelihoods
for Rural Youth Project

Pig Farming
Breeding and keeping pigs for income and
food in the Solomon Islands

Russ Grayson

CONTENTS
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Farming pigs in the village . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
How to keep pigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types of pigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Breeding pigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pig houses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Feeding pigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Managing your pigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

vi
1
6
8
10
11
19
24

CASE STUDIES: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

Maluu farmer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kwailabu village farmer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ferasubua village . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suvaa bay free range system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26
30
34
37

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

Introduction...

FARMING PIGS IN THE VILLAGE


Pigs are a traditional part of Melanesian life. For many years they
were kept for food and cultural uses. They are still kept for these
reasons but now they are also sold for income.

Things to think about


To raise pigs for food, ceremonial use and to sell, it is important to
provide the things pigs need to quickly grow big and healthy.

Keeping pigs
Choose a pig keeping system that suits you.

Breeding pigs
Pigs must be selected carefully for breeding. Select types that suit
the hot tropical climate of the Solomon Islands. The Solomon Island
bush pig can be bred with imported varieties to produce a strong,
productive animal.

Pig houses
Pigs need shelter from the hot sun, rain and cold wind. A house with
a slatted or a concrete oor is best. Pigs kept in pens where the soil
gets muddy will get worms.

Feeding pigs
Like people, pigs need a balanced diet with the right amount of body
building (protein), energy (carbohydrate) and protective (vitamins
and minerals) food. Giving them plenty of food and water will make
them put on weight quickly and will get them ready for market.
We can grow much of their food in a pig food garden near the pig
house.
Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

Managing your pigs


You must take care of your pigs. Check them regularly for diseases
and to make sure they have enough water to drink. Pigs need a lot
of water.
Make sure they get enough of the different food groups each day. We
want our pigs to put on weight fast so they are ready to sell.

The uses of pigs


Pigs can be kept in the village to provide food for the family and to
sell. If raised carefully, pigs can earn money for the family. Raising
pigs is like having a bank savings account.
Pigs raised by farmers in the village can be used for customary
purposes such as feasts and bride price. Pigs are a good source of
protein (body building) food for families.

Income
selling for money,
breeding more pigs

THE USES OF PIGS

Kastom
feast, bride price,
compensation

Food for family

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

Glossary
This glossary was produced by John Faleka, Department of
Agriculture adviser.
breeding: the process of mating a male and female pig to produce
piglets
piglet: baby pigs of both sexes
gilt: a female pig that has not mated
boar: a male pig capable of mating
litter: a set of young pigs born at the same time
manure: waste from the pigs body
castration: removal of the scrotum of the young male pig
farrow: a sow giving birth to piglets
gestation: the period a female pig is pregnant (three to four
months)
lactation: the period after farrow when the sow produces milk for
its piglets
heat period: the time during which a female pig will accept a male
pig
grower: a person who grows pigs of both sexes
connement feeding: pigs kept and fed in a pen without being let
outside
weaner: a piglet removed from its mother at eight weeks
sow: a mother pig after having its rst litter
feed: pig food

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

Parts of a pig
Different breeds of pigs grow to different sizes and have different
colours and hair.
All pigs are covered in hair and use their snout for digging in the
soil for roots and worms.

ears

neck

shoulder

back

loins

rump
tail

eyes

snout
ham
jaw

forearm

shank

hoof

dewclaw

teats

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

hock

Provide for the needs of pigs


We must provide all the things that pigs need if we are to raise pigs
successfully.
Before we decide to start a pig raising farming business we should
think about how we will provide the needs of the pigs.
If we provide all the needs of the pigs they will grow strong and
healthy and we will get more money when we sell them.

The needs of pigs


Pig needs
Food

Notes
Pigs need a balanced, mixed diet made up of the three
food groups:
energy foods (carbohydrate)
body building foods (protein)
protective foods (vitamins and minerals).
Bought food is expensive. We save money if we grow
food for our pigs. Food can be grown in a pig food
garden near our pig house.

Water

Pigs need plenty of fresh water every day.

Shelter

Pigs need shelter that is:


dry, that keeps out the rain
comfortable
keeps them warm at night
protects them from strong winds.
Each pig will need a room in the pig house.

A clean house and pen The pig house must be cleaned regularly.
This stops the pigs becoming sick.
Space

Pigs need enough space in their house and pen to


make them comfortable.

Health care

We check our pigs regularly for disease.


When pigs become sick we look rst for custom
medicine.
Special imported medicine is expensive.

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

HOW TO KEEP PIGS


Pigs in the Solomon Islands are kept in a number of ways:
extensive
semi-extensive
semi-intensive
intensive.

Extensive pig keeping


Pigs in a low-maintenance extensive system:
are kept outside the village and may roam free in the bush
may not be provided with shelter
may be kept in unfenced areas
are given little management
nd food by foraging or are fed food from the garden or sprouted
coconut
are more likely to suffer from worms than pigs kept in a house
are more difcult to check for diseases than pigs kept in a pig
house
can destroy gardens and crops, causing disputes.

Semi-extensive pig keeping


Pigs in a semi-extensive system:
are kept on land that may be fenced
may be provided with shelter, especially at farrowing time
are fed on surplus garden vegetables and leaves; enough feed
must be grown for the number of pigs
require some labour from the pig farmer to keep safe, healthy
and well fed

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

are more likely to be under-fed than pigs kept in a pig house


are more likely to be less productive
are more likely to suffer from worms than pigs kept in a house
are more difcult to check for diseases than pigs kept in a pig
house
are best kept in a rotational paddock system pig food is grown
in paddocks and pigs are released into the paddocks when the
feed is ready; the pigs move from one paddock to the next when
feed is ready for them.

Semi-intensive pig keeping


Pigs in a semi-intensive system:
are kept in a yard and have a house for shelter
may suffer from worms because the yard becomes muddy
require more management than pigs kept in an extensive or
semi-extensive system
will require enough food to be grown to keep them healthy.

Intensive pig keeping


Pigs kept in an intensive system:
are kept all the time in a pig house
are easy to feed, manage and keep healthy
more pigs can be kept than in extensive, semi-extensive or semiintensive systems
are easier to check for diseases
need daily feeding, water and monitoring.

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

TYPES OF PIGS
Two types of pig are found in the
Solomon Islands:
local breeds
introduced breeds.
These have been cross-bred to
produce pigs with the best qualities
of both.

Common breeds
The most common breeds found in the Solomon Islands include:
Duroc round, brown body with oppy ears
Land Race long, white body with oppy ears
Large White long, white body with erect ears
Large Black long, black body with erect ears
Bush pig smaller, grey/ patchy coloured body with long head
and snout
local cross-breeds bush pig cross-bred with imported pig.

Common breeds of pig


Duroc
round, brown body
with oppy ears

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

Common breeds of pig


Landrace
long, white body
with oppy ears

Large white/
Large black
long, white or black
body with erect ears

Bush pig
smaller, grey/
patchy coloured
body with long
snout, thick
hair coat

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

BREEDING PIGS
Select breeds that are suitable for the hot, tropical climate of the
Solomon Islands. This includes local breeds.
Introduced breed lines that have been cross-bred with local breeds
should be adapted to the climate. They combine the hardiness of
local breeds with the productivity of imported breeds.
Breeds that are established in the Solomon Islands and that have
adapted to local conditions include:
Land Race
Duroc
Large Black
Large White
local breeds.

Selecting pigs for breeding


Select breeding stock that:
comes from a healthy mother that has produced healthy, strong
piglets
eat plenty of feed
comes from sows with a good temper
is suited to the climate of the Solomon Islands
comes from sows that produce large litters.
When the sow produces a litter of piglets, keep them separate to
other pigs. Place them in a house that is dry and protected from
cold wind.
Provide a farrowing rail to keep the newly born piglets in a separate
area so that the sow does not lay on top of them.

10

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

PIG HOUSES
The pig house provides shelter for your pigs and piglets.
There are different ways that pigs can be kept:
pigs may be kept in a house all the time
pigs may be kept in a yard (called a pen) a shelter in the pen
will be necessary to protect pigs from rain, sun and cold wind;
the shelter will have to be big enough to house all the pigs in the
pen.
Keeping pigs in a house all the time makes management easier. The
pigs can easily be fed, checked for disease and the house cleaned.
Pigs of the same size should be kept together so the bigger pigs do
not get all their food.

Choosing the type and placement of pig house


The pig house should:
be built on dry land
have good access, close to food and water supplies
have good drainage around it
have good ventilation
provide shade
provide shelter from rain
provide shelter to keep the pigs warm at night
protect the pigs from strong winds to keep them healthy
have extra pens for sick pigs.

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

11

Size of pig house


Each pig will need about three cubic metres (three long paces by
three long paces) of space.
The house will have to be big enough for all your pigs.
An extra pen or two can be made for sick pigs if they have to be
separated from the other pigs.

Pig pens should be made about three metres by three


metres square. The sides should be made strong.
This pig pen is made of strong steel mesh attached to
a strong timber frame.

12

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

Materials
Use bush materials, especially sago palm for the roof, to build your
pig house. This saves money. Make sure the oors and walls are
strong.
The roof of the pig house can be made of galvanised iron or leaf.
Leaf roofs cost less.

Types of pig houses


There are three types of pig house:
slatted oor house
concrete oor house
deep litter
stone oor house
earth oor house.

The slatted oor pig house is


raised above the ground. It is
easy to clean and provides
good ventilation for
the pigs.

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

13

Slated floor pig house


usually 2.5m long by 2m wide, depending on the number of
pigs
the house is raised above the ground
it is easy to make
it costs less to make
is easy to clean; gaps between the oor planks allow waste to be
washed away
provides good ventilation
keeps out dogs
stops the pigs getting worms
is easy to make from bush poles or from sawn timber.
It will be necessary to clean under the slatted oor to remove
waste.
Local bush pig in
house with slatted
oor. Small spaces
between planks
helps with cleaning.

14

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

John Faleka, agriculture Field Ofcer, recommends slatted oor pig


houses be built from sawn timber of 10 to 12 x 2.4cm in size. These
are laid with a gap between them of 2.5cm. The sides of the pig house
can be made with the same or similar-sized timber.
Materials:

posts: 8 pieces (4 x 4) 10 ft long

bearers: 4 pieces (4 x 2) 10 ft long or bush sticks

oor joists: 8 pieces (4 x 2) 12 ft long or bush sticks

oor joists: 8 pieces (4 x 2) 12 ft long or bush sticks

rafters: sticks or bamboo 12 pieces (2 x 2) 12 ft long

ooring: 18 pieces (6 x 2) 10 ft long

leaf panels: 20 pieces - 2m long

nails: 4 - 2kg; 3 - 2kg; 2 - 1kg

bush rope - 1 bundle.

This pig house at Silolo, North Malaita, is built over a swamp.


The house has been raised above the water so that it does not ood.
Bush poles and cut timber have been used to construct the house.
The house provides shelter for two piglets.
Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

15

Concrete floor pig house


The concrete oor pig house:
usually 2.5m long by 1.5m wide for each pig
is easy to keep clean
stops the pigs getting worms
lasts a long time
the oor should slope away from the area where the pig eats and
sleeps
costs more money to make.
Materials:

oor: 3 bags of cement

posts: 8 pieces (4 x 4) 10ft long

rafters: 12 pieces (2 x 2) 10 ft long

walling: 12 pieces (6 x 1) 10ft long

leaf panels: 20 pieces - 2m long

nails: 3 - 1kg

bush rope - 1 bundle.


leaf roof

garden for
growing
pig food

strong timber sides

concrete oor
Concrete oor pig
houses last a long time
and are easy to clean

16

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

A pig house with a leaf roof and strong walls made of wooden planks. Photo: T. Jansen

Deep litter floor house


usually 2.5m long by 1.5m wide for each pig
less smell
oor is dug and lled with stones and sawdust
waste is mixed with the sawdust and used as a mulch in the
garden.
Materials:

posts: 8 pieces (4 x 4) 10 ft long

walling: 12 pieces (6 x 1) 10 ft long

rafters: 12 pieces (2 x 2) 10 ft long

ooring: 5 x 40kg sawdust

leaf panels: 20 pieces - 2m long

some stones.

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

17

Stone floor pig house


The stone oor pig house:
provides good drainage
is durable
pigs are more likely to get worms in this type of house.
leaf roof

frame and
sides made of
bush poles of
cut timber

Stone oor
pig house

stones

Earth floor pig house


The earth oor house is not recommended:
pigs will dig out the earth oor
pigs will get
worms from
the earth
earth floors
are difcult
to clean.

Pig pen with earth


oor and fence to
keep pigs inside.
Photo: T. Jansen

18

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

FEEDING PIGS
Pigs need a balanced diet to stay
healthy. A balanced diet is made
up of:
energy food (carbohydrates)
body building food (protein)
protective food (vitamins,
minerals)
water.

Energy food

Body building

Energy foods
make the pigs

Body building food Protective foods


helps the pigs
help pigs stay
grow.
healthy.

Pigs need plenty


of fresh, clean
water.

beans

cow pea

Fill their water


container every
day.

active and give


them the energy
they need each
day.

Protective food Water

Cook the following


foods for your

pigs:

soy bean

They provide
vitamins and
minerals.

wing bean

bush leaves
and vines

meat meal

grass

sh

legume leaves

shmeal.

sweet potato

sweet
potato

cassava

coconut

copra cake

taro

yam

rice

corn

cooking

peanut

tops

When sh are

bananas

kakake

sago palm
trunk.

cleaned for
cooking for people
to eat, the insides
can be cooked for
pigs.

banana

pawpaw.

Agriculture
Department
Field Ofcer John
Faleka says that
protective foods
are best given to
pigs a few hours
after the energy
and body building
foods.

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

19

Food for a balanced diet:

Protective foods
Body building foods protein

Types of feed

Energy foods

20

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

Feeding pigs of different ages:


newly weaned pigs need more body building food (protein)
a sow (female pig) suckling piglets needs more body building
food
mature, fully-grown pigs need less body building food than young
pigs or sows feeding piglets.

Guide for feeding pigs amount per pig per day


All pigs need a mixed diet that includes protective feed such as green
leaf and bush vines. In general each pig should get 0.5kg of greens
per day.
Give the correct types and amounts of feed to the different types of
pig so that they grow healthy and fast.
Do not give feed that is not needed as this is wasteful.
Here is a guide for feeding pigs using energy food such as cooked
sweet potato or some other root crop with a body building food such
as sh meal.

Feed quantities every day


Type of pig Weight of Age
pig

Cooked sweet Fish meal


potato

Weaner

12kg+

8 weeks

2kg

0.5-1kg

Grower

23-50kg

3-4
months

3.5kg

1-1.5kg

Lactating sow

80kg+

2yrs +

8kg

2kg

Sow and boars

80kg +

2yrs +

5kg

1.5kg

Source: John Faleka

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

21

Growing food for pigs


Imported pig food is expensive
and is difcult to transport to your
village. Pig food can be grown in a
special pig food garden:
make the pig food garden close
to the pig house
sweet potato, cassava, pawpaw,
beans and leaves can be grown
in the pig food garden
keep the soil fertile to grow as
much pig food as you can
grow enough food for all your
pigs.

22

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

Feeding containers a large plastic bowl and a clam shell

Containers for feed and water


Feeders and water containers can be large plastic bowls, large clam
shells or can be made from large tins.
Feed containers can be made from a hollowed log. Make the corners
round for ease of cleaning. Raise it off the ground so the pig cannot
put its feet into it.
A water container can be
made from a large tin.
Make sure it has no sharp
edges that could cut the
pigs mouth.
Feed should be given to pigs in strong containers.
Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

23

MANAGING YOUR PIGS


Managing your pigs is important to their health and to getting a
good price for them.

Feeding
pigs of the same size should be fed in a group; this prevents the
larger pigs eating the food of the smaller pigs
pigs should be fed at the same time each day;
- feed in the morning (energy, body building foods)
- give green leaves at midday
- feed in the late-afternoon (energy, body building foods)
pigs should be given fresh, clean water each day.

Housing
make sure young pigs are sheltered from cold winds
the pig house should provide shelter from hot sun and rain
sweep or wash the pig house oor every day to prevent lice, ticks
and other diseases
keep smaller pigs in a separate house to larger pigs
sows should be kept in a separate pen that is dry and protected
from cold wind; a farrowing rail will keep the newly born piglets
in a separate area so that the pig does not lay on them.

Check pigs
check the pigs for signs of disease when you feed them each
day
check that they have plenty of clean water and food; the pigs
skins will start to crack after two days without water and they
may develop sores.

24

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

Maluu farmer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kwailabu village farmer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ferasubua village . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suvaa bay free range system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26
30
34
37

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

25

MALUU FARMER
Farmer:
John Faleka.

Location:
Maluu, North Malaita.

Type of system:
Intensive; pigs kept in houses.
The pig house is divided into rooms.
Each room is 2 x 2.5m.
The size of the garden where food for the pigs is grown is 15 x
20m.

Breeds:
John keeps imported breeds.

Products:
pigs for sale every three months
family and customary use
pig manure used on vegetable garden to make soil fertile
sells pigs at Christmas.

26

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

Reason for keeping pigs:


John gets a good price for them
he is an agricultural advisor and needs pigs as an example
customary value, such as bride price.

Number of pigs:
up to 10
at present: 5 adults 3 sows, 1 boar, 1 gilt kept in a separate pen.
Piglets are weaned at eight weeks, removed from the mother and
put into a separate room.
John says a farmer can start with three to ve pigs and increase
the number to 10 when enough food is grown in the garden to feed
them.

Feeding:
Feed from garden and manufactured food from PNG. Imported feed
adds to cost of keeping the pigs.
Water is given every day.
The food garden is 15 to 20 metres from the pig houses. The pigs are
given left-over food grown in the garden.

Categories of food:
body building feed - sh meal, Leucaena
energy feed - banana, cassava, grain, meal run, sweet potato,
kang kong taro
protective feed - green leaf tips, grass, banana leaf, sago palm
insides.
Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

27

Housing:
The pig house:
is made of timber
is a long building divided into rooms
there is a room for each pig and a room for sows with a litter
has a slatted oor.

Management
Daily activities
Morning
Pigs given all categories

Midday

Evening

Pigs given green leaves.

Feed of all categories

of feed body building,


energy, protective.
Water given.
Pig rooms cleaned
waste is sprayed away
with a hose.

given.
Pigs washed sprayed
with water every day
to avoid the disease
scabies.
Rooms washed.

Caring for piglets:


when newly born, bags are put around the pen to keep out cold
wind at night
a re is sometimes lit below the pen to keep the piglets warm
at two to three weeks, piglets are fed separately with a high-protein
crib feed (body building food)
at eight weeks they are sold or the males are castrated to make
them easier to manage.

28

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

John Faleka with his pig house.


John has made his pig house with a slatted oor and iron roof.
John uses his pig wastes to fertilise a food garden.

Diseases:
Pigs are sprayed with water every day to avoid the skin disease
scabies.

Wastes:
The slatted-oor pen is raised off the ground and is above a stand of
bananas. Wastes trickle down to provide manure to the bananas.
The area below the pens is cleaned and the manure put on a
vegetable garden to provide nutrients. The manure becomes compost
and nutrients for the crops.

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

29

KWAILABU VILLAGE
FARMER
Farmer:
Rose Adewane.
Rose started as a trainee with the
Sustainable Livelihoods for Rural
Youth Project in September 2003.

Location:
Kwailabu village, North Malaita. The
village is situated on a small island off
the coast of North Malaita

Type of system:
Intensive; pigs kept in houses.
Rose has two pig houses. One is 5 x 2.5m and has three rooms. The
other 4 x 2.5m and has two rooms.

Breeds:
Rose keeps imported breeds and a local pig used for cross
breeding.

Products:
Pigs are bred, reared then sold. The pigs are sold for Solomon dollars
or for shell money.
Rose says that people travel to nd pigs. They come to the village.

30

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

The pigs earn money and are of benet to the family because they
can be used for feasts. They are important for the village community
because they are used for bride price and as compensation.

Number of pigs:
Rose started with nine pigs. She rst bought a pig from her uncle.
She mated it and produced eight piglets.
In December 2003 she sold ve. Rose has four left.
Rose says that three to four pigs are all that can be kept because
there is not enough food for more.

Feeding:
Rose has made a pig food garden next to the pig houses. It measures
30 x 20m.
The garden soil is not very fertile. This limits the amount of food
she can grow and the number of pigs she can keep. Water is given
every day.

Types of food:
body building food sh
protective food cassava leaf, the large leaf of a local vine known
as salu halu that climbs coconut palms
energy food sweet potato, taro.
A large plastic bowl is used to serve food. A large clam shell serves
water.

Housing:
The pig house:
Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

31

Rose Adewane with one of her pig houses.


The houses have slatted oors, the frame and sides are made of cut timber and a leaf
roof shelters the pigs from sun and rain.

is made of local timber with a leaf roof


is divided into rooms
has a slatted oor.

Management:
Daily activities

32

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

Rose has two pig houses sheltered in the forest. The trees provide shade and help
keep the pigs cool. Next to the pig houses Rose has a garden where she grows
food for the pigs.

Morning

Midday

Evening

Water given.

More food given.

Fish, sweet potato,


cassava given.

Feed given including


No feeding if Rose is
mixed green coconut and busy.
sweet potato.

The food is sometimes


served raw, sometimes
cooked.

The pig houses are cleaned when Rose has time.

Diseases:
Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

33

FERASUBUA VILLAGE
Farmer:
James Iroga.
James is the son of the village chief, Chief Kabina.
He started his pig system in September 2003.
He started with three youths to build a concrete oor, deep litter
pen.

Location:
Farasubua village, North Malaita. Ferasubua is a village on an
articial island off the east coast of North Malaita.

Type of system:
James has managed the system for two years.
Mixed rotational pig/ cropping/ kokorako (chicken) system:
the pen is approximately 60 x 100 metres in size and is divided
into three paddocks
cassava, sweet potato and alu (a leaf) is grown in one paddock
bean, sorghum and soy bean is grown in another; this paddock
also houses kokorako in a kokorako house with a laying box
where eggs are laid
the kokorako also forage in the pig area; they are let out to forage
every afternoon
the pig house is situated on the fence where two paddocks meet
the pigs are released into the adjoining paddock every
afternoon.

34

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

Breeds:
Cross-breeds of Landrace and local pigs.

Products:
Fattened pigs and young weaners are sold.
Pig manure is used as fertiliser in the garden.

Housing:
The pigs are kept in a deep litter, concrete oor housing and pen.

Management:
Daily activities
Morning
Water given.
Fed sh meal and meal
run.

Midday

Evening

Pigs released to forage.

Fish meal and meal run.


Gate closed.

Diseases:
None reported.
Information supplied by Charles Bole, Sustainable Livelihoods for Rural Youth Project.

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

35

Pig and kokorako system made by James


Iroga, Ferusubua village, North Malaita
60m

pigs let out to


forage in the
afternoon

Deep litter, concrete oor house


Pig house
fence

fence

100m
bean, sorghum
and soy bean

fence

cassava,
sweet potato
and alu (a leaf)

Kokorako house
with laying box

kokorako
(chickens) are
let out to forage
in the afternoon

fence

36

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

A stone wall has been built across the land. The pigs live
in the forest behind he wall.

Stone wall

SUVAA BAY FREE RANGE SYSTEM


A community living on the shores of Suvaa Bay, North Malaita,
has built a stone wall about one metre high across their land. The
village is on one side and forest on the other.
Pigs live in the forest. The villagers throw food over the wall for the
pigs. The pigs also nd food by foraging.
When a pig is needed it is hunted with dogs.

Pig Farming SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FOR RURAL YOUTH PROJECT

37

Manual for Pig Rearing


In Uganda

Drs. Linda Nelson and John Carr


Daktari Animal Health

Smallholder Pigs

The wean to finish period


This short manual provides for a start in pig production in Uganda
This first booklet indicates how to succeed in finishing pigs.
Once your stockmanship skills have encompassed the wean to finish pig, the stockperson can
move towards keeping adult breeding stock.
When read on the computer each page is hyperlinked
The pig weaning to finish
Introduction to Pigs
Basic pig breeds
Basic terms in pig farming
The surface landmarks
The pigs life cycle
Products from pig production
Handling and moving pigs
Sustainability 3 year plan
Basic Housing
Smallholder finishing house plan
What if I decide I do not like pigs?
Areas and volumes
Measurements the basics
The basic tools builder and adviser
Composting manure
Security Fencing
Feed and water for the growing pig
Feed ingredients
Feed dietary requirements for pigs
Swill feeding collection and distribution
Building a pig feeder
Feed balancing the diet and the pigs requirements
Mixing dry feed for the pig
Which of these food stuffs can be used to feed pigs?
Obtaining pigs
Selecting the pig
Introducing the pig to the farm
Introduction to medication and vaccinations
Keeping pigs healthy
Biosecurity handwashing
Normal pig behavior:
Lying patterns
Defecation patterns
Play behaviour
Daily routines
Weekly routines
Recognising health:
Stockmanship
Stockmanship the basics

Page
5
6
8
9
10
11
14
15
19
20
21
22
26
28
29
30
32
33
35
37
39
40
44
46
48
49
50
51
52
53
56
57
58

Medicine and needles the basics


Clinical signs of health and ill health
Disorders of the pig by age an introduction
Monitoring the pigs
Weight estimation of pigs
Growth rates
Moving the pigs to market
Cleaning the building after the pigs go
Cleaning the house
Lime washing
Budget examples
Building costs
Wean to finish budget
Adopt a pig concept
Notes
Index

59
60
61
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72

Basic Breeds of Pigs


Flopped ears. Roman nose

Pointed ears. Dished face

White body

Landrace
Red colour

Large White/Yorkshire

Duroc
Belted colour

Tamworth

Saddleback
Other

Hampshire

Large Black

Berkshire (6 white points)

Remember that most commercial pigs will be a cross breed of Landrace/Large White and Duroc

Swine, Pigs and Hogs The basics


Animal terms:
Boar entire male pig
Castrate/ Barrow male pig castrated
Gilt female from birth to having her first piglets
Sow a female who has had piglets
Piglet young pig which has not been weaned
Weaning Removing the piglets from the lactating
sow
Weaner a pig after weaning generally 18-24 days
of age until 30 kg (66 lbs)
Grower a pig older than 30 kg (66 lbs) feeder pig
Finisher a pig older than 60 kg (120 lbs)
Farrowing giving birth - parturition
Lactating producing milk
Gestating the period from weaning to giving birth (dry sow period elsewhere)
Litter each group of piglets from a sow
Parity each parity refers to each separate farrowing a 3rd parity sow has had three litters
Mummified piglet fetus which died during gestation born in a state of mummification
Stillborn piglet born dead but otherwise normal
Fostering moving piglets between sows to assist them getting enough milk
Colostrum the first milk after farrowing full of antibodies
Processing the variety of procedures carried out on piglets castration, tail docking, teeth
clipping, ear notching and an iron injection.
Pre-weaning mortality the number of piglets who die in the farrowing house
Post-weaning mortality the number of weaners/grower or finishers who die in the postweaning period until slaughter
Breeding/service the mating process
Weaning to breeding interval the days between weaning until the next breeding
Repeat a sow or gilt who fails to conceive
Conceive to become pregnant
Farrowing rate number of animals bred / number of animals who actually farrow
Culling removal of an animal from the farm
Body condition score a method of estimating amount of body fat 5 point scale 1-5
Food conversion ration FCR the rate of growth (g) / amount of dry food eaten (g)
Growth rate number of grams increase in bodyweight per day

Types of production:
Farrowing house the room where sows and gilts give birth and lactate
Gestation barn / dry sow house where the sows live while pregnant
Nursery the room where pigs live from weaning to about 30 kg
Grow/finish the room where pigs live from 30 kg until slaughter
Wean to finish a room where pigs live from weaning to slaughter
All-in/all-out the process where buildings are emptied of one group of pigs, thoroughly
cleaned and then populated with a new group of pigs
Batch one group of pigs
Batch farrowing a group of sows and gilts breed to farrow in a group
6

Three site production a system where pigs are reared on three separate farms classically
gestation and farrowing on one farm/site : nursery on another and grow/finish on a
third site.
Two site production a system where pigs are reared on two separate farms classically two
forms a) gestation, farrowing and nursery on one farm/site and the grower/finisher
on another farm/site.
b) gestation and farrowing on one farm and wean to finish on another
Some variations in gestation housing:
Crates/stalls, ESF (Electronic sow feeding), trickle feeding (feeding small amounts over
a short period of time), outdoor housed outside in arcs.

Some basic facts:


Age at breeding varies: for a gilt 220 days; for a boar about 7 months
Estrus cycle 18-24 days three weeks
Gestation 115 days three months, three weeks and three days
Breeding season generally year-round poorer in the summer and early autumn
Slaughter weight about 114 kg (250-280 lbs) at about 26 weeks of age
Weaning
Grow/finish
Farrowing

Basic Pig Life Cycle

Gestation
115 days

Selection

Slaughter

Breeding
Nucleus farm

KNOW YOUR WAY AROUND YOUR PIG

View of the pig neck


The head view of the pig
The major surface landmarks of the rear of the female pig:

The hind view of a female gilt


Detail of the vulva opened
The sow has 12-14 mammae each with a nipple
The major surface hind quarter landmarks of the rear of the male:
The entire male:
The castrated male:

Remember that the male also has the prepuce on the ventral surface.

Introduction to the Pig


The Basic Economic Life Cycle of the pig
Where is money generated?
Compost from faeces
Meat from finishing pigs
Gilts for sale
Weaners
Also note pigs are useful to clear land and plough the fields.

The stages of the life cycle are simplified


Finishing depends on weight 40 kg by 12 weeks of age, 100 kg by 22 weeks of age
Gestation lasts 115 days 3 months, 3 weeks, 3 days
Weaning can successfully occur between 3 weeks to 3 months of age

Pig Products in Uganda


What are the four main products that pigs produce and how long can it take before I get any
return on my investment?
1. Manure or Compost
Pigs produce faeces, this
combined with plant
material and any wasted
feed can be placed into a
compost pile. Pig manure
can be solid or liquid
depending on the type of
plant that requires the
manure.
Within 4 weeks even young pigs will start producing manure/compost for sale or use in your
own garden produce.
2. Meat
The second purpose of pigs is to produce meat. Weaned pigs at 15 kg will cost around 25,000
shillings and a 70 kg meat pig can raise about 150,000 shillings. But note this difference is not
all profit there is feed, labour and possible medicines to pay for.
However, how long does it take to go from a weaned pig to a sale pig? With the proper feeding
routines this can be as short as 5 months but will poor feeding this can take 12 months. We
are going to assume good feeding routines.

Good pigs growing well

Emaciated pigs on a poor diet

Ready for the Pork joint

3. Weaned piglets

The ultimate goal is to


produce your own piglets!
But while this seems
extremely high value if you
wean 10 piglets each worth
25,000 shillings this is
250,000 shillings!! But it
takes around a year before
you get this money - can you
wait that long before
Lots of babies
Lots of weaned pigs
earning?
Why does it take this long?
Weaner purchased 2 months old Gilt mated 8 months old Gilt farrowed 13 months old
Piglets weaned 1 month later. Thus from purchasing your weaners it will take 12 months
And the weaners are sold some 5 months later this is 17-18 months after your initial purchase!

4. Labour

Pigs can be utilized to help clear land of trees


and till the soil. This was a traditional use of
pigs.

10

Handling and Moving Pigs


Most pigs are not used to being handled. They become very vocal when caught and will not settle easily.
Pigs will work as a herd or as individuals, before moving a group of pigs think of escape routes you would
take and then try to block them.

Handling
Young pigs may be picked up and will generally settle

Older pigs examine within a crate or restrain using a loop around the upper jaw behind the canines

Moving

Pigs can be moved as a group

Design passageway to prevent


Young pigs may be easier to move in
escapes.
a barrow
Walls 850 mm high
Pigs have a wide angle 310 degree vision which allows them to see behind themselves without turning their heads.
They are easily distracted by objects to the front and sides and sharp changes in floor texture and appearance. A shaft
of sunlight is sufficient to affect pig movement.

11

When moving growers pigs use a pig


boards, hands and your voice. Avoid
electric prods

There is never any need to use


violence - the pig will object

Pigs move much easier in a quiet


controlled environment

Pigs can be trained to a harness.


This is how they are used to hunt
truffles.

Boars can be trained to walk to heel


and follow a route

Take special care with boars or


lactating sows. Pigs are armed
with razor blades

Walkway

2 pig wide

Offset
entrance

Loading finishing pig can be a particularly stressful time for a pig. It is


essential to carefully design the loading area. Avoid steps and any rise over
20o. Ensure the area is well lit without corners. The use of hydraulic lifts
(right) is to be encouraged.
With ramps they should be constructed with at least 850 mm high to prevent
distraction. The passageway should allow 2 pigs to move at the same time,
allowing physical contact. Have an offset panel at ramp entrances, rather than
a funnel. A catwalk along the outside of the ramp will allow staff easy access
to the pigs on the ramp to improve pig movement.

12

Mixing pigs
Care is needed because:
1
2
3

Pigs will fight whilst they establish their pecking order. This happens whenever the group
is disturbed.
It takes 1-2 days to establish the pecking order, and performance may be compromised
during this period.
Pigs need time and space to work out their pecking order. After this, the weaker pig will
back down.

For all pigs;


1
2
3
4
5
6

Pigs should be kept as much as possible in stable social groups, and mixing at any stage
between accommodation types should be kept to a minimum.
Avoid mixing in pens where sharp edges to feed troughs and drinkers protrude, and can
injure the pigs.
Always mix pigs of similar size.
As a general rule, never introduce less than 3 pigs into an established larger group.
However, it may be necessary to introduce 1 or 2 sows to dynamic service groups.
Low levels of lighting can reduce aggression when mixing. This must not be used for longer
than 1-2 days.
Resorting to the use of tranquilisers and masking sprays may indicate that the mixing
methods and facilities on your farm are inadequate.

For sows:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Allow plenty of space (eg if mixing sows, you need 3.5 m2 per sow) so that there is enough
space to get away if chased or threatened. Sows will mostly chase for less than 2.5 m.
Ideally only mix sows at weaning. Avoid mixing sows 5-21 days after service as this is when
the eggs implant and stress can result in high numbers of returns.
Use physical barriers in the pen such as big bales or plastic sheeting suspended from the
roof. This allows a beaten pig to get out of sight and quickly ends the fight.
Time mixing to fit in with management routines to best allow supervision, however mixing
in the evening may be best if you can arrange to be there to oversee this.
Use fresh straw at mixing it acts as a cushion if fighting occurs and increases surface grip.
Consider ad lib feeding when mixing.
Consider allowing physical contact eg through a gate, between a dynamic main group and a
sup-group to be mixed into it, prior to mixing. This may reduce fighting when they are
introduced.
Avoid re-mixing groups. If practical mix sows back into their original groups post weaning.
Avoid mixing in any form of cubicle system. Sows can be trapped easily and injured
consider a specialist mixing pen.
Consider breaking up the edge of the lying area with divisions so that sub-groups can have
their own areas.
Try closing off a section of a large yard system for a few days then penning the sub-group in
this area when mixing. This helps to establish a new territory for the smaller group.

13

Small holders sustainability plan for 3 years

Year 1

10 pig
finishing
shed

5 x 10 finishing unit
10 pigs every 4 weeks

Year 2
5 sows farrowing every
3 weeks breeding farm
supplying weaners

3 x 50 finishing units
different
communities
10 pigs per week

Year 3

14

Sustainable pig farming making a start


If you are not used to raising pigs from scratch breeding, farrowing, looking after piglets- it is
best to start just learning about the animal its habits, feed, water and cooling requirements.
Start with weaners and aim to produce good compost and excellent finished pigs. Along the
way, some farmers will start wanting to produce their own pigs but that is the topic for a
different day.
Basic pig building
Once we have decided not to have big sows and boars, we can radically simplify the building
design.
The building will be 3m wide and 7m long- thus providing 21 m2 enough room for 10 pigs.
Floor plan view:

Sleeping
Bedded with step
Inside area

Exercise

Wallow Feed and water


Outside area

Side plan view


Wooden retainer to
sleeping area

Thatch under
Roof for insulation
2.5m
high

1.5m
high

Gate

Water collection Wall Sleeping area Sloping exercise Monopitch Outside Feed/water
Insulated floor
1-2 degree
Wallow
Fence

15

The building design can be modulated making expansion easy.


Compost area

West
Wind
direction
3 m wide
3.5 m
3.5 m
7 m in total length
Example of this style of building:

Orientation
In Uganda the big issue is hot pigs. Orientate the building so that the sleeping area is at the
west end of the building thus providing shade from the afternoon sun. The other
consideration is the wind direction to provide maximum ventilation.

Water collection
Collecting water from the roof can significantly reduce the amount of water which needs to be
brought to the pigs.
Ideally keep the water high so
that it can flow to the
individual pens and have an
over flow tank anyway for long
term storage. The tanks should
be sealed to reduce algae
growth.
Ensure the gutter and pipes are
well maintained

Biosecurity

Ensure that there is a 2 metre clear walkway around the building to reduce rodent and other
vermin/pests from entering the unit.

16

Timber protection
All timber which is placed in the ground should be protected from being eaten and rooting,
particularly from termites.

Peel back the bark

Carefully cover the end in burnt engine oil.


Use a rag to rub the oil into the wood

Cover the protected timber with a plastic


Place in the ground
sheet
This will greatly increase the life of the post. Without this protection the termites will eat the
post in around 6 months.

Pigs and wood posts


Pigs will also eat any wood posts. Be
particularly careful of any post which is
supporting the roof. Protect such posts
with metal sheets (although this can
become sharp) and/or concrete.

Observation area and Sow modification


The building could be used for sow and
farrowing accommodation
The sleeping area is slightly modified so
that wooden beams can be placed across
the sleeping area restraining the pigs
either for treatment or as a farrowing area

17

Example of a similar building although thatch roof is used in this example

Side view of the entire house. Note the 2 metre biosecurity zone around the building

The rear of the house

From inside the outside area

18

How does this fit into a three year plan for the community?
Year 1
Month 1
Build building for 10 finishing pigs learn the ropes of pig production
Income from composting.
Months 2 to 6
Build four more 10 finishing pig buildings this provides 5 buildings each with one month
supply of pigs. Thus income now coming in every month from pigs.
10x 150,000 shillings per month net 15,000,000 shillings a year.
Year 2
Build 4 more community finishing units
Income now 10x 150,000 shillings per week net 65,000,000 shillings a year
Year 3
Build a 5 sows a week breeding unit- supplying 50 pigs a week to one of the community
finishing units. Control the cost of producing the piglets net 78,000,000 shillings a year

What if I decide I dont like pigs?


The buildings are designed to be able to accommodate other animals chickens, turkeys or
goats for example. They could be modified for older pigs also.

19

AREAS AND VOLUMES


H

V = BW (H/3)

W
B

A = BW

V = 0.262DDH

V = BW H

A = 0.785DD

V = 0.785DDH

V = (B W H)/2
H
B

H
W

A = (W H)/2

20

BASIC MEASUREMENTS
When on the farm, it can be useful to make estimates about the size of objects. However,
there are times when a tape measure is not easily available
Within reason it is possible to make some assessment using your own body features
For example:
2.5 cm (1) is approximately from the
tip of your thumb to the knuckle

5 cm (2) inches is approximately the


length of the thumb

10 cm (4) is the width of the hand


hence the term hand in horse
measure

20 cm (8) inches is the spread of


your hand

30 cm (12) inches is the approximate


length of a foot
1 m (1 yard) is approximately the
length of one stride

Get to know your own measurements and note the exact measurement.
However, on a day to day basis using these simple measures will help you estimate
depth of water, length of a feeder or the rough dimensions of a pen

21

Basic tools required to build and run the unit


Builder tools
The essential tools to building the building

Spade

Dibbler iron bar

Machete/Panga

Saw

Measuring rope

Plumb line

Tape measure

Trowel

22

Hammer

Chalk

Small blackboard or other record

Burnt engine oil

Wheelbarrow ready with useful


equipment

Green Warriors minimal equipment

Tape measure

Chalk, pen and paper

Animal marker

Soap to wash hand - biosecurity

23

Basic materials to build the structure

Stones

Bricks

Posts

Bamboo or sticks

Iron sheets

Gutter and downpipe

Water butt

Thatch

Nails

String

Concrete

Sand/aggregate
24

Equipment in daily use

Boiling pan

Buckets

Measure

Brush and pan

Boots

Basic medicinal supplies


syringe and needles

25

Composting manure
Forms

Solid
Liquid

Solid
Site
selection
Equipment

Method
Pit 1
Preparation

Pit 2
Maturation

Pit 3
Aeration
Pit 4
Storage
Note

The area needs to be well drained


Under shade
Protect from wind, sun and running water
Four pits
1 x 2 metres and 15 cm deep. Can be built up to any height
Ensure that the bottom of the pit soil is loosened to ensure good contact
between composting material and organisms
Run four pits
Vital to get the initial mixture right working to a carbon/nitrogen ratio
of 30:1
Ensure all plastic materials are removed from anything going into the
compost heap
Move pit 1 contents to pit 2(once system in progress)
Place the following layers onto the loosened soil
Hard plant materials maize corn stalks
Green grass materials
Soil plus ash (to neutralize acid in faeces)
Dry grass waste animal bedding
Animal manure and animal feed wastes
Green grass materials
Soil plus ash
Repeat the next day for one month.
After making each days compost cover heap with grass to stop drying
After one month move pit 2 contents to pit 3
Fill pit 2 with the contents of pit 1
Add water to the pit
Cover with grasses
After one month move pit 2 contents to pit 3
Each day turn pit 3 and add water each day.
Cover with grasses to stop compost drying out
After one month move pit 3 contents to pit 4
Pit 4 is a storage pit. Prepare the solid compost for use or sale.
If you have large amounts of
faeces the compost piles may
have to work once a week rather
than monthly.

26

Initial layers
Covering
Soil
Manure
Water
Dry grass
Soil/ash
Green Grass
Covering
Repeat

Pit 1
Prepare compost in layers month 1

Pit 2
Allow compost to mature
month 2

Pit 3
Pit 4
Aerate the compost each day month 3 Store and prepare for sale/use

Liquid
Method

Obtain a large water container cleaned drum


Liquid manure will be made with a ratio of 3:1 water to faeces
Place manure into a sisal sac
Tie the sac top with a rope
Suspend the sisal sack in a container full of water
Leave for 2 weeks
Prepare liquid manure for use or sale

Pole
String
Water
Faeces in
Sisal sac
Container

Uses
Solid
Liquid

For all crops. Ideally place before crops grown


Very useful for Banana crops
Apply to fruit crops at the roots. Do not apply to the leaves
Ideal for tomatoes, peppers etc
Ideal for restricted environments ie pots or plastic bags

27

Security fencing
Making your farm secure is important. Not only to keep unwanted human visitors but also to
reduce animal visitors and to stop your animals from straying, essential to maintain
biosecurity.
The type of fencing may vary with species. Pigs for example will burrow under fencing if
required and therefore the fence must go into the ground. Birds will obviously fly over a fence.
Basic Fencing -

Wicker fencing

Natural products

Thorn fencing

Close hedge

To stop animals

Electric fencing here powered by solar power to


protect bee hives.
Electric fencing can be extremely useful in the
farming of pigs

Fox and other small predators


Note the above fence is not placed into the ground
and will not stop pigs. To stop pigs place the fence
0.5m underground

Stopping human
Humans are extremely difficult to stop. In general the fence will be extremely expensive.

Barb wire is not a real deterrent to people

Razor wire will reduce humans

28

Feed and water for growing pigs


The provision of food and water is an obvious essential for production animals.
In pig the average daily feed intake dry matter can be estimate to be 4% of the bodyweight of the pig.
The pigs average daily water use can be estimated to be 10% of its bodyweight.
There are two main types of pigs feed a dry feed whose water content will be below 20% and a wet fed
where water is added deliberately and/or the water content is high initially for example vegetables or swill is
being fed.
With these guides expected intake can be calculated per pig in the group.
Body weight
Dry matter feed intake
Daily water intake
Wet feed intake
Daily water intake

10
0.4
1
1.2
0.2

30
1.2
3
3.6
0.6

50
2
5
6
1

70
2.8
7
8.4
1.4

90
3.6
9
10.8
1.8

110
4.4
11
13.2
2.2

Kg live weight
kg per day
Litres per day
Kg per day
Litres per day

How often should the pigs be fed?


Dry feed
With dry feed after weaning the food is placed in a feeder and food is made available all day.
Thus the entire days feed for the whole group of pigs is added to the feeder once daily.
Wet fed
With wet fed, the feed is offered to the pigs around 5 times a day. All the pigs eat at the same time. Therefore, the
trough length needs to be long enough for all the pigs (at the end of finishing) to be able to eat at the same time.
The pigs will rapidly become accustomed to this type of feeding regime. One additional feed time should be
provided which is just plain water. Keep a record of each feeding time as shown below:
How long a feeder is required?
Body weight
10
30
50
70
Ad lib feed pig -dry
3.3
4.0
5.0
6.5
For 10 pigs
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.7
Restricted feed pig - wet
13
17
21
25
For 10 pigs
1.3
1.7
2.1
2.5
At the end of the feeders have a slope so that the feeder is easier to clean.

90
7.0
0.7
28
2.8

110
7.5
0.8
30
3.0

Kg live weight
cm
metres
cm
metres

Food preparation

If swill feed is used, it is essential to boil the food thoroughly for at least 30 minutes. This is to kill any viruses that
might be present in the feed potentially African and Classical Swine Fever virus both which can result in
extremely high mortality in pigs. Feed should be used within 48 hours of collection.

Swill being boiled for a minimum of 30 minutes

Feeding records for wet feeding 5 times a day and


one additional water only feed

29

Northern Uganda Feed Ingredients


Food
Cassava - Meal

Cassava leaves

Sweet Potato
meal

Sweet Potato
leaves

Maize bran
Rice bran
Ground nuts

Beans

Mukene little
dried fish
Blood meal
Brewers waste
Greens
Dodo, boo,
Cabbage,
napier, lablab,
mucina,
callandra,
lukoko

Positive
Negative characteristics
characteristics
Good energy
Very low minerals
source
Very low protein 1%
Cyanide in tubers need
processing roasting and
drying
Good protein Low sulphur aminoacids
21%
Cyanogenic compounds
Rich in lysine
Sun drying wilting,
Good minerals
chopping removes 90% of
these compounds
High fiber
Energy high
Protein low
Low in sulphur aminoacids
Lysine low
Trypsin inhibitor heat
treat
Good minerals
Good protein
20%
Silage good for
sows
Low in protein High in fibre
Low in protein High in fibre
Good fat 2x
Low in methionine, lysine
soya
and tryptophan
Good energy
Tannins
Good protein
Roasting and grinding help
Good lac sow
High protein
Low B vitamins
20%
Trypsin inhibitors
Good lysine
Tannins
Haemaglutinins
Steaming helps 75
minutes
High in protein Watch salt levels

Weaner Grow
finish
No
40%
of
ration

Adult

No

10%

40%

5% of
grain

50%
of
grain

50%
of
grain

40%
grain

40%
grain

10%

10%

50%
of
soya

50%
of
soya

Rich in leucine
Rich in lysine

2%

5%

5%

Minerals low
Low in isoleucine
May contain high salt

5%
roast

40%
of
ration

15%

High in fibre
High in water
content

30

Bones, hooves,
horns
Millet
Sorghum
Sunflower
meal
Sunflower
leaves
Banana
(not many in
Northern
Uganda)

Banana silage

Good protein
Good energy
High in energy
Medium
protein
Rich potassium
Good B6
Ascorbic acid
30% protein
Better ripe
Per day:
Growing pigs
will eat 5-6kg
Finishers 9kg
Sows in
lactation 20kg
Made in 4 days
and lasts 6
months

Poor lysine
Supplement sulpha and
tryptophan
High fiber 17%

100%
soya

2/3
soya

100%
soya

15%

10%

25%

Protein low (peeling helps


but not time element)
Poor minerals
Green should be chopped
or crushed

50%

50%

50%

50%
diet

50%
grain

50%
grain

31

GUIDE TO THE BASIC MAKEUP REQUIREMENTS OF PIG DIETS


Diet
Units
1st Creep
2nd Creep
Weaner
Grower
Finisher
Gilt rearer
Gestating
sow
Lactating sow
Boar

Body
Energy
weight DE
kg
7-12
12-18
18-30
30-65
65-110
60-130

Crude
Total
protein lysine

MJ/Kg

Dig
lysine

Crude
Fibre

NDF

Ash

Vit A

Vit D3

Vit E
mg/kg

16
16
15.5
14.5
14
13.6
12.5

22
22
21
19
19
14
16

1.8
1.8
1.5
1.5
1.25
0.85
0.7

1.6
1.6
1.3
1.3
1.1
0.7
0.52

1
1.5
2.0
3.0
4.0
5
6.5

3
4
6
10
13
15
24

7.5
6.0
5.5
5.
5
7
7

10,000
10,000
10,000
10,000
7,500
10,000
10,000

2,000
2,000
2,000
2,000
1,500
2,000
2,000

250
250
150
65
40
100
60

14
12.5

18
16

1.0
0.7

0.85
0.52

4.5
6.5

16
24

6.5
7

10,000
10,000

2,000
2,000

100
60

32

Swill collection and distribution


Swill is made from kitchen byproducts this can be from the home or from restaurants.
Hospital waste should be avoided due to the possible contamination by human diseases and
pathogens.
All feed from kitchens can be collected this can include alcohol products. Include all
vegetable peelings, egg shells and bones. Ideally food not containing pig meat is preferred but
this option is not always available. Therefore, it is best to assume that all kitchen feed contains
pork products. It is then essential absolutely essential-- that the kitchen wastes are
thoroughly boiled for at least 30 minutes before it can be fed to the pigs.
The kitchen wastes should be as fresh as possible. Ideally do not use food over 48 hours old.
Boiling also helps to preserve the kitchen wastes. Rodents and other vermin will also eat this
kitchen waste and the storage of the prepared products needs to be clean and secure.
Any feed not eaten by the pigs must be cleaned up thoroughly and disposed. Ideally any feed
not eaten should be included in the composting pile.
Collection 2 or 3 x a week

Motor bike collection

Small trailer for a bike

Truck for larger amounts

Food

Collect waste feed

Remove all plastics, glass and


metals

Collect

Boil for 30 minutes


Add a small amount of water to
help boiling

Store before use

Preparation

33

Feeding
Ideally feed 5 times a day
little and often. Have one
additional meal as water
only each day. Record eat
feeding time

With swill feeding it is fed as a restricted feeding option, therefore all the pigs need to eat at the
same time. This requires a long feed trough.

Feed trough size with age of pig


How long a feeder is required?
Body weight
Restricted feed pig - wet
For 10 pigs (as an example)

10
130
1.3

Commercial liquid/wet feeding with sufficient


room highly efficient

30
170
1.7

50
210
2.1

70
250
2.5

90
280
2.8

110
300
3.0

Kg live weight
Cm per pig
metres

Watch the pigs eating. Ensure there is sufficient


space for all to eat. Note any pig which is reluctant
to eat (as shown) and then check to ensure the pig
is healthy

34

Building a feeder
1

Calculate:
The number of pigs in the pen
The type of feeding system adlib or restricted
Final weight of the pigs
Determine the length of feeder required.
For examine for 10 pigs each @ 70kg on restricted feed- they require 3 metres
Place the feeder in the pen so that the pigs can be fed from outside the pen

Layout the position of the feeder on the ground

5
6

Ensure that the ground is level


Lay the bricks.
For a 3 metre feeder 27 bricks will be required as shown

35

12 bricks in length 3 metres

1.5 bricks

10-14 cm wide
7

Concrete the feeder

Make a ramp at both ends to assist cleaning

9
10

Cross-section of the feeder showing ramp at each end not to scale


For the unit system the pigs will walk over the feed when entering or leaving
the pen
Ensure the feeder is managed to maximize hygiene and minimize feed
wastage.
This is essential both to minimize cost, but just as important to reduce the risk
of encouraging rodents and other vermin including other pigs to your unit.

36

Variety of pig diet specs which might be of use in Uganda


How to use these tables:
Four different diets are presented Creep for weaned pigs, Grower diets for growing and finishing pigs and sow diets. The fourth category is a general pig diet
In each category if the reader follows each column different options are given for ingredients in % of the diet making a total of 100%.
These diets come from various sources and farmers opinions. They are presented in order to provide the reader with feeding options depending on what food stuffs are available in
the locality. The diets are chosen to provide a range from a more commercial maize, soya, fat and mineral diets to a more local by-product range of diets.
Creep diets
high in protein and lysine

Grower diets moderate protein

Sow and weaner diets

General pig diet recommendations

Bananas

14

14

Barley

25

27

25

25

10

10

Blood meal

Bone Ash
Brewers
Residue

10

Cassava dry
Cassava
leaves
Cotton seed
cake

10

20

21

14

16

14

20

17

18

17

21

23

Field beans

19

Fish meal
Ground nut
cake

11

12

10

11

Lucerne meal

11

Maize

37

25

Maize bran
Meat and
Bone meal

71

27

40

70

68

70

27

48

70

10

15

68

26

17

20

12

12

Oat
Red Ant hill
soil
Restaurant
waste

13

22

37

11

37

Creep diets high in protein and


lysine

Grower diets moderate protein

Sow and weaner diets

General pig diet recommendations

Rice bran
polish

Salt

Shells

Soya fat

13

Soya meal
Sunflower
meal
Sunflower
meal
Sweet Potato
leaves
Sweet potato
meal
Vitamin
premix

20

16

11

11

21

21

17

Wheat
Wheat
bran/pollard

42

42

20

30

41

41

10

15

39

20

18

Wood Ash

38

Dry feed mixing


Mixing the complete feed
When mixing feed, mix the smaller quantities first and then move to the larger quantities
Thus for example when making a diet for sows
Place feed in the centre of the floor
Mix first feeds with your hands
Then mix with a small scoop
Finally mix the larger ingredients using a shovel.
Vitamin premix
0.25 kg
Add the salt and mix thoroughly
0.25 kg
Fish meal. add half the volume, mix. Add the second
4 kg + 4 kg
half and mix thoroughly
Shells - As the fish meal mix in two halves
4.5 kg + 4.5 kg
Cotton seed cake As the fish meal mix in two halves
15kg + 15 kg
Maize bran As the fish meal mix in two halves
50 kg + 50 kg
Once the feed has been mixed, place the completed feed into 25 kg bags.

39

Which of these feed stuffs can be fed to pigs?

Irish Potatoes

NO

OK

Sweet Potatoes

OK +

NO

Tomatoes

NO

OK

OK

OK +

NO

OK

NO

OK

NO

OK

OK+

OK +

NO

OK

OK+

NO

NO

OK

OK +

NO

OK

Eggs

OK+

OK

OK+

Sweet Potatoes leaves

NO

Animal Bones

OK +

OK

Banana Leaves

Cassava leaves

Cassava root

NO

OK+

Irish Potato peelings

Banana fruit

NO

OK

Bitter tomatoes

OK

OK+

Milk powder

OK+

NO

OK+

NO

Maize

OK

OK+

Maize husks

OK

OK+

40

Home brew residue

NO

OK

OK +

Meckene - fish

NO

Soya

NO

OK

OK

OK +

NO

OK

OK +

NO

OK +

OK

Sorghum

OK +

OK

OK

NO

OK

OK+

NO

OK

Sunflower

OK+

OK+

OK

OK+

Sugar Cane and Molasses

NO

OK

OK+

Shells

OK+

NO

Maize, Wheat or Rice bran

NO

OK

Cabbage

Salt (NaCl)

Lemon/limes/oranges

NO

Egg shells

NO

Ground Nuts

Silage grass, banana

NO

OK+

Beans

Fish heads and remains

NO

OK

OK+

OK

OK+

Meat and Blood meal

NO

OK

OK+

Banana peelings

41

NO

OK

OK +

NO

Egg plant

NO

OK

NO

OK

OK +

NO

OK

OK +

NO

OK

OK +

NO

OK

OK

NO

OK+

NO

OK +

NO

OK +

OK

OK

OK

OK+

OK

OK+

Bottle tops

OK+

NO

OK

OK+

Papaya

OK+

NO

Rice

NO

OK+

Cotton seed the white seeds

Carrots

Restaurant food

NO

OK

OK

Avocado

Soap

Plastic pieces

NO

NO

OK+

Beer

Milk liquid

OK

OK+

Margarine/butter/cheese

Matooke

NO

OK

OK

OK+

Lupins

OK+

NO

OK

OK+

42

Sycamore fig fruit

NO

OK

OK +

Maize cobs

NO

Pineapple, melon, grape, mango

NO

OK

OK +

OK

OK +

Wheat, Barley, Oats

OK+

NO

Insect larvae and grubs

NO

Acorns and nuts from trees

NO

OK

OK

OK+

OK

OK+

Grass

NO

Apples

NO

OK

OK

OK+

Bread/bakery
waste/chapatti/injera

OK+

NO

OK

OK+

This photomontage aims to illustrate the wide variety of items that can go into a pigs diet and
a few items which cannot. Many items need further processing- but boiling for 30 minutes is a
great general start. Consult your local advisor or Green Warrior if you are concerned about a
particular food product or how to process the food to make it suitable for your pigs.

43

Obtaining the pigs


Which pig to take home?
It is human nature to feel sorry for the weak and defenseless.
However, it is natures way to remove the weak and defenseless from the
genetic pool
Do not buy someone elses problem
Do not buy a sick or sorry pig
Avoid pigs with a listless manner which hang back into the group

Only examine the pig in a well-lit area. Walk the pig on an even coloured floor.
Pigs do not like to cross lines, shades or wet areas.
What to look for:
Pigs with exceptionally long and coarse hair coats
Pigs with heads that appear too big for their bodies
Pigs which are stunted, compared with their litter mates
Look for bright clear open eyes avoid small shrunken eyes
Avoid pigs which are excessively dirty housed too hot
Avoid groups of pigs who are too huddled housed too cold

What to listen for:


Note any sniffling and sneezing in the pigs
Avoid groups of pigs which present with discharges from the eyes and noses
Avoid groups of pigs who are coughing, particularly when they first rise up

Touch the prospective pigs


Examine the head carefully avoid any pigs with twisted, swollen or misshapen
snouts
Examine the jaw line in detail, looking for knots or swellings. Do not think you can
easily lance an abscess. This will only result in a scar and may release the causal
agents onto your farm
Examine the skin, looking for lice, a greasy feel and lots of wax in the ears while
treatable this is probably a sign of mange.
Examine the legs watch the pig in motion which should be free
Note if the pig is housed in deep bedding, move the animal to a solid concrete floor
and if necessary hose off the feet so they can be easily examined.
Dont take a pig with a stiff gait
Avoid front legs which are too straight
Avoid hind legs which are too tucked under the body
Avoid knocked knees
Avoid front legs which are too close together
Run your hands down over all four legs looking for swellings in the joints,
muscles and feet which may indicate injury or arthritis
Examine the feet do not select pigs with toes of uneven size.
Examine the feet for lines, cracks, under run heels or bruised soles

Length of the pig note 3 nipples in front of the prepuce in males and note position
and number of the teats
Ensure the gilt has an anus
If the boar is intended for breeding examine the testes, size, shape and consistency.
Any defect you note in a weaner or young grower is not going to be missed by the
butcher 20 weeks later.

44

Take a breath
Stand back and consider your prospective pig
Leg at each corner
Good loin development
Ideally a line dipping along the back indicating lean
Ideally a hollow in front of the tail and shape of the ham
Good growth for its age
Does it look like its breed, note its colour distribution and markings
Hair coat bright and clean

Additional questions to ask:


Date of birth?
Diarrhoea as a piglet?
Vaccine programme? mother and piglets
In-feed and water medication programme
What is it currently being fed on? Can you have 5kg to help settle the pig at its new
home?
Movement form available?
Required blood tests have been completed?

Check list for the visual examination of your pig

45

Settling your Pig into its New Home


Biosecurity
Always review the biosecurity arrangements for the pig particularly if
there are already pigs in the household isolation and acclimatisation will be
required.
Treat the pig for mange (Sarcoptes scabiei). Unless told otherwise, it is
always wise to assume the pig is positive. Two injections of ivermectin 7-14
days apart should eliminate this and other parasites. (except tapeworms)

Preparing the pen


The pig will want to sleep in a dry draught free area. Allow the pig to select
this area. Place a loosely broken bale of straw and allow the pig to make its
own nest. Even newly weaned pigs will make their own nest.
In the area designated as the toilet area, make the area damp with some
damp straw.
Observe the pig over the first few days to ensure it agrees with you regarding
the layout of the pen. Healthy pigs are determined by minimizing stress.
Ideally the source farm should supply 5kg of food to reduce the risk of
digestive upset.
Ensure the water supply is clean and accessible.
In the hot months, with pigs over 30 kg, the provision of a wallow or other
cooling aid will be necessary.

First day
Plenty of dry straw
Provide water as soon as the pig settles in the pen
Provide food at the end of the day make sure the pig knows the position of
the feeder.
The addition of milk to the feed (2:1) may help encourage appetite. If the pig
is over 30 kg the addition of a 0.5 litre of beer/ale to the food will assist the
pig to sleep.
Remove the feeding bowl
Turn all the lights out 1 hour after feeding.
Allow the pig to get a good nights sleep.

Get to know the pig


Give him or her a name and use it.
Gentle handling will equate to tender pork
Get to know his (her) eating and other behaviours.

Make the pig your friend


As a stockperson you can still enjoy pork and the company of pigs

46

What is not suitable?

Dirty poorly prepared accommodation


The floor is dirty and broken

Damp bedding full of mould which was intended


for sleeping

Unclean polluted water supplies with water


from the cleaning programme

Contaminated (rodent droppings) old feed


from the last pigs who left 3 weeks ago!!

Draughty accommodation

Use of old needles and syringes

Neglect the pig cannot be saved the kindest


treatment is euthanasia.

Abuse (staged photo). If the pig will not do what


it asked its our fault not the pigs. They have
the right to be difficult

47

Introduction and medication for your pigs


Bringing new pigs to the farm is always a worry. If there are no other pigs on the property
then this worry is less. But if there are other pigs already there it is always best to keep the
new pigs separate for the first 2 weeks at least. This obviously causes problems, especially
when the pigs are very young, with housing.

Separation for 2 weeks why


Two main reasons:
1. It allows for the new pigs to develop any clinical signs of ill health before meeting your
other stock. They can then be treated for the disease
2. It allows the new pigs to become accustomed to you and the property before meeting
your other stock.

Where should this isolation building be placed?


The building should be placed around a minimum 50 metres away from the main buildings.
The further the better but within the same ownership.

Requirements
All new stock should be healthy on arrival.
You should not buy any pigs which look
sick see selecting pigs.
Separate boots and ideally covers for your
clothing should be worn in the isolation
area
Ideally these boots and overalls should be a different colour to normal.

Suggested injections on arrival


Two injections of ivermectin 0.3mg/kg on arrival and 7 days later
This is to remove the risk of Mange (Sarcoptes scabiei var suis and other internal
parasites (not tapeworms). (Details on Mange - http://www.portec.com.au/thepig/disorders/skin/mange/mange06.htm )
Consult with your local veterinarian regarding any specific pathogens that might be
present in the area and take necessary precautions.

48

Hand Washing Instructions


Before and After handling the Pigs

Ensure your finger nails are short


Turn on the tap and allow the flow of warm water
Rub your hands vigorously together for at least 15 to 20
seconds under the water
Apply soap
Scrub all surfaces, including the backs of your hands, wrists,
between your fingers and under your fingernails
Rinse well
Dry your hands with a disposable towel
Use a towel to turn off the tap

Why is it vital to wash your hands?


To reduce the risk of spread of pathogens between farms
To protect yourself from zoonotic pathogens
In pigs this is primarily to reduce infection from Streptococcus suis and
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae
49

Lying pattern as an indicator of comfort


Too cold
Lie on the floor with their legs tucked under
their body to reduce floor contact. Lie huddles
with other pigs. Lie close to a wall
Pigs may shiver, The pigs may become hairy
With larger pigs they seen unable to adopt this
tucked position for very long and tend to lie
semi-recumbent with their legs tucked into their
body.,

Chilled piglets

Chilled weaners

Chilled finishing pigs

Comfortable
Within a group of pigs there will be a selection of lying patterns. The main group of
pigs will sleep together in a pile, however, other pigs will be lying spread out but
with maximum contact with the floor. These separated pigs will be the more
dominant pigs. The lower order pigs will lie on the edge of the main group. Pigs
sleep with legs stretched out from the body.

Too hot
Pigs will be panting > 40 per minute
Pigs are generally dirty.
Lie away from other pigs, sometimes
against a cold wall.
They do not pile
Lie in any wet/cooler area
Pigs will dig into earth/bedded floors.

50

Defecation behaviour
Pigs are inherently clean animals and avoid lying in feaces. From a few days of age pigs will
become toilet trained to defecation in a specific area of the environment.
The defecation pattern of the pen provides a good long term indicator of comfort. The veterinarian
can see the area even without the pigs presence. Abnormal defecation patterns indicate a chronic
reduction in optimal environment.

Pigs defection area can be expected to be either

Where the pen is coolest

Where the pen has a draught the pigs will defecate under the
cold dropping air (blue in the picture)

Where the pen is wettest note


the faeces under the drinker

Where the pen is darkest

Where the pen is most private


this can lead to a blocked feeder

Hot pigs will specifically choose to wallow in


faeces and slurry to assist cooling. Sometimes,
this is unavoidable, but its occurrence should be
minimised. Once pigs become dirty they can be
extremely difficult to retrain even when
provided with ideal environments.
Note the pigs in the picture are lying by the drinkers
another abnormal position

Abnormal defecation patterns can also limit other pen resources creating additional
stressors for example when pigs defecate into feeders, waters or over lying areas.

51

Pigs at Play
Any stockperson watching a group of pigs will soon be amused to observe their play activities.
Play prepares them for situations and teaches survival skills.
Pigs are extremely intelligent animals with a degree of complex behaviours that match and
may even surpass a domestic dog. Unlike cattle and sheep, pigs exhibit greater inquisitiveness
and individualist behaviour patterns. This can be practically demonstrated when moving a
group of pigs. In many ways pigs are more like people than they would wish to admit.
Providing an environment where pigs can explore their play behaviour can help relieve stress
and allow the pig to cope better if their environment is temporarily adverse.

Company
Pigs will gain comfort and support from other
pigs and other animals. Pigs should not be
kept in isolation. There may be obvious
exceptions when the pig is under treatment
for meningitis or a severe lameness. However,
once the pig is over the critical stage of the
condition it should be housed with other pigs
of a similar weight and age.

Environmental enrichment
Adult pigs
Adult pigs have a generally lower requirement
to play with items placed in their pen.
However, playing music to adult sows can
have a calming effect and has been used to
reduce savaging of piglets by gilts.
Farrowing sows can be provided with
chopped paper, straw and hay to allow them
to act out their nesting behavioural
requirements. Adult sows can be provided
with some chopped straw even while being
housed in stall accommodation. Note that the
bedding materials can cause disturbance to
the slurry system which if blocked would lead
to other significant problems.
Picture shows shredded paper

52

Wean to finish pigs


All wean to finish pigs should be provided
with toys within the pen.
The simplest toys are often the most
effective. Pigs love to play with chains,
rattles, large plastic bottles, rubber belting,
old boots and feedbags.
Large balls became popular in the 1990s
and while these can be useful pigs can also
become bored with them. In addition they
can be placed in feeders and block feed
access.

Balls

Chains

Purpose built

Car tires should be avoided as they have


metal supports which can be swallowed by
the pigs resulting in intestinal rupture.

Pen layout/shape
Pen layout can encourage play behaviour.
However, note that in pens which are long
and narrow this can result in a running
game with large numbers of pigs running at
high speeds. As the pigs attempt to turn at
the end of the pens individuals may slip
and become injured including long bone
fractures. When designing the pen ensure
that this running behaviour is catered for
by providing chicanes which will slow the
pigs down.

53

Daily job list


1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21

Say hello to the pigs


Observe their behaviour
Enter pen
Clean up all faeces place outside the pen
Clean up any spilt feed place outside the pen
It may be necessary to wash down urine areas
if urine pools evident
Feed the pigs
Watch pigs behaviour when eating
Watch pigs defecation and urination
behaviour
Ensure the pigs bed has plenty of bedding.
Replace any bedding moved by the pigs.
Fill water only bowl
Mark chalk board for first feed.
Move faeces and waste food to the compost
pile. Turn compost pile 3
Prepare feed for the day
Ensure all utensils are thoroughly cleaned
Check the outside run including the wallow
Repeat from point 7 5 times during the day
At around midday provide a water only feed
At the end of the day provide last feed
Look at the behaviour of the pigs
Say good night to the pigs

54

Daily Checks the basics

Say hello

Observe behaviour

Clean up faeces

Clean up any spilt food

Prepare the food and feed


the pigs

Watch pigs eating

Watch pigs defecate and


urinate

Check bedding

Mark up work board

Place faeces and food in


compost check compost pile

Clean all utensils

Check outside run and


repair as required

55

Friday
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Weekly job list

Do normal daily tasks


After the feed has been prepared
ensure all the utensils are cleaned
Ensure there is no split feed to clear
up
Move compost piles to next week
Clear up any rubbish around
buildings
Ensure that there will be sufficient
water for next week
Check the roof
Check the walls and buildings from
any issues
Repair any issues where possible
Check the outside area and clean if
necessary
Check the week completed section
on the chalk board

56

Stockmanship the basics


Take time to scratch their ears

There is nothing more important that a stockperson can do than


simply go out and look and listen to the pigs
Early in the morning and late in the day (around sunrise and
sunset) are excellent times to take a really hard look at the
animals under your care
Seeing the pigs well fed and content at the end of the day can
take the edge of all the aches and pains of the day
Remember there is not one pig producer who is caught up
with all the chores, there is always something else to do. But do
not let the job get in the way of caring for the pigs themselves
The pigs are your hopes and dreams of the future

57

Stockmanship the basic signs of ill-health


Animal Behaviour

Stage of the disease

Action required

Does not get up quickly


Stomach not full
Agitated
Rapid breathing
Looks gaunt
Does not come to eat
Remains at back of group
Arched back
Hair stands on end
Pale, long hair
Straggler
Losing weight
Slow growth
Small in the group

Early
Early
Early
Fairly early
Fairly early
Fairly early
Fairly early
Fairly early
Fairly early
Fairly late
Late
Very late
Very late
Very late

Caution
Look further
Look further
Look further
Intervene
Intervene
Intervene
Intervene
Intervene
Intervene
Intervene
Improve process
Improve process
Improve process

58

Medicines and treatment of pigs Basics


Consult with your veterinarian regarding
what medications to administer to the pigs
Note needles are very sharp and care
needs to be taken so that medicines and
needles are not used or stored casually so
any person may become hurt
Keep medicines out of the reach of
children

Where do you inject pigs?


In the neck as this area is the cheapest
joint

Inject in neck

Never use dirty needles and syringes.


Never use needles which are blunt
Dirty syringe and needle do not use

After treating any sick pig, ensure the


needle and syringe is cleaned and boiled
before re-use. Never use a used needle on
healthy pigs

A sick pig boil the equipment


afterwards

If necessary place sick pigs in isolation


These simple wicker baskets come in a
variety of sizes

Dispose of needles, syringes and bottles


safely for example in inside a plastic bottle.
Ideally return them to your veterinarian
for safe disposal

Unsafe medicine and needle disposal

59

Stockpeople basics
Normal and Abnormal Clinical Signs
Normal expected signs

Signs which should raise concern

60

Major Disorders of the Pig by Age/Group


Piglet

Nursery weaning to 30 kg

61

Grow/finish 30 to 110 kg

Gilt, Sow or boar

62

Monitoring the pigs

Pig Weight Estimation


To estimate the weight of the pig in pounds:
1. Measure the heart/girth in inches
2. Multiply this measure by itself
3. Then multiply that times the length of your
pig (ears to beginning of tail)
Divide by 400 and you will have the
approximate weight of the pig
Summary imperial weight
= [(girth)2 x length] / 400
This is accurate to within 3% of actual weight

Girth Only - metric


If we just do the girth measurement 1 in cm the weight will be calculated by:
Weight (kg) = 4.07 x (girth) - 333
To convert into metric: 1 pound = 453.59g
1 inch is 2.54 centimetres.

Monitoring the growth of the pigs

Measure the girth of the pigs weekly or


monthly

If any pig appears to slow down, examine the


pig in detail. If necessary feed separately.

Plot on a convenient surface note pig Maria


was 3 weeks younger than Blessing

63

Growth Rate
100

80

Weight
kg

60

40
20

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

Age in weeks

Age of the pig

Daily Liveweight Gain

Weight

g/day

(kg)

Weeks

Days

28

215

7.0

42

395

12.5

56

630

21.3

10

70

660

30.5

12

84

715

40.5

14

98

800

51.5

16

112

965

65.0

18

126

1000

80.0

20

140

1100

95.0

22

154

1100

110.0

64

Transportation of pigs
1
2
3

5
6
7

Follow the rules


Inform the authorities get clearance
In Uganda a livestock permit from the government veterinary department
is required to transport livestock or livestock products
Use only a permitted vehicle- open vehicle ie a truck or pickup
These provide maximum ventilation to the animals.
It also allows for easy inspection

Truck
Motor bike truck
Avoid motorbikes
Transport pigs when the weather is not too hot
Early morning or late evening is favourable time.
Splashing water over the pigs helps in warm weather. But do not overdo it
do not get the floor of the vehicle wet so the pigs slip on the flooring.
Have a non-slip floor, with good grip
If preparing the pigs for slaughter do not allow them to get too hot

Do not over load


Pregnant sows should be carefully transported and should not be
transported on the roads after day 80 of pregnancy
Carefully avoid pot holes. Bruising and cuts on the pig will reduce its value

65

Cleaning a building after the pigs leave


1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

Pigs leave the building


Remove all faeces, left feed, bedding and other easily removed materials
Compost all of the removed materials
Wash water down over all the surfaces
Leave for 30 minutes
Examine the outside area
Remove all faecal materials from the outside area
If the outside area has been dug up, replace the soil as required.
It may be necessary to turn-over the soil surface
Repair the wallow area if required. Drain if possible and allow to dry
After allowing the floor area 30 minutes to soak
Brush the floor thoroughly with hot/warm water with soap added to the
water
Clean thoroughly the floor, bedded area, feeders and waterers
Allow the floor to dry
Examine the building and repair where necessary
Make up lime-wash 3:1 Calcium carbonate
Wash all the floor and wall surfaces to 1 metre high with lime wash
Allow the floor to dry
The new pigs are not to enter the building until the lime wash is totally dry
minimum 24 hours

Successful pig farming batch after batch

66

Application of Lime Washing


1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Wear goggles and gloves


Obtain a large plastic bucket
Mix Burnt or Builders Lime (CaCO3) with 6 litres of
water into a pasty liquid. Mix one third lime with 2/3
water
Add lysol (a disinfectant) to the mixture
Brush onto the surface using a soft household brush
It is possible to dedicate a pressure washer to assist
the painting of lime, use the washer as a spray gun
Leave to dry for 24 hours. If this time span is not
available, do not lime wash any surface the pig is
going to lie on as this will result in burns

Limewashing to control scour in the


farrowing house and a splayleg
problem

Lime-wash used as the terminal


disinfectant in a grower house

67

Building costs
Estimation of the building costs. The excel spreadsheet is embedded, double click to
customize.

Water collection Wall Sleeping area Sloping exercise Monopitch Outside Feed/water
Insulated floor
1-2 degree
Wallow
Fence
Building costs - small building
The yellow boxes can be customised
Number required Cost per unit
Total costs
Floor
Stone/bricks
200
95
19000
Concrete bags
3.75
26000
97500
String
1
4000
4000
Walls
Posts
8
1200
9600
Bamboo
8
2500
20000
Gates
1
0
0
Nails kg
3
4000
12000
Roof
Wood supports
0
0
0
Thatch
10
1000
10000
Metal piece
2
28000
56000
Guttering 28g
1
20000
20000
Water container
1
6000
6000
Large water store
1
25000
25000
Outside run
Posts
6
1200
7200
Bamboo
2
2500
5000
Feeder and drinkers
Bricks
14
95
1330
Concrete
0.25
26000
6500
Utensils
Boiling pot
1
12000
12000
Plastic containers
2
10000
20000
Plastic measures
1
5000
5000
Brushes
1
1000
1000
Boots
1
6000
6000
Soap
1
400
400
Lime wash
1
2000
2000
Total costs
345530 shs @
157 $ US
Other tools which will be required
Iron bar
1
5000
Hammer
1
20000
Saw
1
20000
Trowel
1
3000
Spade
1
4000
Wheel barrow
1
90,000
Plum line
1
5,000
Measuring tape
1
5,000
Total others
152000

2200

68

Budget- wean to finish


Small holder budget costs
Wean to finish costs
Number of pigs

10 pigs

Unit cost
Cost of purchasing the pigs
Movement licence

Total costs

30000 shs
2000 shs per pig
Total

Running cost
Based on a single pig
Weeks on the farm
Sale weight
Water usage
water costs
Feed per day
Labour costs
Health costs
Building cost returns

300000 shs
20000 shs
320000

18 weeks
80 kg
4 litres per day
100
400
1000
100
69,231

sh per 10 litres
sh
sh per day per 10 pigs
sh
sh

504 litres
5040 shs
50400 shs

Total costs

50400
504000
126000
1000
69,231
1050631

shs
shs
shs
shs
Building paid off in
2 years
Total building cost 400000

shs

Income
Compost
Sale income

10000 per week


150000 shs per pig
Total income

Profit

(Income - cost)

180000 shs
1500000 shs
1680000
1360000 shs
Equivalent

2000 shs/dollars
$ 680.00 dollars

69

Adopt a pig
These pig farms are intended to be a community effort.
It is essential that the community takes ownership in the pigs and enjoy the profits of their
venture.
One suggestion is that when 10 pigs are purchased, the pigs are adopted by individual homes
or individuals.
It will then be expected that these people will then pay for the pigs initially and help with the
care, management, feed and watering of their pigs.
When the pigs are slaughtered or sold for future breeding, the money is divided between the
whole team. Note this should include any group whose pig unfortunately died during the
growing phase.
Note sufficient money should be set aside to purchase 10 more pigs (or whatever the group
size is) to perpetuate the project.

Planning the project as a


community

All hands to help build and


run the project

Enjoying the rewards

70

A MANUAL ON IMPROVED
RURAL PIG PRODUCTION

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Pig breeds ............................................................................................................. 1
1. Local pig breeds .................................................................................................................... 1
2. Exotic pig breeds .................................................................................................................. 3
3. Crossbreeds ........................................................................................................................... 5
Chapter 2: Pig raising and housing systems ......................................................................... 7
1. Pig raising systems in the Lao PDR ..................................................................................... 7
2. Pigsty buildings .................................................................................................................. 10
3. Pens, floors and space requirements ................................................................................... 14
4. Different roof systems ........................................................................................................ 17
Chapter 3: Feeding systems ................................................................................................. 19
1. Traditional animal feeds ..................................................................................................... 19
2. Traditional feed processing ................................................................................................. 23
3. Commercial feeds ............................................................................................................... 24
4. Commercial feeds mixed with traditional feeds ................................................................. 25
5. General feed management .................................................................................................. 27
Chapter 4: Selection of breeding pigs ................................................................................. 33
1. Selection of boars and gilts ................................................................................................. 33
2. Productive sows .................................................................................................................. 34
3. Feeding and genetics .......................................................................................................... 36
Chapter 5: Breeding pigs ..................................................................................................... 41
1. Gilt management ................................................................................................................. 41
2. Dry sow management ......................................................................................................... 42
3. Training of young boars ...................................................................................................... 43
4. Oestrus cycle, natural and artificial breeding and farrowing date ...................................... 44
5. Practical points regarding heat detection ............................................................................ 48
6. Management of mating ....................................................................................................... 49
7. Management of the breeding boar ..................................................................................... 52
Chapter 6: The pregnant sow .............................................................................................. 53
1. Pregnancy control and records ............................................................................................ 53
2. Feeding and health .............................................................................................................. 54
Chapter 7: Farrowing ........................................................................................................... 57
1. The days before, during and after farrowing ...................................................................... 57
2. Heath care of the newly born piglets and sow .................................................................... 60

Chapter 8: The lactating sow and piglets ........................................................................... 63


1. Housing and comfort zones for piglets ............................................................................... 63
2. Health care of the piglets and sow ...................................................................................... 64
3. Housing, hygiene and feeding ............................................................................................ 66
4. Check list for the lactating sow and piglets ........................................................................ 68
Chapter 9: Nursing and weaning piglets ............................................................................ 69
1. Immunity and weaning time ............................................................................................... 69
2. Feeding and housing of weaners ........................................................................................ 72
3. Handling and transporting pigs ........................................................................................... 74
Chapter 10: Growing and fattening pigs ............................................................................ 75
1. Problems during the growing and fattening period ............................................................ 75
2. Grouping and feeding pigs ................................................................................................. 77
3. Check list for growing and fattening pigs ........................................................................... 79
Chapter 11: Production records and control ..................................................................... 81
1. Record keeping ................................................................................................................... 81
2. Production targets ............................................................................................................... 83
Chapter 12: Health control of pigs ...................................................................................... 85
1. Routine hygiene and health measures ................................................................................. 85
2. Principles of disease prevention ......................................................................................... 88
3. Introducing new pigs to the farm ........................................................................................ 89
Chapter 13: Pig diseases ....................................................................................................... 91
1. Classical Swine Fever (Hog Cholera) ................................................................................. 91
2. Foot and Mouth Disease ..................................................................................................... 92
3. Roundworms ....................................................................................................................... 93
4. Diarrhoea in piglets ............................................................................................................ 94
5. Erysipelas............................................................................................................................ 95
6. Mange ................................................................................................................................. 96
7. Cysticercosis ....................................................................................................................... 97

VI

APPENDIX of PHOTOGRAPHS
1. Breeds ................................................................................................................................. 99
2. Selection ........................................................................................................................... 100
3. Pig pens and floors ........................................................................................................... 101
4. Feeders and drinkers ......................................................................................................... 102
5. Nutrition: by-products and crops ..................................................................................... 103
6. Nutrition: traditional feed processing .............................................................................. 104
7. Nutrition: commercial feed practices ............................................................................... 105
8. Piglet care ......................................................................................................................... 106
9. Lactating sows and their piglets ....................................................................................... 107
10. Handling and vaccination ............................................................................................... 108
11. Diseases and abnormalities ............................................................................................. 109
12. Castration ........................................................................................................................ 110
13. Taking samples for laboratory ........................................................................................ 110
14. Large scale pig farming .................................................................................................. 111
15. Other pig pictures ........................................................................................................... 112

VII

Chapter 1: Pig breeds

1. Local pig breeds


Local pig (type 1):
This type of pig can be found throughout the country. It has a small body size compared
to other local pig types. Its name varies from region to region, for example: Muchid,
Mukadone, Muboua, although it is generally called Muladt.

The age at first heat is around 8 - 9 months with a body weight of 21 - 30 kg. The mature
live weight of females is about 42 - 48 kg. The age at first farrowing is 12 months, with a
farrowing rate of 1.5 per year and a litter size of 7 - 8 piglets. Piglets are weaned at 2 - 3
months and weigh around 7 - 8 kg. The male pig becomes mature around 6 months at 30 kg.

Muladt type 1

Characteristics of this breed are:

The body length is around 75 - 92 cm and height about 46 - 54 cm.


The jaw is relatively long and sharp, similar to wild pig.
The size of ear is medium and generally straight.
The skin is black but some pigs have white and/or pink spots.
The hoof color is mainly white.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

Local pig (type 2):


Pig type 2 is larger than type 1. The age of first mating is around 1 year at body weight of
about 39 kg. At maturity the weight is about 47 - 61 kg.

Muladt type 2
Characteristics of this breed are:

The body length is around 85 - 100 cm and height about 51 - 70 cm.


The body color is black.
Sometimes the color at lower part is white.
The ears are short and straight.

Local pig (type 3):


Pig type 3 is big and heavy. Most local people call this breed MuLaoSung. The age at
first heat is about 5 - 6 months with a body weight of about 34 - 40 kg. The weight of the
mature female is 65 - 85 kg and the age at first farrowing is 10 - 11 months.

Muladt type 3
Characteristics of this breed are:

The body length is around 100 - 135 cm and height about 55 - 76 cm.
The body color is mostly black; the abdominal area is mostly black- white colored.
The snout color is white and the face is short
The ears are big and the back is curved.

Improved Rural Pig Production

Chapter 1: Pig breeds

2. Exotic pig breeds


The most common pig breeds for commercial pig production are the Large White,
Landrace and Duroc breeds or crosses. These 3 breeds produce lean meat combined with
efficient feed conversion (3 kg of good feed is needed to produce 1 kg of pork). Compared
to local pig breeds, these commercial breeds are less resistant to diseases and suffer more
from hot weather and low quality feeds. Pure exotic breeds generally do not perform well
in rural pig production systems.

Large White (Yorkshire):


The Large White breed originates from England and adapts well to Lao conditions. It
reaches 80 - 90 kg body weight at 5 - 6 months. The sow is a good mother with a litter size
of 10 - 11 piglets and produces healthy piglets for about 4 - 5 years. The pigs grow rapidly
and produce good quality lean meat.

Large White

Characteristics of this breed are:

The body color is white.


A large head with standing ears.
Big shoulders with a straight back.
A long body and strong legs.
A short snout.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

Landrace:
The Landrace originates from Denmark and adapts well to Lao conditions. It can reach
80 - 90 kg live body weight at 5 - 6 months. The sow is a good mother with litter sizes of 10
- 12 piglets. This breed has a rapid growth and good quality of carcass. The breed is
mainly used as dam line crossing as the sows have a long body and udder with many teats.

Landrace

Characteristics of this breed are:

The skin and hair are white.


Large ears falling to the sides.
A narrow head and a long snout.
Big hips and a curved back.

Duroc:
The Duroc breed originates from North America. It has a rapid growth rate and good
ability to adapt to varied tropical climatic conditions. The litter size is small: about 7 - 8
piglets per litter. They are used mainly as sire line for producing crossbreed pigs.

Duroc

Characteristics of this breed are:

Brown in color.
Medium sized ears and a bit fallen.
A large head with a short snout.
Big hips.

Improved Rural Pig Production

Chapter 1: Pig breeds

3. Crossbreeds
Improvement of local breeds:
Breed improvement is important in obtaining improved and high yielding animals. The
main purpose of breed improvement is to introduce a positive characteristic into a local
breed. For example: by crossbreeding an indigenous sow with an exotic boar; the
offspring is likely to inherit the body shape and good growth rate from its father and the
tolerance to environmental stress from its mother. Inbreeding between father and
daughter, mother and son, brother and sister, etc. must be avoided.

Imported (exotic boar) with


high meat production.

Imported (exotic) boar

Local good sow, well adapted to


local conditions.

Off-spring boars produce more meat. They


should be castrated, fattened and slaughtered.

Selected sows of the offspring can be mated with the imported boar breed-line. Commercial
piggery uses this breeding system for 4 - 5 generations to reach the desired improved breed.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

Singji pigs from China:


The Singji pigs originate from Southern China. They are an improved cross-breed;
crossed between local breeds of China and exotic breeds (mainly the Duroc). Singji pigs
are suitable for keeping under village conditions with improved husbandry practices
(using clean pig pens, strict vaccination control and good home-made feeds mixed with
commercial feeds). With these improved husbandry practices they can withstand the hot
and wet Lao climate much better than the exotic breeds. Although the initial crossbreeds
are black, mating between Singji sow and Singji boar can produce a litter with many
black piglets but also some of other colors like brown, spotted or striped.

The other main characteristics are:

The back is long and straight


with light convex.

The hams are full and the limbs


are strong.

The head is big and short with a


wrinkled forehead.

The ears are big and hanging.

The piglets are strong, grow fast


and can be slaughtered at early
ages.

The adult sow reaches 100 - 150


kg of body weight in 1 - 1.5
years.

The adult boar weighs 120 - 180


kg.

Gilts are mated at 8 - 9 months,


weighing at least 80 kg.

The sow has mostly 7 pairs of


teats with a litter size between 9
13 piglets.

The Singji pigs have two main disadvantages:


1) They seem more vulnerable than local pigs to mange infection. Strict control of mites
with drugs like Ivermectin must take place every 3 months.
2) We need to bring in new Singji boars regularly to avoid inbreeding and not loose the
good characteristics of the typical Singji pig that was originally crossed between local
Chinese breeds and exotic breeds (Duroc).

Improved Rural Pig Production

Chapter 2: Pig raising and housing systems

1. Pig raising systems in the Lao PDR


On smallholder farms in the Lao PDR there are 4 common pig raising systems:
1. free range scavenging,
2. semi-intensive (confined within a large area),
3. intensive (confined to a pig pen),
4. integrated pig and fish farming.

Free range scavenging:

This kind of pig raising system is most common in rural areas for keeping local pig breeds.
Advantages:

Low cost of inputs and low use of labor.


Disadvantages:

Requires a large area and may destroy cash crops.


Pigs are difficult to control and can be infected easily with diseases.
Low output and public nuisance.

Semi-intensive (confined within a large area):

LAO-EU Livestock Project

The semi-intensive system (confined within a large area) can be found in suburban areas
or with communities specialized in fattenning local pigs.
Advantages:

Simple pig housing (only shelter against rain and sun).

Low output and requires a large area.

Low cost of inputs as by-products and kitchen waste are used for feeding the pigs.
Disadvantages:
Pigs are difficult to control (e.g. catching for veterinary treatments).
Pigs can easily be infected with diseases (especially when new pigs are introduced into
the same area).

Intensive (confined to a pig pen):


This system is adapted by farmers with a sense for improved pig production. Often these
farmers can be found in areas where they have access to commercial feeds. Usually these
farmers are in semi-urban areas and raise exotic and crossbreed pigs for the local market.

Advantages:

Easy to handle (feeding, water supply, monitoring health, detecting heat, farrowing,
etc).

Easy to undertake vaccinations and treatments.

High costs of inputs (housing material, feeds and labor).

Low risk of diseases when the farmer adheres to good sanitation practices.
The environment is kept clean and crops are not destroyed by scavenging pigs.

The manure can fertilize fish ponds or fertilize the field crops (or garden) of the farmer.
Disadvantages:
Farmer requires more management skills.

Improved Rural Pig Production

Chapter 2: Pig raising and housing systems

Integrated pig and fish farming:


Fish ponds can be fertilized with pig manure; algae are produced which can be utilized by
the fish. As long as sufficient water is available for the ponds, pig sties can either be constructed above the pond so that the manure can drop straight into the water, or nearby the
pounds so that the slurry can be channeled into the ponds. The various species of Tilapia
are the most commonly used fish, often mixed with a small population of carp and catfish.

Sixty pigs produce enough


manure for one hectare of
fishpond, which, if stocked at
around 40,000 fish can produce fish yields of up to 4,000
kg per year . If pig manure is
insufficient, ducks can be used
to add more manure to the
pounds. Water hyacinth can
be used to harvest nutrients
from the fish pond and fed
back to the pigs.

Special care is needed when Ivermectin is used to control mange or internal parasites.
Small residues of Ivermectin excreted through the manure can kill the fish in the pond.
Take care that the manure of treated pigs does not enter the pond for one week (e.g. use
gunny bags to cover slats and shovel away manure). Or alternatively, wash pigs with
mange problems outside the pen with Neguvon.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

2. Pigsty buildings
Site selection:

The site should be at an elevated


place that can not be flooded by
rain water.

The site should be protected from


the sun (shade from trees) and
have ample fresh air.

Away from residences (around 810 meter away downwind).

In case of a large scale pig farm,


the site selected needs also to be:

well connected to roads


throughout the year,

suitable for manure disposal,


connected to reliable water
and electricity sources.

Low input - low output pig farming.

Investment in pigsty buildings depends on


the level of pig management and inputs
(low input versus high input systems).

High input - high output pig farming.

Improved Rural Pig Production

10

Chapter 2: Pig raising and housing systems

Pigsty building and materials:


A pigsty can be constructed cheaply by using locally available materials. It needs to be
constructed according to climatic conditions and according to the pig production system.
The following matters need attention:
1. The pigsty should be comfortable for the pigs: good ventilation and ample shade, no
overheating, no smells, no draft and no dampness.
2. The building should be constructed with its length axis in an East-West direction
(protected from sun and rain).
3. The pig building needs to be divided into different pens for each phase of the production cycle. The number and the size of the pens depend on the expected numbers of
pigs to be housed in each production phase.
4. The costs of constructing the pigsty should fit the pig production systems. An efficient
pig production is required to cover high construction costs.

Generally, there are 2 types of pigsty buildings:

Elevated pens with flat floors (often used for fattening pigs on large scale farms).
Pens with raised slatted floors (suitable for all pig systems, especially on small scale
farms).

wooden slatted floor

cemented floor
Floor systems:
Distance between the slats should be 0.5 - 1.0 cm. A slatted floor should preferably be
sloping for easy cleaning.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

11

Partition:
Many types of partitions can be used like wood, bricks, iron pipes, etc. Partitions should
prevent piglets from escaping and still allow easy manure removal.

different partitions

round poles

brick wall
wooden slats

The partition must have strong


poles firmly anchored in the
ground. A network of horizontal
and vertical beams or slats
should connect these poles with
each other. It is not recommended to have a horizontal
beam as the highest partition as
mature pigs might climb over
such a beam. This is especially
valid for a boar-pen; the boar
will make every effort to get
close to a sow in heat.

Keep the boar alone in


a pen, close to the sow
pen to stimulate sows
to become in heat.

Improved Rural Pig Production

12

Chapter 2: Pig raising and housing systems

Feed trough size:


Pig categories
Suckling piglet
Fattening pig
Pregnant sow
Lactating sow
Breeding boar

Length
15-20 cm per pig
30-35 cm per pig
40-50 cm per pig
40-50 cm per pig
40-50 cm per pig

Width
20 cm
20 cm
35-40 cm
35-40 cm
35-40 cm

The feeding trough should be firmly anchored to the floor to prevent overturning and
wasting feed.

feeders
40

cm

20 cm

1m
20

cm

15 cm

60 cm

Drinkers:
The feeding trough can also be used to supply water. At large farms automatic drinkers
are used (bowls or nipples).

LAO-EU Livestock Project

13

3. Pens, floors and space requirements


Pens with flat, solid floors:
A flat, solid floor is usually made from cement (but not polished to avoid slipping) or from
hard soil. The floor should be sloping away to the rear to facilitate cleaning with water. It is
suitable especially for fattening pigs but also for pregnant and farrowing sows and boars.

0.8 m

0.8 m

1.0 m
1.0 m
2.0 m

2.5 m

2.0 m

Pens with raised slatted floors:


The floor is usually made from locally available wood or timber. Large scale pig farms can
have slatted floors that are commercially available (made from cement, iron rods, plastic, etc).
Pens with slatted floors are suitable for keeping all types of pigs.

0.2 m
1.0 m
0.5 m

1.0 m

1.4 m

0.4 m
2.5 m
2.0 m

Improved Rural Pig Production

14

Chapter 2: Pig raising and housing systems

Space requirement for pigs:


Fattening pig:
Per pig 0.5 - 1.0 m2

3m

2m

2m

1.0 m
Pregnant sows:
Per sow 1.5 - 2.0 m2

2.0 m

0.4 m

0.6 m

Pregnant sows need a quiet


environment. Therefore
individual pens are sometimes used for pregnant sows.
In hot climates pregnant sows
are alternatively housed in
small groups of three.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

15

Lactating sows:
Per sow 4 - 6 m2

2.0 m

2.0 m

0.6 m
0.8 m

Weaner piglets:
Per piglet 0.3 - 0,5 m2

Breeding boars:
Per boar 6 - 8 m2

Special care is required to


prevent boars from escaping to the gilts and sows
that are on heat (strong and
high partitions).

Improved Rural Pig Production

16

Chapter 2: Pig raising and housing systems

4. Different roof systems


Roofs:
The roof of the pigsty can be of grass thatch, bamboo sheets, galvanized iron sheets, tiles, etc.
Roofs made of grass thatch or bamboo sheets are cheap and good for ventilation, but these
roofs are not durable. The costs of tiles or galvanized iron roofs are high, but these roofs last a
longtime. In hot climates, a galvanized iron roof can make the pigsty very hot during the day.

Good, enough shade.

Not good, no shade.

The site of the pen and the roof system should protect the pigs from hot sun and rain.
The roof should give enough shadow at the hottest time of the day.

There are 4 popular roof systems:

single sloping roof,


uneven sloping roof,
high, even sloping roof,
double ventilation roof.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

17

Single sloping roof:


This roof system is cheap and easy to
build. It provides good ventilation,
but the pen can be penetrated by too
much sun and become hot. During
the rainy season, strong wind and
heavy rain can come in.

Uneven sloping roof:


This roof type is higher than the
single sloping roof. The advantage of
this type is that it protects better
against sun and rain.

High, even sloping roof:


The cost of building this roof type is
higher than the first 2 types, but it
gives better protection against sun
and rain.

Double ventilation roof:


This type of roof provides good sun
and rain protection and it ensures
good ventilation. The investment
cost is rather high, but often it is
necessary in hot climates to keep the
temperature in the larger pigsty at a
reasonable level.

Improved Rural Pig Production

18

Chapter 3: Feeding systems

1. Traditional animal feeds


Feeds should meet the animals needs for maintenance, growth and reproduction. Good
pig feed contains sufficient energy, protein, minerals and vitamins. Rice bran, broken rice,
maize, soya-beans, cassava, vegetables and distillers residues are often used in pig feed.

Maize:
Maize is a very good animal feed.
It contains up to 65% carbohydrates (=high) and 9% protein. It
can be mixed and cooked with
other feeds, but not more than
40% in the mix ration.

grain of maize
maize cob

Soya beans:
Soya is a crop which has a high
nutritional value and is very good
for pig feeding. It contains 38%
protein (=very high). It should be
dried, milled or well cooked in
combination with other feedstuff
like rice bran, broken rice and
maize.

soya plant
Cassava (or tapioca):
Cassava is a root crop which is
used for pig feeding. It can be
mixed with other feeds up to
around 10 - 20% (never more
than 30%). First it should be
peeled and washed and then
sliced, dried and ground before
use. It should not be fed to pigs as
raw cassava with the skin,
because of toxic substances. The
sliced and dried cassava can be
kept longer.

cassava

LAO-EU Livestock Project

19

Leucaena, Acacia and other tree leaves:


Leucaena and Acacia are traditional, locally available tree-crops. The leaves are rich in
protein. After drying, they can be mixed and fed to pigs with other feeds.

long bean
cassava

leucaena
Vegetables:

Vegetables are used as supplementary feeds for pigs by boiling and mixing with other feeds
such as rice bran, broken rice and maize. They can also be given fresh. Suitable vegetables are:

yam

cabbage, lettuce, spinach,


morning glory, sweet potato vine,

papaya

wild taro (needs boiling),


java weed, water hyacinth.

cassava

potato

sweet potato
Copra residues:
Residues from copra juice can be
fed to pigs as well. It contains 60 70% fat and 20% protein. It can be
mixed as 10 kg in 100kg feed (10%).

coconut

Improved Rural Pig Production

20

Chapter 3: Feeding systems

Rice bran:
Rice bran is very suitable for pig feeding.
It contains 11% protein and can be used
as the main ingredient. Rice bran can be
mixed with other feeds to 30 - 45%. Rice
bran can be kept no longer than 1 month
because it can become mouldy.

rice bran

Broken rice:
Also broken rice is very suitable for pig
feeding. It can be mixed with other feeds
up to 15 - 20%. Broken rice contains
about 8% protein.

broken rice

Alcohol - rice distilling residues:


Local alcohol can be made from rice, maize, sweet potato, cassava, banana, etc. Most
popular for pig feeding is distillery waste from rice. It should be mixed with other feeds
such as rice bran and broken rice. Distillers residues can be fed to fattening pigs, but not
to pregnant or lactating sows. Yet, these animals require high quality of feed and therefore
distillery waste needs to be replaced by other high quality feed like commercial feeds.
The following mixing ratio is commonly used in combination with distillery waste:

rice bran (2 kg),


broken rice (1 kg),
distillers residues (5-10 liters).

LAO-EU Livestock Project

21

Forest products:
Pig feed can also be prepared with forest products (wild vegetables, wild bananas, wild
taro, etc). At the same time, food waste can be used (soup, rice, noodles etc). Below is an
example of a locally prepared supplementary pig feed from a forest product (taro).

salt

yeast

measure
mix

Improved Rural Pig Production

22

mix

mix

Chapter 3: Feeding systems

2. Traditional feed processing


Different feeds are mixed and boiled to make the pig feed more palatable. There are 2
types of traditional processing:
1. Mixing all different feeds together (rice bran, broken rice, crushed maize and soya,
dried and crushed cassava, dried acacia leaves, etc) in proportion and giving it directly to the pigs.
2. Cooking the different raw materials together to improve digestibility and to breakdown toxins from some feeds as raw cassava, wild taro, banana stem, maize and soya
grains, beans, kitchen waste, etc.

taro plant

vegetable

save money

rice bran

kitchen waste
broken rice
Local pig feed ration:
Ingredients
Soya beans
Rice bran
Maize
Broken rice
Cassava
Acacia leaves
Total (100%)
Crude protein (%)

Pig weight
15 - 30 kg
25
25
20
5
20
5
100
16

Mixing ratio (%)


Pig weight
30 - 60 kg
20
30
25
5
15
5
100
15

Pig weight
over 60 kg
15
35
30
5
10
5
100
14

LAO-EU Livestock Project

23

3. Commercial feeds
Complete feed:
Complete feeds are factory manufactured according to specific feed formulations
appropriate to specific categories of pigs. There are many kinds of complete feeds such as:
feed for suckling and weaning piglets, fattening pigs, dry, pregnant and lactating sows,
boars, etc. Complete feeds can be fed directly to the pigs.

feed for piglets

feed for fattening pigs

feed for lactating sows

Concentrated feed:
Concentrated feeds are factory
produced with a high level of protein.
They must be mixed before feeding,
with other feeds such as rice bran,
broken rice, maize, etc. to made a
good, suitable home-made ratio.

Improved Rural Pig Production

24

Chapter 3: Feeding systems

4. Commercial feeds mixed with traditional feeds


A major problem with improving rural pig production is improving the different feeding
systems that are based on locally available products. Many regions or ethnic groups often
have their own traditional feeding systems. But often these traditional feeding systems
need improvements in cases like:

keeping (local) pigs in pens,


keeping pig crosses (or even exotic pig breeds).

Mixing concentrated feed:


The mixture of concentrated feed with locally available feeds should meet the requirements of the growing pig.

Ingredients
Rice bran
Maize
Concentrated
Total (%)
Crude protein

fattener
feed

Pig weight
15 - 30 kg
40
30
30
100
16 - 17 %

breeder
feed

Mixing ratio (%)


Pig weight
30 - 60 kg
40
35
25
100
15 - 16 %

breeder
feed

Pig weight
over 60 kg
40
40
20
100
14 - 15 %

local
available
feed

Improved rural pig production systems, the use of crossbreeds of exotic breeds and a mix
of commercial feeds with local cheap available feeds (like rice-bran, maize and beans) is
preferably used. Lactating sows, piglets and weaners should have a rich home-made pig
feed ration, containing some commercial feeds.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

25

Measuring the correct amount of feed (weight or volume):

One tin weighs 0.5 kilogram

Four tins weigh 2 kilograms

Commercial feeds are expensive and have to be used efficiently. Also, when we make a
homemade feed ratio as above, we have to mix the different components correctly
(correct weight or volume). Farmers need to calibrate the container or scoop (a tin, part
of plastic bottle, etc.) that they use for feeding the pigs to know how many kilograms they
are feeding or mixing.

Replacing distillery waste with commercial feeds for sows, piglets and weaners:

breeder
feed

local
available
feed

Distillery waste (Lao-Lao waste) is much appreciated in the traditional Lao pig husbandry, especially for fattening pigs. It is advisable however, not to give this high valued
feed to pregnant and lactating sows and to piglets and weaners because of the alcohol
contents in the waste. These animals require high quality of feed and therefore distillery
waste needs to be replaced by other high quality feed like commercial feeds.

Improved Rural Pig Production

26

Chapter 3: Feeding systems

Feed storage:
Some raw materials like cassava,
maize and soya beans need to be
dried well before storing in a
barn or shed. Also complete feed
and mixtures of feeds need to be
stored dried to avoid moulding.
Moulded feeds are unfit for
animal feeding. The store needs
to be well protected against rats.

5. General feed management


Nutritional needs change each week for nursery piglets and each month for grower pigs.
The nutritional quality of feed, especially protein level, must be correct for pigs at each
stage of growth.

Piglets: 18-20% protein

Growers: 16% protein

Sows: 15% protein

The growth rate depends on the intake of good quality and quantity of pig feeds. Every day,
each pig must get the right quantity of fresh feed. Stale or dirty feed will reduce their appetite.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

27

Good pig appetite is important. Pigs


will eat more fresh clean feed than
if it is contaminated, stale or moldy.
Clean feed troughs daily.

Sufficient feeder space is necessary, so


each pig can eat what it wishes every day.

On many farms feed waste is 15% or


more. Feed waste must be avoided as much
possible:

Pigs must be fed on time; this makes


the pigs familiar to the feeding regime.

Pigs need to be fed according to their


sizes and ages.

Troughs must be anchored so they


cannot be turned over.

The feeding regime is as follows:

Weaned piglets are fed 4 times per day.


Growing pigs are fed 2 times per day.

Improved Rural Pig Production

28

Chapter 3: Feeding systems

All pigs need water.

A pregnant sow: 10 - 12 liters water


per day.

A lactating sow: 20 - 30 liters per day.


A growing pig: 6 - 8 liters per day.
A boar: 12 - 15 liters per day.

Not enough water can reduce daily


feed intake. Ample clean water must
be available to drink at all times.

The last part of the water-piping to


the drinking nipple must be made
from a galvanized-pipe as a plastic
hose or PVC tube will be chewed by
the growing pigs.

When pigs reach 20 - 60 kg body weight, they are classified as growers and their
feeding regime, using complete feed, is as follows:

Growing pigs are fed 2 times in the day: morning and evening.
Growing pigs with 20 - 40 kg body weight: 1.5 - 2.0 kg per pig per day.

Growing pigs with 40 - 60 kg body weight: 2.0 - 2.5 kg per pig per day.
The above feeding practices are especially applicable to farmers with exotic breeds, good
feed and management.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

29

The previously mentioned amounts of feeds are based on commercial feeds. The farmer
needs to calibrate his feeding container to know how much he is feeding. He also needs to
know approximately the weight of his pigs. Estimation of weights can be learned from
others (like traders and butchers) or by using scales.

When the farmer is using a cheap home-made feed ratio, it is difficult to know if the
farmer is feeding his/her pigs with enough energy and protein for maintenance and
growing. In these cases, as a rule of thumb, he/she must feed the pigs till they are satisfied
and do not scream anymore. When the farmer is fattening pigs, he/she should feed them
even a little bit more (one scoop extra).

One scoop extra

Keep pigs comfortable to get the best


performance. High temperature and
high humidity decreases feed intake
and growth.

Improved Rural Pig Production

30

Chapter 3: Feeding systems

Pigs that are sick will have a


reduced appetite and they will
not obtain enough nutrients.

Health problems and parasites can reduce growth efficiency by up to 50% and cause
uneven growth.

We know that good


performance of a growing
pig depends on good
growth as a piglet during
the first 8 weeks.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

31

If we cannot get little


piglets to eat enough, then
the best feeds in the world
are useless. You need to cull
(sell) these slow growers as
soon as possible.

Boar

Castrate

Gilt

When the growing pigs reach 50 kg, their nutritional needs diverge according to sex
(gender). So it is preferable to pen gilts and castrated boars separately.

Good feed, effective disease control and a clean environment (pens) will improve pig growth.

Improved Rural Pig Production

32

Chapter 4: Selection of breeding pigs

1. Selection of boars and gilts


Boar selection:

selection of boars
select this one
do not select this one

The selection of a good breeding boar is very important for profitable pig production.
Selection criteria are:

Avoid inbreeding: do not select boars for breeding within same family lines.
Select offspring from a sow that has consistently farrowed and weaned large litters.
Select from a sow that has a good size and not less than 12 nipples.
The boar should have grown fast and be in good health with strong legs.
The boar should have a good reproductive organ.

Gilt selection:

selection of gilts
select this one

do not select this one

Proper gilt selection is important to obtain large litter sizes and piglets that grow fast.
Selection criteria are:

Avoid inbreeding: gilts should not have been mated by their fathers.
Select from a sow that has farrowed and weaned large litters (not less than 9 piglets).
The gilt should have a good size and not less than 12 nipples (same criteria for mother).
The gilt should have grown fast and be in good health with strong legs.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

33

Signs of inbreeding:
A high incidence of hernia can be a
sign of inbreeding. Consider replacing the boar and sow(s) and do not
use pigs from litters with high
incidence of hernia for breeding. If
these replacements come from
another village then the likelihood of
relationship is very small.

2. Productive sows
The sow productivity is calculated from the number of piglets per litter and how many
litters she produces per year. Her lifetime productivity is the total number of piglets she
produced.

Two years of sow productivity:


target is 4 litters.

A good and bad sow:


many and few piglets.

Improved Rural Pig Production

34

Chapter 4: Selection of breeding pigs

On average, the sow should


produce 2 litters per year with
over 8 piglets weaned per litter.

Therefore it is important to
know the farrowing and
nursing characteristics of the
sow: ease of birth, mothering
instinct, milking ability, etc.

A sow that does not have a


good mothering capability
needs to be culled. Their
offspring should not be used
as breeding animals.

We need to develop effective


methods to raise all the extra
piglets that the sow can not
nurse satisfactorily. Sometimes
we can transfer piglets to a sow
that has only a few piglets
(farrowed at the same time).

LAO-EU Livestock Project

35

Feed quality and quantity must be balanced so sows do not get too fat in pregnancy or too
thin during the nursing period. Both situations can cause reproduction problems.

3. Feeding and genetics

Under Lao conditions it is


important that pigs from
local or improved breeds
can grow on a well balanced
diet from locally available
feed resources. Lactating
sows and piglets also need
some commercial feeds in
their diet.

breeder feed

It is known that the white


exotic pig breeds (Landrace
or Large White) do not grow
well on simple local diets.
Their superior growth can
only be reached by feeding
them (expensive) commercial
feeds.

Improved Rural Pig Production

36

local
available
feed

Chapter 4: Selection of breeding pigs

Also, crossbreeds have


different appetites and feed
conversions (kg of feed
needed to grow 1 kg of meat).
Cross-breeds can only grow
well when they are fed with a
good balanced home-made
ratio. This means often a
mixture of locally available
feeds with commercial feeds.

Growth efficiency, litter size and carcass quality are the main characteristics in the
selection of breeder animals.

Growing pigs must have the potential to grow rapidly and efficiently and produce a high
lean carcass of good quality meat. Below are growing targets for large-scale pig farming
in the Lao PDR using exotic breeds and good (commercial) feeds.

70 - 80 kg
60 kg growth in 3 months
with 180 kg feed

15 - 20 kg

LAO-EU Livestock Project

37

An example of the calculation of feed conversion: 180 kg feed was needed to grow the
above pig from 15 - 20 to 70 - 80 kg. Feed conversion = 180 kg feed per 60 kg growth =
3.00 kg feed per 1 kg growth. Thus; the feed conversion is 3.0.

Breeding and feeding


techniques determine how
uniform and lean pig
meat can be. Modern
(city) consumers prefer
lean pork meat that is less
fatty. In rural villages
people still prefer the
small, local black pig.

Improved Rural Pig Production

38

Chapter 4: Selection of breeding pigs

Local pigs, 35 - 40% lean meat

Large-white boar, 45 - 50% lean meat

Specialized commercial breeding


programs, over 60% lean meat

Exotic pig breed with lean meat.

Local pig breed with fatty meat.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

39

Chapter 5: Breeding pigs

1. Gilt management
Gilts are young female pigs ready for first time breeding at around 8 - 9 months old.
Around this time gilts should be placed nearby a boar to stimulate heat, but they should
not be penned together with the boar. Gilts should be fed carefully to avoid over or
underweight. Usually they are fed around 2 - 2.5 kg per head per day. In addition, they
should be given fresh vegetables with the feed.

It is useful to expose newly procured


gilts to cull sows to get them used to
the herd micro flora and to stimulate
heat in the new gilts. Carefully mix
these newly bought pigs with the
others to avoid fighting.

Record the date that any gilts show


their first heat signs, but do not
mate them.

Three weeks after introduction,


newly procured gilts should be
fully acclimatized, at which time
they should be moved into their
own pen. This pen should be close
to the boar which will stimulate
the gilts to come on heat.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

41

Alternatively, walk a boar


before the gilt pen each
day, under supervision.
Move out any gilts on heat
and mate them in a
separate area.

If possible, keep gilts in


pens so they have exercise
for at least half of their
first pregnancy, as their
body is still growing.

2. Dry sow management


When the sow has weaned her litter she is called a dry sow. This means she is ready for
the next breeding. Usually, a dry sow comes into heat about 7-15 days after weaning. Dry
sows that have just weaned their litter are often thin because of nursing these piglets.
These sows need to be fed well to remain healthy and come in heat. They need to be
placed close to a boar and their feed intake should be about 2.5 - 3 kg per head per day.

Improved Rural Pig Production

42

Chapter 5: Breeding pigs

3. Training of young boars


In the beginning young boars can be kept together in one pen, but when they reach 50 60 kg they need to be separated to avoid fighting and becoming aggressive.

The training of young boars should start when they reach sexual maturity at around 8
months old. The best place for this practice is in the pen of the boar. A mature sow that is
well in heat should be introduced to the young boar. Give them time to get used to each
other. Do not allow the boar to mount the sow in front as such a practice might become a
bad habit forever. In the beginning, young boars should be given help: the farmer can
help inserting the penis into the vagina and let them mate successfully. During mating do
not allow interference by other boars.

In the case of young boars, train


them well when they start working,
so they develop good mating habits.

Come on boy!
Right idea - wrong end.

In most cases, natural urges are


sufficient to ensure that a young boar
will start work enthusiastically.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

43

The breeding boar should


be (made) docile and easy
to handle. Be gentle when
handling animals. Do not
hit and hurt animals. This
boar is too aggressive and
too difficult to manage and
should not be used for
breeding.

Ensure a boars first service is accomplished with a right-sized female who is strongly on heat.

4. Oestrus cycle, natural and artificial breeding and farrowing date


Sows come in heat 7 - 15 days after weaning, and then after every 21 days until they
become pregnant. Correct management of the newly weaned sow is essential to ensure
all sows come in heat strongly.

In heat 7-15 days after weaning.

In heat every 21 days till pregnant.

Improved Rural Pig Production

44

Chapter 5: Breeding pigs

The signs of heat are the following:

swollen vulva,
restless (agitated) and roaring,
frequent urination,
reduced appetite,
mounting,
vaginal discharge.

There are 2 steps for heat detection:

1. By observing heat symptoms (restless and mounting), vulva (reddish, swollen with
discharge) and touching the sow. Pressure on the back is applied (or one sits on the back)
to determine the correct breeding time. During the correct breeding time, the sow does
not run away and this is referred to as standing heat.

2. By bringing a boar near


the sows; the sows will
show the heat symptoms
more clearly.
This should be done
directly after feeding, in
the morning and the
afternoon.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

45

There are 2 methods of pig breeding, natural and artificial:


1. Natural breeding
When gilts reach 5 - 6 months, they come in heat for the first time. At this early age the
gilts are not suitable for breeding because their reproductive organs are not yet well
developed. Gilts must be bred when they reach 7 - 8 months and come in heat for the
second or third time. The average length of the oestrus cycle is 21 days and this cycle is
repeated when the pig has not been mated successfully.

2. Artificial insemination in pigs


When using artificial insemination, the boar does not breed directly with the sow. With
the AI method, semen from the boar is collected and artificially ,, inserted by the
inseminator into the uterus of the sow.

collect semen

insert into uterus

Advantages of artificial insemination:


1. The semen can be transported over long distance reaching many farmers.
2. AI gives a good scope to use one breeding boar for many sows (and reduce
operational expenditures).
3. AI can restrict the spread of diseases which a boar is likely to spread.

Improved Rural Pig Production

46

Chapter 5: Breeding pigs

Calculation of the farrowing date:


The gestation period of a sow is 114 days or 3 months 3 weeks and 3 days
(3 months and 24 days).
The farrowing date can be can be calculated as follows:
Example 1:
Breeding day:
6/08/2002
Gestation period +
24/03/
Farrowing day:
30/11/2002
Example 2:

Breeding day:
Gestation period +
Farrowing day:

Details mating
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6

Date
mating

14/08/2002
24/03/
38/11/2002 = 8/12/2002
(day: 38-30=8, month: 11+1=12)

Expected heat and farrowing dates of sows


Details sow & boar
Successful mating
Boar
number

Sow
number

Period
gestation

3m + 24d
3m + 24d
3m + 24d
3m + 24d
3m + 24d
3m + 24d

Expected
farrowing

Not successful mating


Heat
interval

Next
possible heat

21 days
21 days
21 days
21 days
21 days
21 days

LAO-EU Livestock Project

47

5. Practical points regarding heat detection

Heat observation is best


done directly after feeding.
It should take place early
morning or late afternoon,
when it is cool and sows
show heat more strongly.

Check sows for standing heat regularly, at least twice a day early morning and late
afternoon. The heat of a sow is short (only one day), so it is best to mate sows at around
12 hours interval (early morning and late afternoon).

Morning: heat check,


plus second mating for
sows mated the previous
afternoon.

Afternoon: heat check, plus


second mating for sows
mated in the morning.

Improved Rural Pig Production

48

Chapter 5: Breeding pigs

6. Management of mating

Mating is an important event; as


at a successful conception, new
pigs are created.

The best approach to detect heat


is with the help of a well trained,
mature and gentle boar. Every
day, gilts and newly weaned sows
should make close contact with a
boar to stimulate the start of heat.

It is preferable to put newly


weaned sows within sight, sound
and smell of a boar the older
and smellier, the better.

Sows on heat are restless, approach the boar, stand to back


pressure and perk up their ears.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

49

The vulva becomes redder, more


prominent, swollen and moist.

After heat detection, the sow is


ready to be bred. Let the boar
and sow meet each other to
mate. It is advisable to mate
again after 8 - 10 hour interval.
This will enhance the chance for
conception.

natural mating

Supervised mating ensures


maximum efficiency in getting
sows pregnant.

Make certain the floor of the


mating area is not slippery, so the
boar and sow have a good footing.
It is advisable to put straw, hay or
other material on the floor.

Improved Rural Pig Production

50

Chapter 5: Breeding pigs

After mating, the boar and sow


should be separated and go
back to their own pens. Sometimes, the sow is put in an
individual pen to avoid fighting
with other sows, which may
lead to poor conception.

Record all details of the mating on the


sow productivity record. Sows that
have been bred should be observed for
appearance of subsequent heat signs.
If the sow shows no sign of being in
heat 21 days after mating, we can
assume that she is pregnant.

A breeding tip:
The age of mating depends on the age and weight of the sow. Well-developed gilts can be
bred at 8 - 9 months and farrow at 12 to 13 months old. Gilts of exotic breeds should
weigh at least 80 kg before breeding. Success of conception is higher at second or third
heat (do not mate at the first heat).

This small gilt was mated


too early: 3 alive and 3
dead piglets at birth.

A gilt should be well


developed before first
mating.

This small gilt was


mated too early: all 8
piglets born dead.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

51

7. Management of the breeding boar


A boar used for natural breeding can mate 2 - 3 times a week and can thus have an
offspring of 750 piglets per year. In comparison, 1 sow will give birth to about 15
piglets per year (2 litters). Proper attention is required regarding the selection and
management of boars to get strong and healthy piglets.

Boar feeding must be controlled to


avoid over and under weight as
this affects semen quality and
libido. Normally, mature boars
should be fed 3 - 4 kg per day. But
when boars do much mating or
are thin, this should be increased
and some fresh vegetables should
be added in the ration.

Be careful not to over-use boars


or mating performance and
semen quality will suffer.

Age of the boar


8 - 12 months
as from12 months

Breeding frequency
2 times per week
3 times per week

Improved Rural Pig Production

52

Chapter 6: The pregnant sow

1. Pregnancy control and records


A sow can come in heat every 21 days. After a successful mating she will not come in heat
any more as she has conceived and become pregnant. Mating the sows twice at 8 - 10
hour interval, will increase the chances of getting the sow pregnant and having many
piglets. Sows that did not conceive will return into heat 3 weeks later. So check for returns
at 18 - 24 days. Recheck at 6 weeks to be sure all sows are pregnant.

First mating

Mating

8 - 10 hours later

Check heat 3 weeks later

Second mating

Check heat 6 weeks later

LAO-EU Livestock Project

53

To keep effective control of


the breeding herd, sows
must properly be identified
(ear tag of ear notching).

A pregnant sow should be


kept separated from other
dry sows and other pigs to
avoid fighting and upsetting
the early pregnancy.

Keep a record of
all sows mated.

2. Feeding and health


During gestation the sow should be fed well; for herself and embryos. Based on using
exotic breeds, good (commercial) feeds and high management, the following amounts of
feed are recommended during different stages of gestation:
Gestation stage
Amount of feed per sow per day
breeding - 30 days
2.0 kg
30 - 60 days
2.2 kg
60 - 90 days
2.2 - 2.5 kg
90 - 105 days
2.5 kg
105 - 114 days
2.0 kg
at farowing day
do not give feed

Remember not to feed brewery waste (Lao-Lao waste) to highly pregnant and lactating
sows and their piglets.

Improved Rural Pig Production

54

Chapter 6: The pregnant sow

Feeding should be restricted


near the farrowing day (too
much feed causes
constipation and discomfort
during farrowing), but the
sow should be provided with
ample good drinking water.

Be careful to feed the correct amounts. Too much feed produces a sow that is too fat and
with too little feed the sow becomes too thin. Both situations will lead to farrowing and
suckling problems.

A vaccination program is
essential for good sow
performance.

Inspect each sow daily for


lameness, constipation, poor
appetite, discharge, coughing
physical injury, etc.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

55

Deworm orally (avoid injections during late pregnancy) and wash the sow as she is moved
into the farrowing crate.

Move sows into the farrowing crate 7 days before


they are due. That is the
107th day of pregnancy.

Looking after the sow


correctly during pregnancy
helps to produce a litter
successfully.

Improved Rural Pig Production

56

Chapter 7: Farrowing

1. The days before, during and after farrowing


At the end of the pregnancy the sow should be observed closely to determine the start of
farrowing and if necessary to assist the sow and secure the life of the young piglets. On
many farms, 30% of all piglets born are lost in the first 4 days. Correct husbandry can
save many weak piglets.

When farrowing is near, the sow


shows distress, maybe biting walls
and the vulva and udder are
swollen. At this time the farmer can
press the udder softy; if milks
appears it means that the sow is
near farrowing. The farrowing pen
should be prepared with rice straw
on the floor and the udder and
nipples must be cleaned.

Piglets should be born at regular intervals of approximately 10 - 15 minutes. If there is


more than one hour interval, there is a potential problem. Observe the belly for any
movements of not yet born piglets.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

57

The farmer should attend the


farrowing and assist when
necessary. A clean cloth should be
available for cleaning and drying
the piglets and removing all
mucus from mouth and nostrils to
ensure that the breathing passages
are clear. In that way many piglets
can be saved.

When we observe or assume problems with the birth of the piglets, the farmer needs to do a vaginal
check. Sometimes piglets can be stuck and the farmer can gently assist these piglets to be born.

Before any vaginal-check, the


farmer needs to wash his hands
and arms thoroughly with soap.
Clip nails short and remove any
dirt under the nails. By not
observing strict hygiene
standards, the uterus can easily
become infected.

Improved Rural Pig Production

58

Chapter 7: Farrowing

In the case that the farrowing


sow has not enough energy or
effort for the contractions, or
that the farrowing interval last
longer than 1 hour, the sow
should be given an intramuscular injection with 0.25 cc
Oxytocine to assist the sow in
making contractions. If the sow
still does not give birth, a veterinarian should be called in for
assistance.

Be sure the sow cleanses


completely within 1 hour after
the last piglet was born or a
uterine infection may result.

Check the sows udder at least


twice a day. If it gets hard,
lumpy and hot there may be
infection of the udder (mastitis).
In that case veterinary assistance
should be called.

Use oxytocin and antibiotica only


under the direction of a
veterinarian (or a VVW) to treat
udder and uterine infections.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

59

2. Heath care of the newly born piglets and sow

All piglets must suckle


immediately some of the
sows first milk (colostrum)
as this contains anti-bodies
to protect the piglet from
disease.

Disinfect the navel as soon as the piglet is born (use Iodine). Clip the eye-teeth and if
required shorten their tails (tail docking).

When piglets are kept on a wooden or concrete floor, the piglets need an iron injection
within 72 hours after birth to prevent anaemia (milk is iron-deficient). This is not necessary when piglets have a walking space with access to soil (soil contains iron). Piglets with
iron deficiency become white and hairy, start scouring and may die.

Improved Rural Pig Production

60

Chapter 7: Farrowing

A warm place for the newly born piglets away from the sow is important. This area
should be 27 30 degrees Celsius for the first 4 days and draft free. A piglet box can be
used (60 cm by 60 cm) and or a light to give warmth.

Feed the sow twice per day so


the feed does not get stale.
Water must be available at all
times.

Be careful the sow does not


get too hot, goes off feed or get
constipated. In these cases she
will not produce enough milk
for her piglets.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

61

Good feeding practices of the sow are very important. The amount of feed needs to be
reduced on the day of farrowing till 1 - 2 days later. After that the feeding should be according to the sows needs and to the litter size and its condition.

On the day of farrowing no feed must be given to the sow, but ample water should be
available. During the second day and later the sow is gradually given more feed. A sow
needs a ration of around 2.0 - 2.5 kg per day for maintaining her body weight . For milk
production and feeding her piglets, an extra of 0.25 kg is required per day per piglet
(based on exotic/improved breeds with good feeds).

For example: the ration for a sow with 8 piglets is 4 kg per day:
2 kg + (0.25 kg x 8 piglets) = 2 kg + 2 kg = 4 kg per sow per day.

Improved Rural Pig Production

62

Chapter 8: The lactating sow and piglets

1. Housing and comfort zones for piglets

A sow weighs 100 times more than the


piglet at birth. Many piglets get laid on,
unless we take precautions. A warm, draft
free comfort zone to attract the piglets
away from the sow is the best approach.

Newly born piglets need a clean, dry, draft-free and warm area or box to keep them
comfortable, avoid diarrhea and prevent weak piglets from dying. Such a comfortable
place can be dried rice straw on the floor with an electric or kerosene light above (at 1
meter height) to provide heat for the piglets.

Piglet losses due to being laid


on are totally unacceptable
and reflect poor husbandry
standards.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

63

A farrowing crate will prevent many piglets from being laid on.

In a pen without a farrowing crate,


the pen needs to have a heavy rail
20 cm away from the wall (and 20
cm above the floor) to prevent
piglets from being squeezed against
the wall.

2. Health care of the piglets and sow


Piglets worrying the
sow between feedings
means that the piglets
are not getting
enough milk.

Ping Pong ball manure or no dung


means the sow is constipated. She will
be uncomfortable. Often farmers
know traditional medicines to
overcome constipation problems.

Improved Rural Pig Production

64

Chapter 8: The lactating sow and piglets

The risk with constipation is


that feed ferments in the gut.
Toxins are absorbed into the
blood causing milk problems.
The udder becomes hot and
hard.

Diarrhea is the biggest disease


threat for piglets. In less than 24
hours piglets can become
dehydrated.

A solution with a rehydration medicine (or a weak mixture of salt and sugar) can be
given to the weak piglet by a syringe, with or without a tube, or in the feed if the piglet is
able to feed by itself.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

65

Prevention is better than cure. Make certain that all piglets receive iron and that the sow
is fully protected by de-worming and that the usual vaccination program against diseases
has been undertaken well before farrowing.

3. Housing, hygiene and feeding

A good pig pen minimizes stress


and a slatted floor allows
manure to drop through, so
that piglets are not exposed to
contamination (0.5 - 1.0 cm
space between the slats).

Hygiene standards in the farrowing house must be very high. It is essential to completely
clean, wash and disinfect between successive occupancies.

Improved Rural Pig Production

66

Chapter 8: The lactating sow and piglets

Correct feeding and watering


of the sow help to provide a
trouble-free suckling period.

When piglets reach 7 days


they must learn to eat feed.
They should have access to
good quality commercial
creep feed (about 20g per
piglet per day) or a good
home-made mixture with
fine rice bran, broken rice
and milled maize grains.
Clean drinking water must
always be available.

commercial
feed
broken
rice
crushed
maize
rice
bran

Male piglets that are not selected for breeding can be castrated at the age of 2 weeks old
(easy to handle and wounds heal quickly).

LAO-EU Livestock Project

67

4. Check list for the lactating sow and piglets


1.
2.
3.

Vaginal discharge that is white indicates an uterine infection.


Udder hot and lumpy indicates infected udder (mastitis).
Sow lying on her stomach and not letting the piglets suckle indicates udder discomfort:
congested or sore by piglets not having their eye-teeth clipped.
4. Sow lacks energy and/or is irritated, indicates that the sow is unwell which will cause her to
stop looking after her piglets. Check her temperature!
5. Sow not finishing her feed may indicate feeding too much, or water is not available, or she
is unwell.
6. Piglets become thin and hairy, but not scouring, indicates lack of milk. If they are white and
scouring, they may suffer from iron deficiency.
7. Piglets always restless and worrying the sow indicates piglets are not receiving enough milk.
8. Too many piglets squashed indicates piglets are too cold and sleeping to close to the sow, or
that they are not getting sufficient milk, or that the sow is not properly contained.
9. Piglets piling-up indicates they are cold and miserable.
10. Scabby face and knees indicate fighting at feeding time because piglets are not getting
enough milk. Knee abrasions only, mean that the floor is too rough.
11. Piglets scouring yellow is milk-scour; the sow may be giving too much milk. White or
reddish scour may be bacterial scour and needs antibiotic treatment.
12. Sow not dunging or manure is in hard balls indicates that the sow is constipated. This leads
to the sow becoming uncomfortable causing milk problems.

Improved Rural Pig Production

68

Chapter 9: Nursing and weaning piglets

1. Immunity and weaning time


Newly weaned pigs are very vulnerable: the acquired maternal immunity plus their own
immunity levels are very low. Only after 5 weeks is their own immunity (by field challenge
and/or by vaccinations) at a reasonable level to give protection against diseases.

Own immunity

Minimum level for effective protection

Maternal immunity
3 weeks

5 weeks

Traditional weaning is at 6 weeks and


the piglets are moved to a nursery pen.
At improved farms weaning is at 4
weeks. During the first days after
weaning (without the sow, her care and
milk), weak piglets can be affected and
provision of very good feed at this time
is essential.

6 weeks

4 weeks

For the early weaned piglet every thing is critical: health and hygiene, nutrition and
housing. Everything in the nursery pen must be completely cleaned and disinfected
before a new group of weaner piglets is introduced.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

69

We must provide comfort zones


for the very young piglets,
especially for the early weaners.
Young piglets have almost no
tolerance to environmental
changes. A draft free and warm
comfort zone must be available
to piglets at all times.

The nutritional requirement of


young piglets is very delicate.
Only the best commercial feed
should be used. Expensive feed
will pay for itself as more piglets
will survive and grow faster to 8
weeks old.

The feeding regime for weaned piglets can be as follows (based on exotic/improved breeds
with good feeds):

Start feeding newly weaned piglets (4 weeks old) 200 - 250g per piglet per day.
Increase the ration each following week by 100g per piglet per day.
At 8 weeks (1 months later) they are fed 600 - 700g per piglet per day (3 times more
than at the start).

Improved Rural Pig Production

70

Chapter 9: Nursing and weaning piglets

The young piglet grows very fast. Under good management it almost triples in size during
8 weeks in nursery. From 4 weeks weighing 6 7 kg to 12 weeks weighing 15 20 kg (weights
are for commercial pig breeds). Its growth performance during the nursery period, determines its potential for efficient growth in the fattening period (fattening to 60 - 80 - 100 kg).

Ready for slaughter: 12 weeks fattening period,


weighing 70 - 80 kg at age 12 + 12 = 24 weeks

Early weaners at
4 weeks: 6 - 7 kg.

Ready for fattening


at 12 weeks: 15 - 20 kg.

8 weeks nursery.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

71

2. Feeding and housing of weaners

The farmer must ensure that


piglets drink sufficient water to
prevent dehydration and monitor
water consumption.

The farmer must feed the pigs


several times a day and ensure
that all piglets can eat at the same
time (have enough feeding space
per piglet). He/she must observe
carefully and treat any health
problem immediately.

It is preferable to use a slatted


floor, so manure does not build
up on the floor. The rule is that
nursery piglets should not be
allowed on a concrete floor until
8 weeks old.

On large pig farms the following


(factory-made) materials are
used for slatted floors:
1) metal rods,
2) plastic coated metal,
3) plastic slats.

Improved Rural Pig Production

72

Chapter 9: Nursing and weaning piglets

Concrete is like a sponge when


it comes to bacteria. It is very
difficult to get a concrete floor
clean without bacteria. The
magnified surface of a
concrete floor shows that it is
quite rough allowing many
germs to hide from cleaning.

Piglets will move in their pen


to the area in which they feel
most comfortable. It may
change several times a day.

For practical reasons, the single


stage nursery (from 4 to 12
weeks) is most widely used. This
nursery pen must be well
designed to provide a wide
range of facilities as the piglets
grow from 7 kg to 20 kg. The
husbandry practices must be
optimal.

On large pig farms, All-in


All-out pens are used so pigs
of the same age and weight
are together and isolated
from pigs of other ages.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

73

3. Handling and transporting pigs

Two weeks after weaning, the piglets can


be sold or moved to other places. When
moving piglets to another place, clean
and disinfect in advance the new pen and
equipment (feed trough and drinker) and
provide enough feed.

The following need attention when


handling and moving piglets:

For a small piglet, take the rear leg and


hold it in one hand.

Two persons might be needed to handle


young pigs, like driving the pigs into a
vehicle.

Pigs might fight and bite during


transportation. It might be necessary to
put them in crates. During transport
the pigs must be protected against
bumping, hitting and strong sun.

When a truck loaded with pigs halts for a rest in the shade, pigs can be sprinkled with
water to reduce high temperatures. After arrival, pigs should take a rest for around 30
minutes and then be given water and feed.

Improved Rural Pig Production

74

Chapter 10: Growing and fattening pigs

1. Problems during the growing and fattening period

Piglets are moved from the


nursery to the grower pen at 12
weeks of age when they are
weighing 18 to 20 kg. Moving at
too early an age or too light a
weight, can permanently reduce
the pigs ability to grow efficient
and fast.

Our pigs do real well


just a bit of cough.
Inefficiency in growers is
difficult to notice as pigs just
grow slowly or feed is wasted.
Avoiding feed waste,
providing animal health care
and proper housing are the
most important factors for
growing pigs profitable.

Respiratory problems
manifest themselves as
coughing, sneezing, snout
distortions due to rhinitis,
pneumonia due to viruses and
bacteria.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

75

Intestinal problems, e.g. swine


dysentery and viral intestinal
infections, may result in diarrhea
and/or blood in the manure.

Intestinal and stomach parasites


can absorb many of the nutrients
that should be used by the pig.
External parasites (mange) cause
much stress and loss of weight.

Feeder space problems: size of


the feed space is important as the
pigs get bigger. Weaker and less
dominant pigs do not always get
the chance to eat enough feed
and become even weaker.

Water problems: at least two


drinkers per pen are required
and water should be available at
all times. Check water flow daily.
The piping should be made of a
galvanized pipe to prevent pigs
from chewing it.

Improved Rural Pig Production

76

Chapter 10: Growing and fattening pigs

2. Grouping and feeding pigs

At over 50 kg, gilts and castrates


should be kept seperately, as their
nutritional needs are different.

boar

castrate

gilt

Gilts need more protein and grow a


little more slowly.

Castrates have a larger appetite and


reach market-weight earlier.

Pigs have a good appetite from 15 - 20 kg to 60 - 80 - 100 kg and appetite is a good


indicator of health. Pigs off feed = health or feed problems.

Careful observation will


spot a pig not eating, even
though they join the group
at feeding time.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

77

On large pig farms, self-feeders


are sometimes used. If properly
managed, they save labor and
pigs always have fresh feed.

A major disadvantage of selffeeders is that these feeders


attract rats.

Good marketing strategy


requires pigs to be of uniform
weight and ready for selling
when the market price is
attractive. Farmers should
know the periods when pork
meat is in high demand with
likely high prices!

If necessary, regroup smaller


piglets into a group that can be
grown and marketed together.
But be careful: mixing pigs in
a new group changes the
pecking order. Several days
of growth can be lost as the
pigs re-establish their social
position in this new group.

OK, who is number one, the boss?


Improved Rural Pig Production

78

Chapter 10: Growing and fattening pigs

The key to profitable sales of


market pigs depends on
sorting out poorly performing
piglets at 8 - 12 weeks and
carefully sorting grower pigs of
the same age and weight
together into the same group.

3. Check list for growing and fattening pigs


1.
2.

Feeder is too small for number of pigs. This gives too much competition at the feed trough.
Too many pigs in the pen results in slower and uneven growth, and sometimes social vices
such as tail-biting.
3. Insufficient access to water, usually through too few drinkers per pen. All pens must have
at least two drinkers in case one breaks.
4. Drinkers installed incorrectly so pigs have difficulty getting water.
5. Sick pigs must be treated promptly, or their condition will rapidly deteriorate and they
may die.
6. Bad edges on the slats or slats with gaps too wide will cause foot and leg damage.
7. Pigs showing social vices and their victims must be both promptly dealt with to avoid
losses.
8. Unevenness of size of pigs in a pen must trigger an alarm. Is there too much competition
for space, feeder or water? The cause must be found and corrected rapidly.
9. Dirty pens, especially in the feeding area, indicate pigs do not feel comfortable. The reason
must be found and corrected. Too hot? Too drafty? Floor uneven? Sloped the wrong way?
Pigs ill?
10. Gate divisions (piped fencing) over solid areas of the pen do not help the pig in deciding
where to sleep and where to dung. Use a solid wall on a solid floor for the sleeping area.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

79

3. Check list for growing and fattening pigs

Improved Rural Pig Production

80

Chapter 11: Production records and control

1. Record keeping

The pig farmer needs to keep


production records of his pigs to
monitor the growth of the pigs (feed
conversion), the reproductive
performance of his sows (piglets per
litter or per year), to administer
vaccines and drugs in time, to
calculate his profit (revenues minus
costs), etc.

Individual identification of breeding boars and sows is essential; by


ear tagging, ear tattooing or by ear
notching.

ear tagging

ear notching

LAO-EU Livestock Project

81

Farm records are kept with


the pigs, so relevant
information is available when
tending the pigs. Important is
the sow production card to
verify that each sow is
performing satisfactorily.

Sow number:
Litter
number

Date
mating

SOW PRODUCTIVITY CARD


Date birth:
Father:
Boar
number

Mother:

Date
No. born
No. born No. weaned
farrowing piglets alive piglets dead
piglets

Date
weaning

1
2
3
4
5
6

Also a weekly activity sheet should be maintained to monitor all the stages of production.
This sheet needs to record especially the number of pigs at different ages, breeding herd
productivity and the feed utilization.

Weekly activity sheet

Matings:
Farrowings:
Weanings:
Deaths:
Transfers:
Sales:
Feed deliveries:
Introductions:
Culls:

Improved Rural Pig Production

82

Chapter 11: Production records and control

2. Production targets

In a breeding herd, each sow must produce as many piglets as possible each year.
This is related to 3 components:
1) number of litters per year,
2) number of piglets born per litter,
3) number of piglets weaned per litter.

On a pig farm, the number of litters per year is related to:

The average weaning age.


The days between weaning and mating.
The number of sows returning to heat after 3, 6 or 9 weeks.
The number of sows showing up not pregnant or having abortions.
The sow mortality and sows culled.

An important factor affecting piglets weaned per litter is the number of live healthy piglets born.

In a growing herd, the pigs must grow fast and efficiently to reach their
desired slaughtering weight. Performance is related to 4 components:
1) minimal mortality,
2) good growth rate,
3) low feed cost,
4) high feed conversion.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

83

There are 5 main targets for good


growth rates and a sample of pigs
should be check-weighed at each of
these stages.
Stage
Target (white breeds)
1) Birth
1.2 - 1.5 kg
2) 4 weeks
6.0 - 7.0 kg
3) 12 weeks
15 - 20 kg
4) 18 weeks
40 - 50 kg
5) 24 weeks
70 - 80 kg

Pig mortality reduces the number of pigs for sale. Pig mortality
must be minimized in all stages not just in the suckling period.
Stage
Max. allowable mortality
1) Suckling
12 %
2) Nursery
3%
3) Grower/finshers
2%

Feed conversion depends on


many factors. Be aware that feed
wastage is a major contributor to
high feed conversion and high
feeding costs.

Improved Rural Pig Production

84

Chapter 12: Health control of pigs

1. Routine hygiene and health measures

The most import daily routine to keep diseases away is by keeping the farm tidy and
clean. This means that manure is removed every day from the pen (or drops through the
slats). Manure pits or compost heaps should be removed from time to time and put on
the gardens or in the fields to fertilize the plants.

Regular complete cleaning of


the pig unit reduces the risks
of disease outbreaks.

Clean well with disinfectants


(like formaldehyde) all the
farrowing pens and nursery
pens before new sows or
piglets move in.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

85

Change into work clothes that are


used only in the pig unit. Do not
wear these clothes to visit other pig
farmers. Clothes and shoes can
pass on diseases.

Disinfect your shoes or boots


before entering the pig unit. Use a
floor mat or cloth drenched in
lime solution at the entry of the
pig unit. Alternatively use a
bucket with a formalin solution to
step through.

Visitors must observe hygiene


regulations strictly to minimize
the risk of bringing in diseases.
Keep visitors as much as possible
away from your pigs.

Good hygiene practices reduce


the spread of disease.

Improved Rural Pig Production

86

Chapter 12: Health control of pigs

For growing pigs maintain strict age separation, so pigs born in the same weeks are kept
together. This will minimize disease spreading from older to younger pigs.

If necessary separate smaller or weaker piglets from dominating bigger piglets. This will
prevent the weaker piglets becoming even weaker as they can not eat enough.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

87

2. Principles of disease prevention


There are 3 types of disease prevention:
a) General preventive actions

Clean and desinfect a pen regularly, provide plenty of good quality feed and water.
Remove all germ sources as manure, urine, straw-bedding from sick and dead animals.
Control animal movements in and out villages.

Clean a pen regularly;


a dirty pen can easily
harbour diseases.

b) Disease prevention by using quarantine


See next chapter Introducing new pigs to the farm.

c) Disease prevention by vaccination


See chapter Pig diseases for details.

injection sites for vaccination

Intra-muscular (IM)
vaccinations are in the
neck or in the hindquarters. Big pigs need
to be restrained.

Improved Rural Pig Production

88

Chapter 12: Health control of pigs

3. Introducing new pigs to the farm


Introducing new pigs to the
farm represents a potential
threat to the health of the herd.

We must be careful as new pigs may carry diseases that can cause problems in our herd.
These new introductions need to be kept for 2 - 3 weeks in a quarantine pen isolated from
the pig farm. During this time it will be apparent if the new pigs have diseases or not.
Provide plenty of good quality feed and water.

Pig Farm

Quarantine Pen

Resident Herd
Introductions

After quarantine, the new


animals are introduced to the
herd. They should be allowed
to adjust to each other and the
new environment for a period
of around 3 - 4 weeks, before
they are used for breeding.

LAO-EU Livestock Project

89

We therefore need to watch carefully the introductions when they are brought from the
quarantine pen into the pig pen. During this period of 3 - 4 weeks of adjustment they will
be exposed to the resident herd micro flora so that immunity can be acquired.

In addition, any vaccination and


deworming programs used in the
herd, should be applied to the
new introductions.

Newly brought-in females should


not be mated too early. Gilts
should be at least 8 months old
(and over 80 kg for white pig
breeds) at first mating. Breeding
at an earlier age will reduce the
productive life, as the gilt will not
have time to grow to a well-built
reproductive sow.

Too early mating wears out the


young sow too quickly and she
will have a poor reproductive
performance.

Improved Rural Pig Production

90

Chapter 13: Pig diseases

Swine Fever
vaccine
(freeze-dried)

Foot & Mouth


Disease vaccine

1. Classical Swine Fever (Hog Cholera)


Classical Swine Fever is caused by a virus. It occurs in outbreaks and can result in the death
of many pigs. The virus is transmitted by sick animals and by meat from infected pigs. It
may survive in the environment for a few days and can be destroyed by disinfectants.

1. The virus is transmitted from


an infected to a non-infected pig.

2. An infected sow may abort or


only a few piglets are born alive.

3. The virus enters and


multiplies in the piglet.

4. The piglet has a fever


and does not eat.

Pig can die


within a few
days, few
weeks, or up to
3 months after
infection.

5. Piglets huddle together.


6. The pig has constipation and
or diarrhoea.
7. The pig has red spots on
the skin and it staggers.
8. Dead.

Treatment: There are no medicines which can kill the virus. Affected pigs will die.

Prevention:
To prevent the disease, pigs should be vaccinated with
Classical Swine Fever vaccine.
During an outbreak, dead pigs should be buried to
reduce transmission of the virus and healthy pigs should
be kept away from sick pigs.
Do not transport sick pigs or meat from pigs that are
suspected to have the virus.

Classical
Swine Fever
vaccine
(freeze-dried)

LAO-EU Livestock Project

91

2. Foot and Mouth Disease


Foot and Mouth Disease is caused by a virus. Outbreaks of FMD occur in cattle, buffalo,
pigs, sheep and goats. In pigs lesions develop on the feet, snout and mammary glands. The
lesions are worse on the feet than on the snout. The walk is painful and pigs want to lie
down. Sows may not allow piglets to suckle because of painful sores on and around the teats.

Pigs lie down, do


not eat and have a
high temperature.

1. At the snout small blisters


develop into open wounds.

2. Blisters and wounds develop around and


between the hooves. The hoof may fall off.

3. Blisters and wounds develop on the


mammary glands and teats.

Treatment: There are no medicines which can kill the virus.


Clean the blisters with medicines such as iodine. Antibiotics may be used as bacteria can
enter the animal through the wounds, making the recovery time longer.

Prevention:

Vaccination with FMD vaccine will prevent this disease.


When there is a disease outbreak, animal movement should
be stopped so that non-infected animals do not come into
close contact with infected animals.

Improved Rural Pig Production

92

Foot and Mouth


Disease vaccine

Chapter 13: Pig diseases

Swine Fever
vaccine
(freeze-dried)

Foot & Mouth


Disease vaccine

3. Roundworms
There are many types of roundworms that can live in the stomach, intestine or lungs of
pigs. They cause illness, weight loss and poor growth. The most important is a large
white worm (Ascaris suum). This worm lives in the small intestine and mostly affects
young pigs between 2 - 4 months of age.

Various types of worms can infect


young pigs. The worms may live in
the intestine, stomach or lung.

Various types of worms can affect


breeding sows, especially while suckling
piglets. These worms usually live in the
intestine or stomach.

Treatment: Parasiticides should be used to kill the worms.


Name of Medicine

Method, Dose and Schedule

1
2

Prevention:
Pigs raised in a clean pen can be treated for worms every
3 months.
If not kept in a clean pen, pigs should be treated every 4 weeks.
Newly procured pigs should be treated immediately on arrival.
Pregnant sows should be dewormed 4 weeks before farrowing.

Parasiticides

LAO-EU Livestock Project

93

4. Diarrhoea in piglets
This disease can be caused by many different microbes, both bacteria and viruses. These
microbes can enter healthy pigs when they eat feed or water that is contaminated with
faeces from affected pigs. The microbes go to live in the small or large intestine.
Diarrhoea usually occurs in young pigs from the age of 1 week to 3-4 months.

1. Microbes are ingested


by the piglet.

2. The piglet has diarrhoea.

3. The piglet may


recover, but sometimes
does not grow well.

4. The piglet may die


suddenly without signs,
or after diarrhoea.

Treatment: Prevent dehydration by giving fluids with a weak mixture of salt and sugar.
Vitamins and antibiotics can also help to make the pig stronger.
Name of Medicine

Method, Dose and Schedule

1
2

Prevention:
Keeping pigs in a clean pen is important
especially for sows with piglets.
Sows with young piglets should be raised
separately from other older, growing pigs.
Healthy pigs should be kept away from sick pigs.

Improved Rural Pig Production

94

Nutrient medicines

Chapter 13: Pig diseases

Swine Fever
vaccine
(freeze-dried)

Foot & Mouth


Disease vaccine

5. Erysipelas
Erysipelas is an infectious disease caused by a bacteria that mainly affects young pigs (it
can also affect humans). Pigs show signs of red diamond-shaped plaques on the skin; the
spinal cord, joints and heart may be affected and it can kill the pig.

1. The pig is infected


by a carrier pig. The
pig may suddenly die
with no signs.
Pig may survive and be a carrier
2. The infected pig
with high temperature
and skin lesions.

3. Bacteria affect the skin, heart


and joints. The pig is tired and
does not want to walk.
Pig may die in 1-2 days

4. The pig may survive and become a


carrier or die due to heart problems.

Treatment: Antibiotics should be used to treat this disease.


Name of Medicine

Method, Dose and Schedule

1
2

Prevention:
Pigs should be raised in a clean pen.
During an outbreak, healthy pigs should be kept
away from sick pigs.

Antibiotics

LAO-EU Livestock Project

95

6. Mange
This disease is caused by a mite that lives in the skin. It is very small and cannot be seen by
the naked eye. The pig becomes irritated and scratches itself frequently. The affected skin
becomes red, crusted and thick. The pig does not eat well and grows poorly.

Transmission
occurs by close
contact with
affected pigs.

Mites live in the skin around the eyes, ears, snout, legs and
body. The pig scratches frequently and the affected skin is red,
crusted and thick. The pig does not eat well and grows poorly.

Treatment: Parasiticides should be used to kill the mites


Name of Medicine
1

Ivomec

Method, Dose and Schedule


Subcutaneous injection: 1 ml per 33 kg weight.

Prevention:
Affected pigs should be treated immediately and
kept away from unaffected pigs.
Pregnant sows should be treated 4 weeks before
farrowing to prevent mange.
Newly procured pigs should be treated immediately
on arrival.

Improved Rural Pig Production

96

Parasiticides
Ivomec
(Ivermectin)

Chapter 13: Pig diseases

Swine Fever
vaccine
(freeze-dried)

Foot & Mouth


Disease vaccine

7. Cysticercosis
Cysticercosis is caused by a tapeworm that lives in humans. This tapeworm produces
eggs that are passed in the faeces. When a pig eats human faeces, the eggs hatch to
become larvae that migrate to the muscles where they form cysts. When humans eat pig
meat that contains the cyst, the cyst grows into a large tapeworm in the intestine.
Humans get ill from these worms. More dangerously, when tapeworm eggs are eaten
directly by humans, cysts may develop in the brain causing nervous disease.

1. Adult tapeworms live in the human


intestine and produce eggs.

2. The pig eats the tapeworm eggs in


the human faeces.

3. Cysts develop in the pig muscle.

4. When a person eats poorly-cooked


meat with cysts, tapeworms can
develop in the intestines.

* People can become infected by


ingesting tape worm eggs, either
directly or by eating food that is
contaminated by human faeces. This
happens when food is touched by a
person who has the tapeworm and
who is not washing her/his hands
before handling food. When people
ingest tapeworm eggs, cysts may
develop in different parts of the body,
e.g. the brain. If cysts develop in the
brain, they will cause nervous disease.

Treatment pigs: There is no medicine to kill the worms and cysts in the pig muscles.
Treatment humans: Commonly available parasiticides for humans can kill the large tapeworm.
Prevention:
To prevent pigs having cysts in their muscles, pigs must be kept away from human
faeces. People should use latrines and pigs should be kept in pens.
To prevent human ingestion of cysts from pig meat, the meat should be very well
cooked before being eaten to destroy the cysts.
To prevent human ingestion of worm eggs, people should wash hands after toilet and
before touching food.
LAO-EU Livestock Project

97

Improved Rural Pig Production

98

1. - -

Breeds

1
- 1

Muladt type 1

- 3
3

Muladt type 3 (Mu LaoSung)

5
-

7
-

Landrace

Singji

2
- 2

-

4

6
-

8
-
()

Muladt type 2

Large White

Duroc

Crossbred

--- -- / LAO-EU Livestock Project

99

2. -

Selection

Good local boar

Good local sow

Natural breeding

Crosses perform well


7

Poor local sow

6

Select piglets of good sow

------ / Improved Rural Pig Production

100

Poor local boar

Select fast growing pigs

3.

Pig pens and floors

Shelter in confined area

2
-

-

3

Large pen - slatted floor

-


4

5 -

Pen above fish pond

Cemented floor

Small pen - slatted floor

Pig pen on soil

Nursery on slatted floor

Wooden floor

--- -- / LAO-EU Livestock Project

101

4. -
1
-

3
-

Feeders and drinkers

Calibrated feed scoop

Feeder made in cement

Drinker-nipple

Simple water supply -1

------ / Improved Rural Pig Production

102

Wooden feeder

Self-feeder

Pig drinking

Simple water supply -2

5. : -
1

Rice bran

Coconut

Maize

Taro plant

6 -

Nutrition:
by-products and crops

Broken rice

Soya seed

Cassava

Leucaena leaves

--- -- / LAO-EU Livestock Project

103

6. :
1

Forest taro

Local brewers waste

Home-made feed ratio

Boiling vegetables

Nutrition:
traditional feed processing

Water hyacinth

Forest products

6 -

8 --
- -

------ / Improved Rural Pig Production

104

Milling maize (or rice)

Final home-made feed

7. :

1

Piglet starter feed

Feed for breeders

Mixing own feed

Cassava and soya

Nutrition:
commercial feed practices

Feed for weaners - fatteners

Different feed companies

Rice and maize

Minerals and vitamins

--- -- / LAO-EU Livestock Project

105

8. -
1

Piglet care

Farrowing


3 -

Drying piglet

Piglet box with lamp

Ear notching

Disinfection of navel

Teeth clipping

8
-

Iron injection

------ / Improved Rural Pig Production

106

Assistance at birth

9.
1

Highly pregnant sow

Local farrowing pen

5 ,

Local pen, piglet box

Piglet starter feed

Lactating sows and their


piglets

6 -

Modern farrowing pen

Farrowing pen, piglet box

Partition sow - piglets

Commercial feeds

--- -- / LAO-EU Livestock Project

107

10. -
1

Restraint

Injection quiet pig

IM injection

SC injection

Handling and vaccination

4 - Injection restrained pig

------ / Improved Rural Pig Production

108

Examination

SC injection

Sterilizing equipment

11.
1

,
3

FMD, feet lesions

CSF, red spots

Mange

Diarrhoea

Diseases and abnormalities

FMD, snout lesions

CSF, sick litter

Umbilical hernia

Claw damage

--- -- / LAO-EU Livestock Project

109

12. -

Castration

1 ()

Disinfect

Remove

13. -
5

Blood sampling ear

Recording

2 ()

Cut

Taking samples for laboratory

----
--- -/ LAO-EU
/ Improved
Livestock
RuralProject
Pig Production

110

Disinfect

Transfer into tube

Skin (parasite) sampling

14.
-
-
1
-

-
3

Farrowing crate

Weaners on slatted floor

5 -

Pregnant sow crates

Different types of feeds

Large scale pig farming


4 -

, -

Piglets in nursery

Fatteners on cement floor

Use of minerals, vitamins

Transport of fatteners

--- -- / LAO-EU Livestock Project

111

15.
1

Other pig pictures

Weighing weaners

Selling at market

Necropsy

Walking boar

Walking to market

Fatteners to abattoir

------ / Improved Rural Pig Production

112

Selling pork at market

Washing boar

PIG PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY FOR


PIGGERY FARMERS

Produced and Distributed by

National Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Services


Ahmadu Bello University,

Zaria.

Extension Bulletin No. 25


Livestock Series No.1

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents

Page

INTRODUCTION.................................................................
Advantages of Pig Production.............................................

6
6

PIG Production SYSTEMS ...............................................


Extensive or Free Range....................................................
Semi Intensive System.......................................................
Intensive Production System...............................................
Piggery Enterprises............................................ ................

8
8
9
10
12

PIG HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT......................................


Choice of Site......................................................................
Flooring ..............................................................................
Walls....................................................................................
Roofing................................................................................
Space Requirement.............................................................
Multipurpose Pens...............................................................
PigHouse Equipment..........................................................

13
13
14
14
14
15
16
16

BREEDS AND BREEDING ................................................


Breeds ................................................................................
Breeding..............................................................................
Selection of Breeding Stock ...............................................
Management of Breeding Boars and Gilts ........................
Purchasing breeding stock..................................................
Artificial Insemination...........................................................

20
20
25
26
28
28
28

PIG MANAGEMENT...........................................................
Daily routines.......................................................................
Management of pregnant Sows .........................................

30
30
32

Farrowing and Care of Newborn Piglets ............................


Weaning..............................................................................
Early Weaning.....................................................................
Record Keeping...................................................................

33
36
37
38

FEEDS AND FEEDING.......................................................


Nutrients Required by Pigs ................................................
Feedstuffs...........................................................................
Ration Formulation..............................................................
Feeds for Different Classes of Pigs.....................................

38
39
41
47
48

HEALTH MANAGEMENT ..................................................


Parasites.............................................................................
Hog Cholera........................................................................
African Swine Fever............................................................
Swine Influenza...................................................................
Transmissible Gastroentivitis .............................................
Enteric Colibacillosis............................................................
Erysipelas............................................................................
Salmonellosis......................................................................

56
56
57
57
58
58
58
58
58

MARKETING ANDPROCESSING......................................
Marketing.............................................................................
Kafanchan Pig Market.........................................................
Sources of Piglets...............................................................
Processing..........................................................................
Transportation ....................................................................
Carcass and Meat Quality ..................................................
Meat Hygiene......................................................................

60
60
61
62
62
62
63
66

APPENDICES....................................................................
Summary of Management Practices ..................................
Glossary..............................................................................
An individual Sow Record ..................................................
Boar Performance Record Sheet........................................
Herd Performance Record .................................................
Examples of Pig Production Record ..................................
Life Time Record for Sow....................................................

67
67
69
70
71
72
73
74

INTRODUCTION
Pig meat (pork) is a very important source of animal protein in human
diets. In fact, the F.A.O. Quarterly bulletin of Statistics, 1989 reported
that there is a greater output of meat from pigs (63.9 million metric
tonnes/year) than the combined output of meat from cattle, buffalo,
sheep and goats (58.9 million metric tonnes/year). Pig rearing is
popular in many parts of Nigeria, which has the highest pig population
in Africa (Adebambo, 1982). Even in the far North, it has been
demonstrated that pigs can be reared successfully as exemplified by
the existence of the biggest pig farm in the world in Kano between
1955-1965 (Mckay 1963). In the areas where pigs are reared on tree
range, they are most valued as a kind of savings to the farmer trom
where he can tap in times of cash shortage and emergency needs.
Commercial production under semi-intensive conditions is becoming
more popular because of its favourable rate of return on investments.
Advantages of Pig Production
The popularity of pig production is because of the following
advantages:
1.

Short generation interval and rapid fecundity as can be seen in


table 1.

2.

The pig has 15,000 taste buds as against 9,000 in humans


enabling it to eat everything edible to man and other animals
including forage. Recent information which indicates that the pig
can tolerate a higher level of dieta1yfibre than has been
previously recognised has greatly expanded the range of feed
resources for pigs. This is particularly important since the high
5

cost and scarcity of grains and concentrates have been major


constraints to poultry and pig production in the tropics. 3. Pigs
are the most efficient animals for converting kitchen wastes and
other non-conventional feedstuffs into meat.
4.

The pig is a more efficient carcass yielder than cattle, sheep or


goats, dressing out at about 70% compared to between 5055%
for cattle and about 50% for sheep and goats. In addition, pig
carcasses have a smaller proportion of bones and higher
proportion of edible meat.

5.

Pig carcasses are easier to dress and have superior curing


qualities, an obvious advantage for processing and marketing.

6.

Pigs adapt readily to most environmental conditions. They are


also very adaptable to intensified or diversified agriculture.

7.

Because the pig. possesses a large cecum, the dropping from


pigs is rich in nutrients. Pig faeces make good fertilizer for crops
and can also be recycled into livestock feeds.

In view of these obvious advantages, the need to promote pig


production cannot be over-emphasized. The purpose of this bulletin is
to provide infonnation on management practices that will assist pig
producers improve on the productivity of their herds and therefore
increase their income as well as making more animal protein available
for human consumption in Nigeria.

PIG PRODUCTION SYSTEMS


The common systems of keeping pigs include the following:
1. Extensive or Free-Range (Scavengers)
The tree-range system is the traditional method of rearing pigs in most
parts of the world. The system is cheap as it requires little investment. It
also requires minimal management. Each family keeps a few (one to
three) sows per herd which are allowed to scavenger or wander freely
and pick up food when and where they can. Feed costs on range
system may be about 20-25% less than with intensive rearing method.
No special housing other than for night shelter is required and there is
minimum disease control (Fig. 1 ).

Fig. 1: Scavenging Village Pigs


7

Pigs under this system are given supplementary feeds. This makes
them have attachment to their owners. Examples of feeds given are
kitchen wastes, farm by-products such as cassava peels, brans of
cereals,fiuit pulps and maize cobs. This technique of supplementary
feeding to pigs makes them come back home daily to the farmer. Local
breeds of pigs predominate the free range system because they are
more highly adapted.
The disadvantages of the system though are numerous, losses
are high and productivity is low with the erratic and often seasonal food
supplies. This can result in irregular breeding of sows, slow growth
rate and high piglet mortality. Breeding is indiscriminate as no
particular attention is paid to selection of pigs on desirable traits. They
are particularly susceptible to infestation by parasites from various
sources.
2. Semi-Intensive
In this system, the animals are restricted to a limited area and
therefore the farmer takes the whole responsibility of feeding them.
Once in - while, the pigs are allowed into the fenced larger yard to
graze, wallow and exercise. Housing is mainly of very simple
construction and made from simple and inexpensive materials like
mud, bamboo and elevated thatched roof (fig 2). The animals are fed
on kitchen wastes, food by-products etc, and some level of managerial
skills are required. Productivity is better than under the free range and
therefore the herd sizes are bigger. Indigenous breeds are still
prevalent in this system but crosses between local and exotic breeds
are more commonly available.
Many small holder pig fanners practice the extensive system during
the cby season and the semi-intensive system during the rainy season
to prevent damage to crops. In this regard therefore, no fenced yards
are provided.
8

The housing provided for night shelter during the dry season is the
same as that used during the wet seasons. The semi-intensive system
can be recommended for small holders and beginning pig farmers. The
fanner can expand herd size and grow into a more intensive
management system with experience and a conducive marketing
environment. It is also easier to cut down should the prevailing
conditions demand a reduction in herd size.

Fig. 2: Local Pig House


3.

Intensive Production System


This is the commercial method of pig production under which
economic considerations are the sole determinant of herd size. The
farmer grows or buys feed especially for his pig enterprise. Housing is
generally more expensive with concrete floor, and zinc/asbestos
roofing. Adequate shade, pen space, feed and water facilities are
provided to meet requirements of the pigs. There is an absolute
requirement for skilled management including veterinary protection
against parasites and diseases to optimize output Higher performance
exotic or crosses between exotic and indigenous breeds are used.
9

Fig. 3: A Well Constructed Pig House.


Access to credit facilities are favourable. Cost benefit estimates
are often the primary motivating factors for farmers to invest in
commercial pig production. These factors also determine the level of
herd size and capital intensiveness of the enterprise.
Intensive pig production may be small scale (5 sow herd or up
to 100 stock/year), medium scale (10 sow herd or up to 200
stock/year) or large scale (greater than 200 stock. year) in most
developing countries. A survey of136 commercial pig farms in Nigeria
in 1980 showed that 69% were small scale, while only 200fc were
large scale (Ogunfowora et al. 1980).
This system of pig farming can be combined with fish farming
and vegetable production. Such an operation enhances efficiency of
resource use to increase output. Fish ponds can be fertilized with pig
manure, generating algal growth which can then be utilized by fish.

10

Pig houses can be constructed above the ponds so that the manure
can drop straight into the fish ponds. T1lapia species offish are most
commonly used, often mixed with small population of carp and cat fish.
Pig manure can be used as organic manure to enrich soil for vegetable
gardening. While residues from vegetable products are in turn fed to
pigs.
4. Piggery Enterprises
Since profit motivation is the major determinant for commercial pig
production, it is always better to start on a small scale and then expand
as more experience is gained. Essentially, there are four pig
production enterprises.
a.

Farrow-to-finish operations - The farmer keeps a sow herd and


produces his own growers for a finishing operation which he also
owns.

b. Farrow only - The farmer keeps a sow herd which produces weaners
which he sells to growing and finishing operators.
c.

Finishing operation - Farmer buys piglets either as weaners or


growers and fatten them for the pork market.

d. Breeding - The production of breeding stock is a very specialized


enterprise reserved only for the experienced pig breeders and
requires heavy capital investment.
The beginning farmer or pig producer who wants to expand must take
stock of the market needs of his environment and the level of
resources available to him to decide which of these enterprises to
invest in as wen as the level of investment.
11

PIG HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT


The most productive pigs are likely to be those confined in
athermally neutral environment, where the pig neither uses feed
energy to keep warm nor reduces feed intake to keep cool. The
purpose of housing for pigs is to provide an environment that will
enable the pig to grow or breed optimally.
Pig housing must therefore aim at:
a.
Protection from climatic extremes e.g. direct solar
adiation, rain, wind. etc.
b.
Allowing for inherent behaviour patterns of the pigs and
minimize over crowding.
c.
Provision of dry bedding conditions that do not predipose the
pig to
diseases.
d.
Allowing accessibility to food and clean water.
e.
Ensuring easy movement of the stockman.
f.
Effective disposal of effluent.
g.
Cost effectiveness in housing construction.
Adequate considerations must be given to factors that will check
effects of excess heat and humidity. It is important to minimize
temperature variations by keeping the pigs cool on hot days and warm
on cold nights. Also, the rapid growth of pigs emphasizes the need for a
specific environment for each class of pigs for optimum growth and
development. The pig producer must have access to expert
information on appropriate housing designs and investment costs for
pig housing in his environment.
1. Choice of Site
The location of a pig unit should ensure that there is free air movement
and good natural ventilation. This can be achieved by facing the
building north-south, to avoid excessive penetration of sun light into the
pens, preventing problems of sun burns, scorching and heat stress.
12

Also, the site should preferably not be too exposed to cold. The
buildings should be on a slight slope to allow drainage and disposal of
eft1uent. The slope also makes it easier to design a pig-flow with the
farrow house at the top of slope and the fattening pens at the lower end.
This prevents cross-infection trom effluent between piglets and the
adult pigs. Again access road, water sources and space for expansion
must be put into consideration.
2. Flooring
Hard concrete or similar floors are recommended even in low
cost buildings made of local materials. This prevents the pigs
from rooting and digging up the ground and also permits cleaning
which minimizes the build-up of diseases and parasites. The
floor should
provide insulation against both cold and damp. Also the nature
of the floor surface is important. If the surface is too smooth
and slippery the animals fall and can cause injuries. If it is too
rough or abrasive, this can result in damage to feet and udders.
3. Walls
The walls should be of strong materials to restrain the pig and
ensure protection. Suitable materials include mud, wood,
bamboo sticks, stones and cement blocks. Provision should be
made for suitable flaps, windows and doors which can be opened
to allow maximum ventilation during hot periods and closed to
contain warmth at colder times. Smooth walls are most ideal.
4. Roofing
This is for shade and protection of the pigs from rain, sun, etc.
They can be made of traditional materials such as grass, reeds,
leaves, straws, thatch etc, which are ideal in the tropics from an
insulation view point.
13

They do have the advantage of keeping the house cooler.


Unfortunately however, they are very prone to tire hazards, and are of
low durability. They can become breeding ground for rats and other
pests. Aluminum or corrugated iron sheets can be used but they should
be sufficiently high that there is room for plenty of air movement. On an
apex roof provide raised bridge or other arrangement to allow for the
escape of hot air and air movement.
5. Space Requirement
Over-crowding is a common cause of depressed performance
and low productivity in pigs. Therefore, this must be considered in
pig house design. Weight, number of pigs per group, air
temperature, methods of feeding, ventilation and floor design are
factors that affect space requirement. About 10-30 animals per
group is desirable during weaning to market weight. See space
recommendation in tables 2A and 2B.

14

Table 2A: Space requirement for various categories of


Pigs.
Liveweight

Floor Area per Pig

20-50kg (Growers)

1m2

50-100kg (Finishers)

2m2

Dry sow

2.5m2

Lactating sow and


(Finisher)

10m2

Boar

9m2

Source: O. M. Osaro (1995).


Generally, a collective pen with dimension of 4m x 5m may house
20 piglets, 10 fattening pigs or sows.

'Table 2B: Space requirement for Pigs in Building with


Outside Apron
Space per pig
Stage of Production
Inside
Outside
Growing-Finishing
Pig

O.6m2(6.sq.1\)

O.6m6.sq. 1\)

Sows

1.0m2( 1l.Osq. ft)

1.Om2(1l.0sq. ft)

Boars

3.7m2(40sq.1\)

3.7m2(40sq.1\)

Source: O.O.Tewe and A.O.K. Adesehinwa (1995)

15

6. Multipurpose Pig Pens


Although there are advantages in providing separate housing for the
different categories of pigs, a multipurpose pig house may be used.
They can be cheaper and more flexible. Removable structures such as
creep barriers and farrowing rails provide protection for the piglets and
make the pens suitable for farrowing. At weaning, these are removed,
leaving a fattening pen in which the weaners can be fattened through to
slaughter. (Fig. 4).

Fig 4: Plan View of Multipurpose Pen


7. Pig House Equipment
a. Farrowing Crates: These are specially made and normally
incorporated into the farrowing unit. The sow is restricted in the crate
while piglets have access to a small surrounding area equipped with
creep feeding facilities and water supply. This ensures both sow
comfort and farrowing efficiency (Fig. 5).
Farrowing crates prevent sows from laying down quickly and crushing
the baby pigs. Creep boxes are also placed close to sows. The crates
allow easy handling of sow and piglets while minimizing the risk of
injuries . The crates should not be made with rough or sharp edged
metals to avoid injuries to the feet and legs of pigs.
16

Figure 5: A farrowing crate


b. Farrowing Ran: Guard rails are constructed to about 1.5
1.7m high along sides of the farrowing pen. The rails prevent
the sow from crushing the piglets.
c. Weaner Cages: The young pigs weaned uom their sows and with a
change in their diet may become susceptible to diseases particularly
digestive diseases which can result in fairly heavy mortality of
weaners. To minimise this problem, weaner cages which are made of
covered solid-floor, sleeping, eating and dunging areas can be used.
Pigs can huddle and generate enough heat for their comfort inside the
covered kennel section of the cage. In hot weather, the pigs keep cold
by laying out on the mash floors and are protected from the sun by an
umbrella roof over all the cages. Dung and urine fall through the wire
mesh or slats, which is easily cleaned. Pigs normally remain in the
cages for 3-4 weeks before being transferred to fattening houses
(Fig.6).
17

Fig. 6: A Weaner Cage


d. Pig Hurdle: This can be constructed from strong medium size
wooden posts or light timber of about 1.8m wide. Some hurdles
may be as wide as the space between the pens. Such hurdles
facilitate movement of pigs through the barn and aid in
separating pigs inside the pens (Fig. 7)

18

Fig. 7: Hurdle for Separating Pigs.


e. Water Troughs/Feeders: Pigs should have free access to feed and
water troughs depending on the size of the operation. They can
be incorporated into the building design or constructed specially.
They should be easy to clean and should be washed and
disinfected at least once a week. This prevents the harbouring of
disease-causing agents and thus minimize infections.
BREEDS AND BREEDING
1. Breeds
There are over 90 recognized breeds and an estimated 230 varieties
of pigs in the world. These can be grouped into indigenous and
modem exotic types which through selection and breeding, have
been developed for conunercial production.

19

Indigenous Breed:
The indigenous pigs (fig 8)are usually of modest size with adults
reaching 100kg maximum but rarely weigh more than 60kg at one year
of age even under the best rearing conditions. In general the
indigenous breeds have smaller and shorter legs than exotic types with
the typical unimproved conformation of a large head, well developed
forequarters and relatively light hind quarters. These render them more
mobile and better able to forage and root for themselves.
They are sexually early maturing and females may show first
oestrus as early as three months of age. The skin is often black, brown
or occasionally spotted but rarely white. Generally, they are adapted to
traditional rearing systems in which the food consists of diverse
vegetable waste products. Indigenous sows show excellent
mothering ability, which results in very low piglet mortality without
sophisticated housing.

Fig. 8: Indigenous Breed of Pigs.


20

ii.
Exotic Breeds:
Exotic breeds were first brought in from Europe and constitute
the commercial herds being reared under semi-intensive and
intensive management systems. The following exotic breeds have
been tried and are of significance in Nigeria.
a.
Large White (Yorkshire): A very popular breed throughout the
world. It is fast growing, strong-framed with good body length. It
is renowned for its strength of legs. The females are prolific good
mothers and adapt well to confinement conditions. The breed is
widely distributed in Africa and is used extensively for crossbreeding. For instance, the Large White X Landrace female is the
most popular cross for commercial production. The white hair
and skin render the carcass more acceptable to consumers than
that from the coloured breed. However, shade and wallows are
essential for the breeds to prevent skin from sun bums (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9: Large White Breed

21

B.
Danish Landrace: The breed is easily known by its
forwardpointing loop ears. It is characterised by a long, smooth body
with light shoulders and well developed hams (Fig. 10). The breed is
prolific with excellent mothering ability and produces lean, fast-growing
progeny. The landrace has a higher level of susceptibility to stress than
some other breeds. It is highly favoured for cross breeding purposes.

Fig. 10. Danish Landraee Breed


c. Duroc: Identification of this breed is by its deep red or rusty colour.
The Duroc is a fast-growing large breed which has been selected
specifically for overall muscle and meat production. It has the ability to
grow into heavier weights without depositing too much fat. Litter-size
and mothering ability are only average in the females (Fig. 11).
The breed is well known for its hardiness and resistance to
stress with lower levels of mortality. This is an important quality in the
choice of breeding stock. In commercial pig production, it is frequently
used as a terminal sire on white-breed females.

22

Fig. 11: Duroc Breed


D. Hampshire: This is a medium sized black pig with distinct white
saddle which encircles the fore-quarter. The sows are prolific, good
mothers and possess above average milking ability. They thrive better
on extensive conditions than white breeds (Fig. 12).
The breed is meaty with well-developed muscles which show efficiency
of food conversion and is also popular in cross- breeding programmes.

Fig. 12: Hampshire Breed


23

e. Berkshire: The breed is easily identified by its black coat and


characteristic white feet and nose. It is a smaller, early-maturing pig
which was first developed in England for the pork trade. In the tropics,
it has proved very hardy and cross well with the indigenous stock.
However, the Berkshire breed is on the decline on a world wide basis
which may be due to its carcass that is relatively fatty.
1. Breeding
The pig farmer, no matter how good, cannot do better than the
animals genetic potential for production. Improvements in productive
parameters can thus be achieved only by selection of animals with
superior genetic make-up as the parents for the next generation.
Since the primary objective of pig fanning is for meat production, the
farmer must learn to select those animals that can be manipulated
through breeding and management in order to tap that animals
optimum potential for meat production.
For maximum performance, a systematic cross breeding Programme
should be followed. The primary advantage of cross breeding is in the
use of the cross bred dam which farrows and weans more pigs. On the
average, cross-bred pigs gain more weight and are more efficient than
pure-breeds. It is not as if there is an optimum number of breeds that a
fanner can use in a cross-breeding programme but a practical
recommendation is three (Grummer and Giesler 1975). An example of
such a cross-breeding programme is given in Fig. 13.
It is advisable to select breeds that are somehow dissimilar in their
characteristics for such cross-breeding.

24

Figure 13: Typicasl corss breeding programme


3.
Selection of Breeding Stock
Select the breeding stock when the pigs are sexually mature (i.e. about
five months. of age ). Select from the same age group for their fair
comparison. Good reliable indicators of the pigs performance are
traits such as growth rate and efficiency of gain.
a. Growth Rate: Measured by determining the difference in weight at
weaning and weight at maturity divided by the number of days. A
good rule of thumb is to weigh the animals at two months and then
at five months. The daily gain is the difference in weight divided by
90, the number of days in three months. At five months, the liveweight of a pig should be between 6585kg. The rate of gain should
not be less than 600glday.
b. Efficiency of Gain: A measure of how much feed was consumed
to put on the weight gain. It is usually measured for a

25

group of pigs. Add the total feed consumption of the group that was
fed together and divide by the total weight gain of all the group to
get the feed efficiency of the group.
c. Litter Size: Is important, but it is a low heritable trait. Select
breeders from amongst large, healthy and well performing litters.
d. Conformation and Sex Characteristics: Pigs selected for
breeding must be physically healthy, have good strong legs, be
free from any defects and must not be too fat. It is important to note
that the genetic influence of the boar on the next generation is
greater than that of the sow since one boar will be used to mate
several sows. Boars must have two equally sized and firmly
suspended testicles, exhibit sex drive and be void of bad habits.
Gilts must have a good underline and udder with at least 12 well
spaced, fully formed teats.
e. Other Selection Criteria: For the small-scale farmer, the above
four criteria are adequate but for the large scale farmer and pig
breeding or testing stations, other criteria are commonly in use.
These include: furrowing rate, number of still born litter, average
pig birth weight, pigs weaned per litter furrowed, average weaning
weight, loin muscle area, carcass length, back fat depth, fat depth,
percent lean, mortality rate at weaning and in growing finishing
stage. Table 3 gives performance guidelines for assessing
production profile of exotic pigs under intensive management
conditions.
4.

Management of Breeding Boars and Gilts


Litters selected for breeding should be separated into boars and
gilts at five months to prevent indiscriminate mating.
In the breeding herd, the boar should be at least 7.5 months of
age or about 120kg in weight when first used for breeding. Under pen
mating system, a boar should effectively service 10-12 gilts/sows.
26

More females can be served if hand-mating is used. Care


should be taken to avoid overworking the boar. Boars are at their best
between 15 months to four years of age.
The gilt should not be bred before seven months of age. The
advantage of an older age is that the number of eggs ovulated
increases through the third or fourth estrous period. Furthermore,
signs of estrous in young gilts may be less obvious and of shorter
duration especially under confinement. The number of gilts per pen
should not be more than 15.
5.

Purchasing Breeding Stock


In purchasing breeding stock it is important to buy trom a reliable
supplier who can give authentic information on the performance traits
discussed. On purchase, they should be kept apart for about 30 days
to make sure that they are tree from any obvious disease and also to
enable them acclimatize to the new environment before put to use.
However; care must be taken to keep boars within sight and sound of
the female pig! in order to enhance stimulation. He should also be
exercised generously.
6.
Artificial Insemination (A.I)
This involves collection of semen from a boar and then introducing it
into a sow or gilt at a later stage by means of catheter. This differs from
the natural service where a boar mounts the sow and introduces his
semen.
a. It allows for wider use and distribution of boars of high
genetic merit.
Artificial insemination offers several potential advantages to
the pig producers and can be used more extensively when producers
are experienced. The advantages of artificial insemination are as
follows: up to 25 sows.
27

C.

It prevents transmission of diseases from farm to farm by


the sale of boars
d. It helps to overcome the practical problems of differences
in size of males and females. On occasions, this problem can
severely limit the use of heavy boars of high genetic caliber.
e.
It eliminates the need to purchase, house and feed a
boar especially on small scale pig farming.
f.
It reduces the farmers risk of handling boars for natural
service.
Estrous control, heat detection and timing of insemination are very
essential for any successful A.I. These allow for precise scheduling
of
breeding and farrowing. Both natural and artificial methods can be
used for lactating sows .Estrous (mating reflex) will occur within 4 to 7
days after the litter is weaned. Thus several litters could be weaned on
the same day and the sows bred at the earliest opportunity.
To attain good conception rate in gilts/sows, accurate heat
detection must be carried out to ensure that the timing of insemination
is correct To over come wrong timing in detection of the start of estrous
and the natural variations in the time of ovulation two inseminations
approximately 12 hours apart are recommended. During the heat
period, the following signs may be observed:
i.
Sows/gilts will allow themselves to be mounted by the
boar or other sows.
ii.
Sow in heat stands rigid when pressure is applied to the
region of the loin, i.e. exhibits standing reflex.
iii,
There is swelling and reddening of the vulva.

28

V. Sows become restless and give characteristic grunt.


Recently, devices have been developed which measure the electrical
resistance of the vaginal mucosa. As this varies in relation to honnonal
levels, it can be used to predict more accurately the timing of ovulation
and hence the optimum timing of insemination. This will reduce the
likelihood of sows returning to service or producing small litters.
There is also the practice of inducing estrous and ovulation by
judicious administration of certain hormonal or honnone -like
substances. Sows in which estrous is induced during lactation do not
show strong signs of heat as do those coming into estrous normally.
Therefore, more careful observations for estrous must be made.
PIG MANAGEMENT
Good stocksmanship is a basic requirement for successful
livestock production. The animals must be given adequate care
before the farmer can expect his animals to produce to optimum
capacity.
1. Daily Routines
a. Animal Inspection: Inspect animals early in the morning and
watch out for any abnormal behaviour. Observe their
general stage of health, check for parasites and injuries.
Inspect at other times for same parameters.

29

30

be given in quantities that pigs can consume within 20 - 30


minutes. Left-over feed tends to get sour and become a
breeding ground for parasites. Watch out for any abnormal
feeding habits. In order to avoid competition for feed
between piglets and dam, provide a creep where the pigs
can feed without being disturbed by the dam.

c.

Cleaning: After watering and feeding, clean up the pens.


Remove moist bedding and replace with a dry one. Wood
shavings can be used for young animals and sawdust for
older ones. If a pen is vacated it should be washed,
disinfected and allowed to rest for at least one to two weeks
before other animals can be brought in.

d.

Wallows: Strongly recommended for replacement gilts,


boars and sows. The wallowing facility should be refilled
with fresh water frequently, wallows and shades help to cool
the pigs and therefore important in the tropics.

e.

Exercise: Provide areas for daily exercise. A fenced lot


with either grass or sand will serve. Daily exercise is good
for breeding stock and prevents lameness. Fat animals are
poor breeders.
Animal Grouping: For effective management, group
young pigs together by age, gilts and boars separately.

2. Management of Pregnant Sows:


Once the gilt/sow has been successfully served, conception will occur.
The . gestation period is 114 days (3 months, 3 weeks and 3 days).

31

All sows should be checked periodically to detect any one that has
returned to estrous so that they can be served again. The sows should
be kept in small groups to ensure that they all have access to adequate
feed. The feeds should be well fortified in order to meet the needs of
both the dam and foetuses. Feeding of green leaves and vegetable is
particularly important. Heat stress has been recognised to be a major
source of embryo losses especially during early pregnancy. It is
therefore important that pregnant sows should be shielded from
extremes of heat especially during the hottest months of the year
through the provision of shades and wallows.
3.

Farrowing and care of new born Piglets


The pregnant animals should be dewormed 2-3 weeks prior to
farrowing to reduce the possibility of the dam passing worms to the
new born piglets. Also the sow should be in the farrowing unit 4 to 5
days prior to expected farrowing time to allow for adjustment to the
environment. Constipation in the sow must be avoided at all cost as
this interferes with farrowing process. Supplements of bran and green
stuff during the last week of pregnancy are recommended.
When the pregnant sow is about to farrow, the signs to watch for
are: increased restlessness as opposed to the peaceful animal of late
pregnancy and making of nest by arranging her bedding.
Management is especially critical since most baby-pig losses occur
during the first 72 hours after birth. It is recommended that for sows
farrowing under confinement conditions, each farrowing should be
supervised by a trained stocksman, in case of any farrowing problem
such as delayed farrowing and still-births. With special care and
attention to dam and her litter, up to 7()95% survival of piglets to 8
weeks of age can be realized.

32

Many losses of newborn piglets are caused by stress due to chilling.


The stockman must be ready to prevent this by providing extra source
of heat. Also, piglets must be encouraged to obtain their first successful
.suckle of colostrum within 45 minutes after birth. Colostrum is the most
important food a piglet takes in during the first few hours ofits life,
because it is a source of both essential energy and antibodies. Failure
to obtain colostrum will invariably result in susceptibility to diseases
and death of the newborn baby pig.
Within 24 hours of birth, the individual piglet should be marked
for identification and record purposes. Ear-notching is the most reliable
system (Fig 14). It is also desirable to clip the needle teeth to prevent
potential injury from fighting each other and damages to udder of the
dam. Tie off the navel cord and immerse in dilute solution of iodine, this
reduces the possibility of navel infections colostrum will invariably
result in susceptibility to diseases and death of the newborn baby pig.
Within 24 hours of birth, the individual piglet should be marked
for identification and record purposes. Ear-notching is the most reliable
system (Fig 14). It is also desirable to clip the needle teeth to prevent
potential injury from fighting each other and damages to udder of the
dam. Tie off the navel cord and immerse in dilute solution of iodine, this
reduces the possibility of navel infections
.

Fig. 14: Ear Notching System.


Since sow milk (Fig 15) is very low in iron, oral or injectable iron
preparations are administered to the piglets in confinement to reduce
the development of iron deficiency anemia. In the absence of iron
preparation.1 a shovel of red (iron rich) soil thrown into the pen has
been known to source of iron for piglets under Nigerian conditions, but
this may not adequate for optimum growth. Injections are made prior
to 5 days of age, while oral preparations to the piglets are usually given
continuously in soluble form. Male piglets not retained for big should
be castrated after one month of age. The piglets can gradually be
introduced to creep feed after two weeks.

Fig. I5 Dam Suckling Piglets


4. Weaning:
Weaning is the practice of separating the young pigs from their mother.
It usually exerts stress on the young. Weaning is normally
accomplished when pigs are from 6-9 weeks of age, when they should
be capable of subsisting on solid feeds and fending forthemse1ves.
Body weight and health condition are better criteria than age per se.
Exotic breeds should be weaned at weights of 5-6kg. It must be
emphasised that superior management, rigid environment control and
continuous attention to minute details are essential for success in this
phase of growth.
Other changes should be gradually effected at weaning. Do
not abruptly change the ration, but for a few days, continue feeding
creep feed mixed with weaner ration and then finally eliminate the
creep feed completely at about two weeks after weaning.

5.
Early Weaning
Recent developments in the commercial industry are in favour of early
weaning at about 4 weeks. The advantages are:
a. Losses in piglets due to overlying and starving are significantly
reduced.
b. Pigs can be adequately fed, and lack of uniformity in a litter can be
overcome.
c. Cost in sow feed can be slashed.
d. The sow looses less weight during nursing.
e. The dam can be rebred sooner to produce more litters.
f. Better producing sows can be retained for longer period.
g. Early weaning allows for streamlining of the production and market
supply; both weaners and market hogs can be sold.
A very high level of management is required for early weaning
and therefore it is not in general practice. However, a technique of
split weaning can be beneficial, whereby the large piglets are weaned
first and the small ones are left with the dam and weaned later.
6.
Weaners and Growers
The 3 week period immediately after weaning is a critical one for
the young pigs because a number of stresses may be encountered.
After pigs have overcome the stress of weaning and are feeding
properly, deworm them for the first time. Group the pigs according to
age and size. Large litters should be grouped together. This provides
an opportunity to record their feed consumption up to the time of
selection (at 5 months of age) and enhances the determination of feed
efficiency. Sick pigs should be separated for treatment. If there is need,
some weaner pigs can be sold at two months of age. Others (not for
sale) can be raised on self-fed rations until the finishing stage. At the
age of five months, the live weight of a fully grown pig should be 6480kg.

This means the pig is expected to gain 0.55 to O.68kg per day
over a period of three months. By then a healthy pig should be sexually
matured. Separate gilts and boars because the boars usually start
ranting. This is the time to select which pigs should be kept as
replacements in the breeding herd and which should be finished for
market.
7.

Record Keeping
The keeping of accurate records is absolutely essential for the
success of any pig enterprise. It gives a clear picture of the type of
operations, so that the exact degree of success can be measured.
Therefore, a good record of the number of pigs in herd, feed
consumption, mortality, medication and sales, should be kept. Also on
reproduction, details of boar performance, sow productivity, weaners
growth and grower/finisher efficiency should be recorded. Examples
of pig records are given in Appendices 3,4 and 5.
FEEDS AND FEEDING
Feed accounts for 55-85% of the cost of commercial pig production
depending on the level of intensification of the production system.
Feed is therefore the major operational cost item in a pig enterprise.
Pigs require feed to meet biological needs for maintenance, growth
and reproduction. The feed supplies nutrients which are extracted
through the digestive system of the pig and converted into the
metabolites (products) that are used to meet these biological needs.
There are six classes of nutrients required by the pig: Water, energy,
protein, vitamins, minerals and lipids. These nutrients can be supplied
by a wide variety of feedstuffs.
Feeding pigs for optimum production requires that feedstuffs be
combined in proportionate amounts that will provide the quantities of
nutrients needed by the animals. The feed so pre Fats contain 2.25
times the energy of carbohydrates but

pared must be given to the pig in the right quantity and quality. The
cost factor must also be used to determine the choice o feedstuffs that
supply them and how rations can be formulated for the different
classes of pigs.
1.
a.

b.

c.

Nutrients Required by Pigs


Water: Next to air, water is the most essential nutrient for life. It
should be supplied clean and daily. Most feeds and feedingstuffs
especially green leaves, contain appreciable quantities of water.
Sixty-five percent of the pigs body is water. Water is of particular
importance to pig production in the tropics as the pig requires
water to enable it maintain body temperature. Lack of water
quickly leads to a rise in body temperature and death. Also suboptimal amount of water will have a major effect on food intake
and pig performance
Energy: Can be defined as the capacity to do work. It provides
the driving force for all the biochemical reactions that go on in the
body. The energy requirement of the pig is usually given in terms
of Digestible Energy or Metabolisable Energy. Energy is
measured in Kilo calories (Kcal) or Megajoule (Mj). The bulk of
energy in pig rations in supplied by carbohydrates which are the
major components of cereal grains such as maize, guinea com,
millet and root crops such as yams, cassava and potato. Fats
contain higher levels of energy than carbohydrates. Fats
commonly used in pig rations include palm oil, groundnut oil,
soyabean oil and tallow.
Lipids: Although fats are used primarily as energy sources, it
has been known that the pig has a requirement for one essential
fatty acid; linolenic acid. However, the requirement is so small
that it can be met in normal! rations formulated to meet required
energy standards are generally more expensive.

d.

Protein: Provides the primary blocks for building the animals


body, i.e meat, collagen, hair and nails. Protein is usually broken
down into amino acids by the body and these are the actual
building blocks. Out of the twenty known amino acids, ten are
described as essential because the pigs body cannot
synthesize them internally and therefore they must be supplied
in the diet. Of these, Lysine and Methionine have been found to
be the most limiting in practical rations. The synthetic products
are available commercially and can be added in pig rations
directly to overcome any deficiencies. Because protein sources
are expensive, they are often the most limiting in commercial
feeds. The most commonly used protein containing feedstuf1S
in Nigeria are: Groundnut cake, soyabean (full fat), soyabean
meat, cottonseed cake, palm kernel meal and blood meal.
e.
Minerals: These are the nutrients found in bones. They
also perform extremely diverse functions in the body ranging
from structural formations to regulatory functions inmost body
tissues. There are 13 essential inorganic elements known to be
required by the pig. The minerals that must be provided for in
practical pig rations in sizeable quantities are calcium,
phosphorus, sodium, and chlorine. Iron is very important to the
piglet. So much so that it has to be injected directly, even if the
piglet does have access to iron in the soil. Bonemeal, oyster
shell and limestone are the most common sources of Calcium
and Phosphorus in pig rations.
Vitamins: These are organic compounds required in small
amounts for normal growth, reproduction and health
maintenance. Vitamins A,D, E and K are fat soluble while
the B vitamins are water soluble. Common sources of Vitamins
for swine include green leaves and vegetables.

2.

Nutrient Requirements
The nutrient requirement for exotic breeds reared under
Nigerian conditions are given in Tables 4, 4A, 4B and 4C.
3. Feedstuffs
Most natural feedstuffs contain more than one nutrient. A
knowledge of feedstuffs locally available to the farmer or pig feed
producer is therefore most useful. Because it is very important to cut
down on cost of feeds, there is constant search for cheaper sources of
alternative feedstuffs to the conventional ingredients. Table SA gives a
list of ingredients and their nutrient composition while Table SB gives
the list of some local feedstuffs that have been extensively researched
with limitations on their uses.
It is important to recognise that growth rate on feed made from
low quality feedstuffs is often less than that obtained on feeds
formulate from conventional ingredients as shown in Fig. 16. The
farmer must carefully consider the economic benefits of using one
feedstuff or the other before using them.

Fig. 16: Good quality feed makes the difference

Table 4: Feed Requirement for Pigs in a Tropical Environment


Age

Daily Feed

Weight Gain

Total Feed

Total Gain

Required

(Kg/head)

(Kg/head)

(Kg/head)

(Kg/head)
1-8 weeks (creep)

1.5

0.3

24.5

14.7

8-16 weeks (Growers)

1.5

0.5

84.0

28.0

16-24 weeks (Finishers

2.5

0.7

248.5

81.9

Source. O.A. Adebambo (1995)

4.
i.
ii.
iii

Ration Formulation
To formulate a ration, the farmer needs:
The nutrient requirement of the animal;
The nutrient composition of the feedstuffs available.
A calculator

For pigs kept under extensive production system, the farmer may wish
to give only some kind of concentrate supplement e.g. groundnut cake.
If however, he has access to a crop like soyabean cheaply, he may wish
to mix a ration using soyabean with a cereal by-product such as rice
offal. How can such a farmer prepare a 15% protein ration from
roasted/boiled soyabean and rice offal?
The first thing is to find out:
i. The requirement for the nutrient which in this case is 15%
ii.The nutrient composition of the ingredient which is 40% protein
for soyabean, 5% protein for rice offal.
iii. Lets assume that the quantity of feeds to be mixed is 100kg.
The calculation of the proportion of soyabeans and rice offal that will
be mixed to give 100kg of 15% protein ration can be done by:
a. Algebraic Method:- Which is as follows:
Let Soyabean (SB) be ingredient A and Rice Offal (RO)B.
Step 1: We can write this statement (or equation) as:
(A x 40%) + (B x 5%) = 15Kg of protein.
Step 2: Multiply out to give equation 2
(OAA) + (0.05B) =15kg of protein

Step 3: Since the quantity offeed to be mixed = 100kg, it is true that A+ B


= 100kg (equation 3).
Step 4: Now we have to solve for A and B. This can be done by
eliminating either A or B trom equation 2 and 3. In order to do this,
multiply equation 3 by a figure from equation 2, (e.g.OA.) OAA + OAB =
(100 x 0.4) = 40 (equation 4).
Step 5: Now subtract equation 2 from 4
(OAA + OAB = 40)
-(OAA + 0.058 = 15)
Answer =0 + 0.35B = 25
Step 6: Now calculate the value ofB
since 0.35B = 0.25 (Le. from step 5).
Therefore B = ~

7l.4kg
0.35

Step 7: Since B (Le. Rice Offal) = 7104, the proportion of ingredient A


(i.e. Soyabean) in the 100kg feed is 100 - 71.4 = 28.6kg.
Conclusion: Mix 29kg of roasted soyabean (after crushing)
and 71kg of rice offal to get 100kg of 15% protein ration.
b. Pearson square: A second method of doing the same
calculation is to use the Pearson Square.

Step 1 - Draw a square


Step 2 - Place the nutrient content of the diet required in the middle of
the square.
Step 3 - Place the nutrient content of the two ingredients on the let hand
side of the square.
Step 4 - Subtract the figures diagonally and put the difference at the
comers on the right hand side of the square.
Step 5 - Add the differences vertically to get a total
Step 6 - Use the value horizontally opposite each ingredient to
calculate the proportion of that ingredient to be incorporated in the
ration.
For the above example, the square is as follows:
88.40

RO.OS

0.10

0.25
Total=0.35

QuantIty of Soyabean =
0.10 x 100 = 28.6kg.
0.35
Quantity of Rice offal=
0.25 x 100 = 71.4kg
0.35

The Algebraic and Pearson Square methods are most useful when
only two ingredients are involved. They are most conunonly used for:
1.
Preparation of supplementary feeds
2.
Combining two ingredients that are to be added to a third
ingredient in the preparation of a supplement
3.
Combining concentrates with home grown grains and by products. Many feed companies do sell concentrates that a
fanner can mix with locally available grains and by-products to
produce a complete feed. If these are available cheaply, it can
save the fanner feed costs significantly.
The formulation of a complete diet from several ingredients that
contain all the nutrients in the right proportions is a complex procedure
(Table 6). Any farmer who wishes to do so should consult an animal
nutritionist for expert advice and assistance.
In general, the approximate proportions of feed ingredients to meet pig
nutrient requirement, based on conventional diets (rations) are known
to be:
Energy Sources ......................................65-75%
Protein Sources.......................................20-25%
CalciumlPhosphorus ..............................2-3%
MineralMtamin plus salt............ ..............1.5-2%

Table 6: Some Ration Formulations from Feedstoffs for Pigs

5.

Feeds for Different Classes of Pigs


As earlier stated, the nutrient requirement of the pig depends
on such factors as age, sex, productive status and environmental
conditions. A discussion of the specific feeding needs of different
classes of pigs is necessary. Table 4 gives a guide on feed
requirements for different classes of pigs based on local experiences
in Nigeria.
i. Creep Ration
When the piglets are between 7-10 days old, provide them with
creep feed from a separate trough to which the dam has no access.
Feed them in very small amounts, fresh little and often at first for the
piglets to be accustomed, then it can be increased according to
appetite. This should continue till the young pigs are at weaning age of
6-9 weeks.
Creep ration though expensive, is necessary for a good start and
should be supplied freely to piglets. An allowance ofO.2kg per animal
per day is considered adequate. Creep feed supplements the
declining milk yield of the sow as her lactation advances. The ration
should contain a crude protein level of about 24% and metabolizable
energy (ME) of 3,1 OOKcal/kg. The quality of protein is of prime
importance, for instance the essential amino acids like lysine,
methionine, cystine, etc must be adequately available.
ii. Weaner Ration
This ration should be gradually introduced before the pigs are
completely weaned at the age of 5 - 8 weeks. The practice allows for
smoother transition. The pigs should have free access to the ration at
all times. The protein content of the weaner ration is slightly lower than
that of creep ration (18-22%) with metabolizable energy at
3,OOOKcalI kg. The fibre content should be higher than that of creep
rations. An allowance of 1.Okg per animal per day is adequate if fed
quality feed.

Weaners should be on this ration till the liveweight of about 34.


Okg 45kg when they should be gradually introduced to grower ration.
iii. Growing Finishing Pig Rations
By the time the growing pig is over with the stress of weaning, its
digestive system will be competent to deal with a wider range of
protein and energy feed sources. About 800./0 of feed used in a pig
unit is consumed by the growing and finishing pigs, therefore the
efficiency of feed utilization during this phase is a crucial factor
affecting profitability.
The grower/finisher ration should have a higher fibre content
than creep and weaners rations. The crude protein content should be
lowered
to 16-18% while the energy should be about 3,OOOKcaJ/kg.
Palatability of feeds should be maintained and liberal feeding is still
recommended since the pigs must grow actively and put on muscle.
An allowance of2. D-2.5kg offeed per animal per day is adequate.
On commercial farms, the main categories of slaughter pigs are:

Porken: which are slaughtered at live weights of up to 65kg

Baconen: which are slaughtered at live weights of 70-90kg

Heavy bogs: which are slaughtered at 9O-140kg live weight.


IV. The Fatteners Ration
At about 57kg live weight, pigs have deposited much of their
muscle tissues and are beginning to deposit fat. However, excessive
fat is not desirable in the carcass. Rations fed at this time should be d~
signed to avoid putting on excessive fat, but must not restrict growth.
Such ration is made up of 15-16% crude protein and is usually high in
fibre, while the energy require ment of3,000Kcal/kg is adequate. The
ration should be less expensive than the ones above. Feeding
allowance of2.0-2.5g per animal per day is recommended. Fattening
is best achieved under total confinement.

V. Breeden Ration
Breeder ration is usually prepared to meet the requirement of the
breeding stock. Good litter size and healthy newborn piglets start with
the correct feeding of the sow at breeding time. Like the boar, she
should be in thrifty condition, neither thin nor fat when bred. This helps
the sow to conceive larger number of piglets when bred. Over fatness
impairs the reproductive capacity of sows and reduces sexual drive in
boars. Crude protein level should be between 15-16% and should be
high in fibre.
vi. Flushing
This is the practice of increasing the level of feed about one week
before mating in order to stimulate an increase in number of ova shed
in sows. This ration should have a higher energy. However, once bred,
the pregnant sow should be returned to the normal ration so as to gain
weight steadily through pregnancy. Feed the breeding stock an
amount of feed equal to 1.5-2% of the body weight. This means a 150
kg sow should receive between 2.25-3kg of feed daily.
The energy intake of breeding stock can be reduced either by
diluting the ration with fibrous-low energy stuffs (e.g. rice bran,
cassava peels, pulps) or by feeding smaller amounts. Feeding diluted
feeds is preferred because it satisfies the appetite. Breeder ration
should be well fortified with vitamins and minerals as deficiencies can
cause reproductive failures. The breeding stock should also have
access to plenty of green leaf herbage-grass and legumes. Sows on
pasture also get good exercise which is vital for their health and easy
farrowing. Silage can also be a good source of vitamins, minerals and
unidentified growth and reproductive factors.

After each farrowing (at least 2 days) sows should be fed 1kg of
rice bran to prevent constipation. The sow can be given less fibrous
and more digestive lactation rations a week after farrowing. Rushing
the sow back into full feed after farrowing is a major cause of low milk
yield 6. Methods of Feeding Pigs
Age and productive function of the animal dictate methods that
are available. Examples are as follows:
a.
Full Feeding: For maximum daily gain, it is usually necessary
to allow the pig access to feed at all times. Many different
designs of feeders can be used, but to minimize feed wastage,
constant attention to feeder adjustment is required. One feeder
should be provided for 46 pigs.
b.
On-Floor Feeding: This is suited particularly to controlled
feeding of finishing swine or the breeding herd. Feeding of pigs
in their sleeping are~ on solid floors encourages cleanness,
since pigs are less inclined to dung in their eating and sleeping
areas.
c.
Internal Feeding: Allowing breeding animals, especially
during gestation. access to a self-feeder every third day is a
labour saving technique. The number of times the animals
should have access to a feeder will depend on the condition
and gain of the animals. Regularity of schedule is important to
prevent undue concern and condition of animals.
d.
Liquid Feeding: This usually involves mixing predetermined
amounts of feed and water prior to or at the time of feeding This
method can eliminate feed dust in the feeding area and
minimize wastage.

HEALTH MANAGEMENT
A disease outbreak in a piggery can have disastrous
consequences The management practices already described, if
carefully followed, will minimize the occurrence of diseases. That
prevention is better than cure is very relevant in the pig industry.
A clean, sanitary environment provides the best prevention for
internal and external parasite which can be serious problems.
Confinement prevents pigs from contaminated fields and dirty lots.
Antihelmintics and other drugs, when properly used, aid in elimination
of parasites. Antibiotics also protect pigs against disease proliferations
and reduce disease outbreaks. They can also promote growth in pigs
when given at recommended levels. For diseases that can be
prevented through vaccination, a Veterinarian should be contacted to
provide such services routinely.
A basic knowledge of the main diseases which may affect a pig
herd is necessary so that a producer can diagnose the condition and
implement control measures as quickly, as possible. Some of the
common parasites and diseases that affect pigs are highlighted below:
1. Parasites: These are organisms which live on and obtain food from
the body of another, known as the host. They can live on the body (
external parasites) or within the internal tissues and organs (internal
parasites) of the animals.
External parasites mainly cause irritation to the skin surface,
often leading to wounds and increased susceptibility to other
infections. Some of the common external parasites are flies, ticks, lice,
mangemites, etc.
The internal parasites are more common to pigs on free-range..
An example is the round worm (Ascaris Lumbricoides) which causes
lots of damage to pig herds. The round worm can grow up to 300mm
long and 6mm thick in the small intestine. Heavy infestation leads to
inherit in piglets, weakness and loss of weight.

The other harmful worms include tapeworms, e.g. Taenia


So/ium, which has the pig as its intermediate host, while the adult wonn
lives in man. Pigs become infected by picking up eggs from human
faeces and the larvae then encyst in the pigs muscle.
To prevent worm infestation in pig herds, avoid contaminated
water and feeds. Clean and remove faeces always, deworm with
broad spectrum antihelminthics as recommended by your
Veterinarian.
2. Hog Cholera: This is a highly contagious and acute viral disease of
pigs and is frequently fatal. The spread is by animal contact,
contaminated urine and faeces or other body secretions.
Symptoms:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.

Loss of appetite in affected animals.


Inflammation of the eyes.
High body temperature.
Severe diarrhea.
Discharge in the eye causing eyelids to stick together.
Trembling and incoordination.
Death often results after 7-8 days.

Control: There is no effective treatment except vaccination


progranune to be instituted if there is danger of hog cholera infection.
Avoid contact with infected animals.
3. African Swine Fever: This is also a very contagious viral disease
which in acute fonn can cause up to 100% mortality.
Symptoms:
i.
Pigs are found huddling together.
ii.
Loss of appetite.

iii.
iv.

Small purplish blotches found on the skin.


Incoordination and laboured breathing. Hemorrhages
at the trotters which can lead to lameness.
The disease is spread by bush pigs and warthog which are carriers
of the virus though are themselves immune to the disease. Infection
occurs by contact with other sick pigs or through contaminated food
or water. This disease almost wiped out pigs in Nigeria between
1996 - 2000. Control: Infected pigs should be destroys and properly
disposed off. There is no effective vaccine as at now.
4. Swine Influenza: It is a respiratory disease that is highly contagious,
caused by the influenza virus. Stress due to rapid changes in
temperature triggers off the disease. Mortality is normally low but it is of
great economic importance due to stunting and reduced live weight
gains.
Symptoms: Jerky breathing, cough, high temperature, loss of appetite
and rough hair coat appearance. Secondary infection with bacteria
complicates the condition.
Control: No treatment or preventive vaccine available, but good
farm management and avoidance of stress can limit outbreak.
5. Transmissible Gastroenteritis (TGE): This viral disease is
characterised by acute diarrhoea., vomiting and early death in
young piglets. The disease can also affect older pigs but rarely
results in death.
Control: There is no known effective treatment, but infected pigs
can be isolated or killed and buried. The herd is normally immuned
after infection.
6. Enteric Colibacillosis: This is the most common cause of death in
baby pigs, especially within the first ten days. The bacterium Enteric
Colibacilosis (E. Coli) commonly found in the intestinal tract causes
the disease.

Toxins are produced which stimulated a massive fluid loss into the
small intestine leading to scours and dehydration.
Symptoms:
i. Scouring.
ii. Dehydration.
iii. High mortality rate.
iv. Staggering movement.
Control:
i. Avoid stressful condition.
ii. Give oral administration of antibiotic immediately. iii.
Ensure good farm management.
iv. Proper feeding of balanced ration.
v. Piglets must be given colostrum.
7. Salmonellosis: It is a disease of the intestinal tract caused by
salmonella Spp. of bacteria. Pigs of about two months are most
affected. Heavy worm infection triggers it off.
Symptoms:
i. Foul smelling diarrhoea.
ii. Pigs become gaunt.
iii. High temperature in affected pigs.
iv. Some deaths usually occur in a group of infected pigs.
Control:
i Ensure good management.
ii. Practice high level of sanitation.
iii. Feeding of antibiotics and sulpha
drugs.
8. Erysipelas: This is caused by a bacterium agent which lives in the
soil. Pigs can pick up the agent from soil or by animal contact and even
humans. In the acute form, sudden death is common.

Symptoms:
i. Sick pigs show marked constipation.
ii. High temperature (41-420C).
iii. Reddish - purplish discoloration of the earst
abdomen and
legs.
iv. Chronic stage leads to arthritis swollen joints, stiffness and
heart damage. Control: Routine vaccination programme is
recommended and once the disease is diagnosed treat immediately
with antibiotics.
MARKETING AND PROCESSING
1. Marketing:
The ability to market pigs at the right time is a major determining
factor to the success of commercial pig production. A recent
international conference on pig production in Nigeria identified
marketing as the number one constraint to increased commercial pig
production. It is true that the small holder who owns less than ten pigs
and sells only one occasionally does not have a marketing problem but
once you have to sell many animals at a time marketing considerations
must be paramount. The bulk of pigs in the tropics are marketed live.
There are basically, four market outlets as listed below:
a. Private Sales: These involve selling of one or more pigs to
localconsumers, other pig producers, butchers or middlemen. The
pig~ are sold live and prices are normally subject to bargaining. This
method is most common among rural small-scale producers. It has the
advantage of being the simplest. To ensure adequate prices for pig
farmers, marketing cooperatives are recommended.

b. Public Sales: In these methods, pigs are taken to a central p l a c e ,


where they are sold by auction on live basis to the highest bidder.
c. Direct Sales to Butcher: Here, the pigs are sold to the butcher
directly by the producer without middle men. The method is more
applicable to the large scale producers. Fluctuations in prices can be
serious problem in this system of pig marketing.
d. Contract Sales: Under this system, contract is entered into with an
abattoir to supply a certain number of pigs over a period of time at a
set price. This condition allows the producer to plan his production
strategy over a fairly long period of time. Fluctuation in input prices
however, can be a problem in this system.
2. Kafanchan Pig Market
The Kafanchan pig market is the largest of its kind in Nigeria.
The market is located in Aduwan and Katsit on the outskirt of
Kafanchan town. The position of the market is centrally located to serve
the surrounding towns of Kwoi, Manchok, Kagoro, Zonkwa, Kachia,
etc. in the southern part of Kaduna State. This region is known for its
high pig production in Nigeria.
The pig market holds every Thursday of the week, starting from
as early as 6.30 a.m. till sun set. Pigs are usually transported a day
before the market day. Transportation of pigs could either be by
trekking with the pigs roped and carried along or by vehicle where and
when available. Pig owners ensure that transportation of their animals
is done late in the evening or early hours of the day to avoid heat stress.
Pig selling is the sole business of the market except for food items to
meet the needs of traders. Purchase of pig or pigs is done by bargain
pricing. The highest bidder buys the pig. Traders to this market come
from as far as the Eastern and Southern parts of Nigeria.

3. Sources of Piglets:
For purchase of piglets, the farmer stands at an advantage if he
buys from accredited farms such as University Farms, colleges of
Agriculture, Animal Research institutes or other private pig producers.
If this is not possible, piglets then can be bought from open markets
like the one in Kafanchan.
4. Processing:
The ability of the pig industry to market large quantities of pork is a
necessary condition for the commercial growth of the industry.
Processing outfits are capable of buying many animals at a time,
process them into different products and distribute these products to
any part of the world. Furthermore, processing makes it possible to
harness all the by-products and convert to other uses as:
* Brisdes - for use in shaving and paint brushes.
* Intestines - for use as sausage casings.
* Blood - can be processed into human food or animal feed.
* Slaughter house by-products - processed into animal feed.
* Hoofs-used for gelatin and glue products. All these are usually
wasted under the prevailing pig marketing and slaughtering conditions
in the tropics.
5. Transportation:
Care must be taken while transporting pigs to the market or slaughter
house. Excessive stress on the pig can lead to mortality in transit.
a. Pigs to be transported should not be fed 12 hours before loading
b. Provide a loading ram if many pigs are to be transported at once to
the market. The loading ram should be properly designed to be at
the same height with the cart, truck or trailer.

c. Handle pigs with uttermost care


d. Spray with cold water before loading, if possible. e. L o a d a n d
travel early in the morning for short journeys or in the evening for all
night journeys. This is to ensure that journeys are made during the
cooler parts of the day.
f.
The truck to be used should be covered but with provision for
adequate ventilation and bedding on the floor.
g. Avoid mixing pigs of different sizes, ages and herds.
Similar considerations should also apply at the lairage (i.e. where
pigs are held prior to slaughter). The pigs should be handled and
driven with care.
6. Slaughtering:
The standard slaughtering procedure involves:
i. Stunning - Mechanical with a captive bolt pistol or electrical which
involves passing a 1.25 amps current and 300-600 volts for one
second through the brain of the animal.
ii. Bleeding - The stunned animal is hanged on its hind leg on a hoist.
The neck is cut in such a way as to severe all veins. Blood can then be
collected in a clean vessel.
iii. Scalding -Immerse in hot water at 65-75 Degree Centigrade. Once
the hair is loosened, it is cramped with a knife. Excess hair is singed off
with a flame.
iv. Evisceration - To remove the gut, a long cut is made down the belly
of the animal. The entire length of the gut should be removed intact to
avoid contaminating the rest of the carcass. The gut is eviscerated
away from the carcass.
7. Carcass and Meat Quality:
The commercial pork industry has standards for carcasses which
may vary from country to country. However, the basic criteria involve
the following considerations:

Conformation - This refers to the shape of the carcass.


It is desirable to have a carcass that is well developed in the
more valuable meat areas such as the ham and loins.
ii.
Lean Content - The amount of lean meat is a very Im
portant quality factor.
iii
Fattiness - Too much fat in pork is generally not valued. Fat
thickness can be measured even in the live pig and is one of the
criteria often used in selecting animals for breeding.
iv.
Colour and Texture - very pale watery meat is undesirable.
This can occur and is associated with a condition known as pale
soft exudate (PSE) which can result ftom a genetic cause or
poor pre-slaughter handling.
v.
Flavour and Odour-Otf-flavour and odours can arise from
feeding high fishmeal diets or rancid fats. Boar taint can
also occur in the meat of entire males.
8. Pig Meat Products:
The wholesale parts of a carcass are shown in figure 17. In most
tropical countries, all the parts are valuable meat, including the head
and trotters. However, the more meaty portions usually fetch higher
prices e.g. the leg and the chump chop.
The meat can be further processed into the following products:
i. Cured - These constitute the bacons and hams which are cured
in brine. Further flavouring is enhanced by smoking. These
processes increase the shelf-life of the product and therefore
should be promoted in the tropics where refrigeration facilities
are often non-existent.in rural areas.

ii.

Sausages and Pies - These are derived mainly from


trimming and offal that are left after cutting up whole parts.

iii.

Pig Skin - Can be processed into leather or surgical strings.

Fig. 17 Pig carcass showing wholesale parts.

9. Meat Hygiene:
It is important that slaughtering facilities maintain high sanitary
conditions because the products of slaughtered animals provide an
ideal breeding ground for bacteria. The carcass should be chilled
immediately after slaughter.
Refrigeration trucks in good working conditions should be used in
transporting meat over long distances.
It is necessary to provide for meat inspection in slaughter
houses in order to ensure that only healthy meat is approved for sale to
the public. Meat slaughtered on the farm should also be wholesome
and measures taken that no disease is circulated from the dead to the
living.

Appendices.
Appendix 1: Summary of Management Practices.
During Pregnancy:
* Control energy intake, but feed adequate protein.
* De-worm pigs and allow good exercise.
* Pasture with shelter preferred over total confinement.
Breeding Pigs:
* Purchase breeding pigs trom accredited farms.
* Use pigs selected for good genetic potentials.
* Do not use injured animals or those with deformities.
* Keep pigs cool in warm weather and provide dry place to
sleep at night.
* Boars can be used for service trom eight months of age.
* Carry out routine de-worming.
* Sows and gilts should have normal teats of 12 or more.
* Select gilts based on mothers performance.
* Treat pigs for external parasites and isolate sick ones* Mate sows or
gilts at least twice (24hrs. apart) at breeding time.

Farrowing Time:
*Prepare farrowing house in advance, clean and disinfect at
least 7 days before gilts are moved in.
*Allow rest period between farrowing.
*Keep farrowing unit warm.
Keep farrowing unit draft-tree i.e. no air intakes allowing
draft directly on pigs.
*Do not feed on the farrowing day.
Wash and spray gilts or sows with disinfectant prior to far
rowing.
*As part of pre-farrowing care, feed limited feed and laxative feed. *
*Give iron injection to piglets within 2-3 days. * Provide rail guards and
keep record of farrowing.
Lactating Period:
Keep pigs in confinement for good observation and management.
Maintain strict hygiene and keep predators away.
Observe schedule for castration and vaccination, spread over2-3
weeks. Deworm pigs at weaning.
Wean pigs at 7-9 weeks. Under good management 5-6 weeks could
serve.
Feed good creep feed to ensure: fast growth, heavy weaning
weight and uniform litters.
Provide for medication
Growing-finishing Pigs.
Feed balanced ration
Provide adequate housing free of drafts, dampness and dust
Deworm against internal parasites.
Confinement or pasture is good.
Schedule for vaccination should be observed. * Install facilities for
cooling pigs in hot weather.

APPENDIX 2 GLOSSARY:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.

Ad Libitum (Ad lib):- Unrestricted feeding to appetite.


Artificial Insemination (AI):- Collection of semen from boar and
introduction of it at a later stage into sow or gilt by means of a catheter.
Antihelmintic:- Dewormer; a chemical destructive to intestine worms.
Bacon:- Pig meat which has been cured in brine with or without smoking.
Castrate:- To remove the testicles of the pig.
Colostrum:- First milk secreted after sow gives birth, usually higher in
protein and antibodies needed for immunity in newborn pigs.
Dam:- A female pig.
Farrow:- Process of giving birth to a litter of pigs by a mother sow.
Flushing:- Increasing the level of feed just before mating , in order to
stimulate and increase number of eggs shed.
Gestation:- The period from conception to birth of the young.
Gilt:- A young female pig up to the time she produces her first litter.
III.thrift:- Failure to thrive nonnal1y, i.e. showing poor condition.
Lactation:- Period when the sow is producing milk for her young
Libido:- Sexual drive and energy.
Litter:- Set of young pigs born at one time to the mother pig.
Oestrous:- The period during which the female will stand and permit the
male to mate. Also called heat period.
Parturition:- Process of giving birth.
Scour:- Watery diarrhea in pig.
Sire:- The male parent of an animal.
Udder:- A large pendulous milk secreting gland provided with nipples or
teats for baby pigs to suck.
Wallow: To roll about in mud or dirty water to keep cool.
Weaning:- The act of separating the young pigs !Tom their mother.

Appendix 3: An Individual sow record


Sow No. Date served .. Boar No

Due to farrow .. Farrowed.


Total born ..Born alive
Pigs fostered off.. Pigs fostered on ..
Date iron injection
No. pigs weaned . Date weaned
Total litter wt weaned .
Average /weaning wt

Remarks.

Appendix 4: A boar performance record sheet


Born No Date of birthBreed..
Sow
Service
Return
No.
No.
Total litter
No
Date
to
born
weaned mass
service
weaned

Remarks

European Comission

Farmer's Hand Book


on Pig Production
(For the small holders at village level)

GCP/NEP/065/EC

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Contents
Acknowledgements

iii

Introduction

iv

Breeds
Native Breeds
Jangali Bandel / Wild Boar
Pygmi Bandel
Hurra
Chwanche
Banmpudke
Pakhribas Black Pig
Dharane Kalo Banggur
Exotic Breeds
Yorkshire
Landrace
Hampshire
Duroc
Tibetan
Tamworth
Meishan
Crosses between native and exotic for Improvement of local breeds:

1
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
6
6
6

Breeding
Pure-breeding
Out breeding
In breeding
Effect of In-Breeding
Methods of cross breedy:
Cross breeding
Effect of Cross Breeding
Effect of Negative Selection
Best Breeding Practices to be Adopted in the Villages
Selection of Breeding Gilt
Selection of Breeding Boar
Heat detection - Common signs of heat

9
9
9
10
10
12
12
13
14
15
16
16
17
Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

1st stage: Early heat signs


2nd stage: Service period signs
3rd stage: Post oestrus-period signs
How to induce heat - Recommended practices
Stimulating regular heat
When sow is in gestation
Culling
Assistance
Reasons for not conceiving
Care and Management of breeding Boar
Care and Management of breeding Boar
Care and Management of breeding Sow
Minimum Breeding Ages for Boars and Gilts
Care and Management of New Born Piglets
Feeding piglets whose mother does not produce enough milk
Colostrums Substitute
Teeth Trimming
Anaemia or Iron deficiency
Tail Cutting
Heating for Piglets
Creep feeding
Rearing motherless piglets
Feeding program
Feeding program for orphan piglets
Weaning
Selection of Replacement
Culling of sows
Castration
Castration - step by step
Pigs Digestive Systems

Feeding
Anatomy of the Digestive System
What you can feed to your pig?
What you cannot feed to you pig?
Formulation feed
Traditional pig feeds
Traditional feed processing
Feeding Forest Products
Feeding Alcohol distilling residues
vi

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

17
17
17
18
18
19
19
21
22
22
23
24
24
25
26
26
26
27
28
28
28
28
29
29
29
29
30
31
32
33

33
33
34
34
35
36
42
43
43

Daily Fee requirements


Feeder trough size
Drinkers
Elements for a good housing

44
45
46
47

Housing Management
How to keep a healthy pig
Effect of bad housing
Selection of housing locations
Construction plan for a good pig house/shed
Space requirement for pigs
Different models/types of pig house/sheds.
Parasitic diseases
Internal parasites (Worms)

47
48
49
49
50
51
52
55
55

Disease and Parasite


The Location of parasites
Roundworm
Tapeworm
External parasites
Mange
Lice
Myiasis
Deworming
Anaphrodisias
Leptospirosis

55
55
56
57
58
58
59
60
61
63
63

Reproductive Disorders and Diseases


Brucellosis
Uterine Prolapsed
Mastitis
Endometritis (bacteria)
Prevention and treatment
Diseases and Disorders of Digestive Tract
Scouring
Birth diarrhoea
Red diarrhoea or clostridial enteritis
Transmissible Gastroenteritis
Fat diarrhea
Post diarrhea

63
64
64
65
65
66
66
66
66
66
67
67
68
Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

vii

Salmonellosis
Swine Dysentery
Post weaning syndrome (oedema disease)
Diseases of the Respiratory Tract
Influenza
Pleural Pneumonia
Atrophic rhinitis (inflammation of the nose)
Pasteurellosis
Porcine Respiratory and Reproductive Syndrome (PRRS)
Disease Causing Problems in Walking
Arthritis
Streptococcal infections
Greasy Pig Disease
Nutritional Disorders
Anaemia
Other Diseases
Foot and mouth disease (FMD)
Swine fever/Hog cholera
Anthrax
Vaccination Schedule for Pigs

References

viii

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

68
68
69
69
69
70
70
70
71
71
71
72
72
72
72
73
73
73
74
74

75

Breeds
Native Breeds
Native breeds of pig can be found throughout the country. They are a small body
size compared to other exotic and crosses pig types. There name varies from region
to region, for example: Jangali Bandel / Wild Boar, Pygmi Bandel, Hurra, Banmpudke,
Chwanche, Pakhribas Black Pig and Dharane Kalo Banggur. Their short description
is given below.

Jangali Bandel / Wild Boar


Found in the wild throughout the country, for the commercial production to receive
seed Rs 10,000 per piglet to be paid to the National Park and Wild Life Conservation
Department of Nepal.
Height ; 90 95 cm, Weight; 200 - 250
kg
Color; Brown black with thick hair on
the body
Herd comprises ; 6 30 heads up to 3
generation, Conceive Oct Dec,
Farrowing Feb April, Gestation
period 115 days, Litter size; 4 6,
Piglets look very different in
appearance and in color strips at an
early stage.

Pygmi Bandel
Found in throughout northern India,
Bhutan, and Nepal. Smallest, adult males
average 65 cm long and 25 cm tall.
Females are slightly smaller. Males average
8.5 kg in weight. Their coats have blackishbrown bristles over gray-brown skin.
Reproduction is seasonal, and the birth
peak coincides with the monsoon in late
April and May. Gestation is approximately
100 days and litters size 2 to 6, sexual
Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

maturity at 13 to 33 months and live 10 to 12 years in the wild. Small family 5 to 20


members, it was placed in the Endangered category according to IUCN in 1960. Found
in the wild, but for the commercial production to receive seed, Rs 10000 per piglet to
be paid to the National Park and Wild Life Conservation Department of Nepal.

Hurra
Found in throughout Terai of Nepal. Kept
under scavenging systems. Their coats
have brown bristles on the neck portion.
Reached adultery at 226 days. Average
litter size is 5.72 and weaning size is
5.14 with birth weight 700gm. Matured
males average 45 and female 49 kg live
weight. Resistance to several diseases
and parasites.

Chwanche
Found in across the mid hills of Nepal.
Kept under semi-intensive systems.
Mostly found in black color. Reached
adultery at 219 days. Gestation period
is 114 days with farrowing interval of
222days. Average litter size is 7.33 and
weaning size is 6.0 with birth weight
800 gm. Matured males average 24 and
female 32 kg live weight. Resistance to
several diseases and parasites

Banmpudke
Bampudke is the domesticated form
of Jangali Bandel. Known as smallest
domesticated breed of pig. Color
varies red brownish to black. Reached
adultery at 187 days. . Gestation period
is 114 days with farrowing interval of
138 days. Average litter size is 4.7 and
weaning size is 3.4 with birth weight
650 gm. Matured males average 20 and
female 19 kg live weight. Resistance to
several diseases and parasites


Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Pakhribas Black Pig


The Pakhribas Black Pig was Developed
at Pakhribas Agriculture Centre
Dhankuta Nepal through three ways
crossing between Saddleback, Fayun
and Tamworth. Black in color. Average
litter size is 9.4 and birth weight is 1.0 kg.
Matured male average 170 and female
160 kg live weight. Resistance to several
diseases and parasites, and superior over
other local breeds.

Dharane Kalo Banggur


Black pig found in the eastern terai
and hills of Nepal. Long body, large
ear dropping upward. Highly prolific,
average litter size 8 10 with high
weaning rate. Resistance to several
disease and parasites. Easily reared on
locally available feed resources and crop
by products. Perfect for semi-intensive
systems.

Exotic Breeds
The most common pig breeds for commercial pig production are the Yorkshire,
Landrace, Hampshire, Duroc, and Tibetan, Tamworth and Meishan breeds and their
crosses. These breeds produce lean meat combined with efficient feed conversion
(3 kg of good feed is needed to produce 1 kg of pork). Compared to local pig
breeds, these commercial breeds are less resistant to diseases and suffer more from
hot weather and low quality feeds. Pure exotic breeds generally do not perform
well in rural pig production systems in Nepal.

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Yorkshire
Yorkshire: white, long body, erect ears,
good mothers, live weight of a mature
male 300 450 and female 250 - 350 kg.
High prolificacy, with a litter size of 12,
weaning percent of > 70, and 7 pairs of
teats.
Widely used for upgrading local breeds

Landrace
Landrace: white, large drooping ears,
long body, good mothers. One of the
newest breeds of a Danish origin.
They are noted for having the highest
number of pigs per litter, average live
weight of matured male is 310 400 kg
and female is 250 330 kg.
Good for Bacon production. High
prolificacy, average litter size of 11 with a good weaning rate.

Hampshire
Hampshire: black, white belt, muscular.
Average live weight of matured male 300
kg and female is 250 kg.
Good for Bacon production.
High prolificacy, with a litter size of 9 with
high weaning rate.

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Duroc
Duroc: red, muscular, partially drooping
ears, desirable as sires.
They grow the fastest out of all the other
breeds. Average live weight of matured
male 300 kg and female is 250 kg.
High prolificacy, with a litter size of 9 with
high weaning rate.

Tibetan
The Tibetan breed of pig is especially
adapted to the high hills, cold climate
and to being on pasture all year round. It
is characterized by:
Light body weight (mature wt about 35
kg .)
Black hair coat, with long and dense
bristles
Highly developed digestive organs; the length of the intestine is about 36 times its
own body length.
Ability to deposit fat in the body. The internal and visceral fat is about 15 percent of
bodyweight.
Muscles with a marble appearance and meat with a special flavor.
Low prolificacy, with average litter size of 5, weaning percent of 69, and 5 pairs of
teats.

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Tamworth
Tamworth: Ginger, golden red to dark
red colored breed with a long head,
prick ears, a straight face and snout,
and a long, narrow body.
Mature boar may weigh 245 265 kg and
sow 200 300 kg. They produce smaller
litters than other commercial breeds. .

Meishan
The Meishan breed of pig was developed
in China and characterized by:
A black colored breed with short legs, big
stomach, deep back and very ugly face
are the major visible features.
Very high prolificacy, with a litter size of
14 -17 with average birth weight 900gm,
weaning of 11 - 12, and having 8-9 pairs
of teats.
Daily weight gain is 300 400 gm with FCR 5:1. An adult male weight about 450 kg
and female weight 350 kg average.
This breed is found in eastern Nepal.

Crosses between native and exotic for Improvement of local breeds:


Breed improvement is important in obtaining improved and high yielding animals.
The main purpose of breed improvement is to introduce a positive characteristic
into a local breed. For example: by crossbreeding an indigenous sow with an exotic
boar; the offspring is likely to inherit the body shape and good growth rate from its
father and the tolerance to environmental stress from its mother.

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Cross breed between Exotic and local


breed

Cross breed between Yorkshire and local


breed ( Chwanche )

Cross breed between wild boar and


local breed ( Hurra )

Cross breed between Exotic and local


breed ( Hurra )

Cross breed between local and landrace.

Cross breed between Chinese landrace


and local breed
Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Breeding
Pure-breeding
Mating purebred individuals of the same breed. The progeny has the same genetic
makeup. The major objective of pure-breeding is to identify and propagate
superior genes for use in commercial production primarily in crossbreeding
programs as well as to propagate and identify superior females for maintaining
valuable genetic material. Furthermore crossbreeding will not be worthwhile
unless superior pure bred individuals are used.

Yorkshire Male

Yorkshire Female

Out breeding
Mating individuals of the same breed but who are less closely related than the
average of the breed. There should not be a common ancestor for at least four
generation back in the pedigree of the boar and the females with which he is
mated. It is a useful mating system in purebred individuals.

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Landrace Male ;
American

Landrace Female;
British

Piglets born

In breeding
Mating between individuals of the same breed but which are more closely related
than the average of the breed. This could be between as close individuals as full
sibs or sire daughter, mother - son. Pure breeding is a special kind of in-breeding.
The effect of inbreeding is the concentration of common genes in the offspring.
This high frequency of homozygous gene pairs applies to both desirable and
undesirable traits. Many undesirable traits e.g. hernia and cryptorchidism involve
recessive genes thus inbreeding perpetuates their expression phenotypically. In
breeding causes decrease in litter size and increases mortality. Inbred sows are
inferior in milking and mothering ability. It delays sexual maturity in gilts and boars.
Inbred boars have less sexual libido. Inbred gilts have fewer eggs during oestrus
and farrow smaller litters than those out bred.

Effect of In-Breeding
Sow with newly borne litters about 12 piglets.
Male and Female piglets taken by another farmers to his home.
Breeding between the same siblings.
Female giving birth about 9 piglets

10

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

About 25 % less no of smaller and weak piglets are born as compared with first
sow and some of them were borne dead
Male and Female piglet taken by another farmers to his home
Breeding between the same siblings about six piglets.
About 50 % less no of vey smaller and weak piglets born as compared with the
first sow, some of them were borne dead

Male

Female
Breeding between full sibling

Less and Smaller piglets born


Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

11

F1

F2

Cross breeding
Mating two individuals from different breeds thus introducing into the progeny a
gene combination that is different from that existing in either parent or in the breed
of either parent. Cross breeding can involve two or more breeds, depending on
the desired result. The sole purpose of cross breeding is to take advantage of the
observed improvement in performance of the progeny above that of either parent
- hybrid vigour or heterosis.

Methods of cross breedy


1: Cross Breeding Between Unidentified Breeds;

Male

Male

12

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Female

Female

Male

2: Cross Breeding Between Unidentified Breeds;

Hampshire Female

Duroc Male

Cross bread piglets borne from Hampshire and Duroc

Effect of Cross Breeding

Local sow with her piglets


Exotic sow with her piglets
Female piglet from local sow and Male piglet from exotic sow are taken by a
farmer to his home for breeding propose
Breeding between these male and female pig
Healthy and bigger body size piglets are born from the local sow
All male piglets are sold and few selected crossed bread female are kept for
breeding
Another exotic male which is not in relation with the herd introduced for
breeding.
Breeding between them
Very healthy, strong, active and fast growing piglets are born

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

13

Hampshire Female

Landrace Male

Piglets borne from crosses between Hampshire and


Landrace

Effect of Negative Selection

14

Sow with newly borne litters about 12 piglets.


Stronger and healthy piglets were either sold or castrated for meat purpose
Smaller and weak Male and Female piglets kept for breeding purpose.
Breeding between the same siblings.
Female giving birth about 9 piglets
About 25 % less no of smaller and weak piglets are born as compared with first
sow and some of them were borne dead
Among the piglets stronger and healthy either sold for cash or castrated for
meat and smaller and weak are kept for breeding purpose.

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Breeding between the same siblings about 6 piglets.


About 50 % less, smaller and weak piglets born as compared with the first sow,
some of them will borne dead.

Best Breeding Practices to be Adopted in the Villages


Best pig breeding pruchees adapted in the villagee. ( Breeding boar exchange
between villages / farmers grops.)

For crossbreeding; male piglet exchanged between villages. Every year breeding
male must be changed with un-related herd to avoid inbreeding problems.

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

15

Selection of Breeding Gilt


It is extremely important to select a good boar since it contributes half the quality
of the herd. Areas to be consider while selecting breeding Gilt:
Gilts selected to have at least 12 teats so as to accommodate a large litter
Gilts to be selected from sows, which wean 9 -10 or more piglets per litter and
are known to be good mothers and first farrowing at one year of age and
farrowing interval of seven month.
Select breeding gilts at weaning period, further selection should be done 5-6
months of age.
Select fast growing weaners. These will likely consume less feed per unit live
weight gain. Thus less costly to keep.
Select gilts which have developed
hams and comparatively light heads.
The selected gilts should have good
body confirmation i.e. strong legs,
sound feet etc.
1 2 3 4
Year
6 Month 5
Gilt should not select for breeding
6
purpose having supernumerary and
inverted teats, and fat deposited at
1
2
the base of the teats
6
5 4 3
Guilt must be at least 8 months old at
first service.
Age to breed gilts
Weight of breed gilts
Length of heat period
Best time to breed in heat period
Number of services per sow
Period of oestrous cycle
Occurrence of heat after weaning
Gestation period

Selection of Breeding Boar


It is extremely important to select a good
boar since it contributes half the quality
of the herd. Areas to be consider while
selecting breeding Boar:
Boar to have sound feet with good,
full hams, uniform curve at the back
and of good length.
16

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

8 months
100-120 kg
2-3 days
Gilts first day and Sows- Second day
2 services at an interval of 12-14 hours
18-24 days (Average 21 days)
2-10 days
114 days

Boar to have at least 12 nicely placed rudimentary teats so as to pass on this


characteristic.
Boar to be selected from sows, which wean 8 -10 or more piglets per litter and
are known to be good mothers.
Boar to be selected from the herd which is having normal sex organs, active,
healthy and strong.
Selection to be done before castration i.e. at 4 weeks. Select biggest from the
litter.
Boar must be at least 8 months old at first service.

Heat detection - Common signs of heat


1st stage: Early heat signs
General restlessness
Vulva turns red and is swollen
White mucus discharge

2nd stage: Service period signs


Real Oestrus lasts for 40 - 60 hours
Vulva becomes less red and swollen
Slimy mucus discharge
Tendency to mount and be mounted by others.
The sow or gilt will stand still when pressure is applied to her back (can accept a
man's weight sitting on her. Thus the right stage to send her to the boar).

3rd stage: Post oestrus-period signs

The sow/gilt will not stand still when pressure is applied to her back.
The swelling of the vulva disappears.

Red Swollen Vulva


in gilt.

Stage - 1

Stage - 2
Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

17

Standing test
in estrous sow

Stage - 2

How to induce heat - Recommended practices


After farrowing, a sow may be slow to come into heat. Here are a few methods
used by farmers to induce heat:
Gently stroke the sows vagina with a freshly cut papaya stalk every morning for
3-5 days.
Spray the sows (or gilts) pen with boar urine every morning for 3-5 days.
Grind 1 kg of fresh or dried lotus (Semen nelumbinis) seeds. Mix with 20 kg of
dry feed. Feed to the sow twice a day for 5-7 days.
Bring the sow to the boar, or place the sow in a pen next to the boar.
Put the sow with the boar for a short period every day when the heat is
expected.
Always take the sow to the boar. This is less upsetting for him.
Put the sow and boar together just before feeding.
During her 24-hour pick heat period allow the boar to serve twice, with an
interval of about 12-14 hour intervals between services. Do not mate animals
during the hot time of day.
If the sow doesn't conceive, she will return on heat again in about 3-week's time.
10 days before service, give the sow/gilt 1 - 2 kg of feed extra per day. Continue
this for one week after service.
During the last month of pregnancy, give 0.5 kg extra feed per day but decrease
this gradually one week before farrowing. Provide plenty of water to help
prevent congested gut during farrowing.
Each boar should be kept in its own pen to avoid fighting. For mating, the sow
is taken to the boar.

Stimulating regular heat


Remove the sow from the piglets early (at 4 - 6 weeks of age) and all at once.
Take the sow to a house with dry sows.
Put the sow close to a boar, in a way that makes direct contact (hear , see, smell)
possible.

18

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

The sow should not be given any feed on the day of weaning.
The next day feed about 4 kg/day. This is called flushing and should be done for
a maximum of 10 days or until the service takes place.
Put the sows in groups (stress stimulates heat)
If there are heat problems, change the type of feed for a few days.
Maintain a good climate; see to it that there is sufficient light in the house.
Sows should not be too fat or too thin when they are served. It is important to
keep this in mind when determining the ration during the suckling period.

When sow is in gestation


after 21 days of serving she does not show heat signs
Echo scan pregnancy detection 23 - 35 days, positive results

Culling
Sows that are difficult to get in-pig (pregnant) which only manage to rear small
litters should be sold off.
Boars which are infertile or moderately infertile should be culled

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

19

Breeding Behaviour expresed during breedy period.

Approach

Sniffing of genitalia

Champing
Courting song
Head to Head
Mounting attempt
Sniffing of genitalia

Refusal of male mounting

Pursit nosing flanks courting song

Mounting copulation
Immobility response

standing

20

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

First mating between 10 22 hrs of estrus

Second mating 22 40 hrs of estrus

Assistance
Young boars may need assistance in
lining up their mate. Make sure your
hands and wrists are clean and your
fingernails are trimmed.
Pigs mate slowly. The boar may take
a minute or more to reach the point
of ejaculation.

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

21

To improve conception: Crush 1 kg of Semen nelumbinis (lotus) seed and mix


with the sows feed. Give 2 times per day for 3-5 days.
Fat sows may have difficulty conceiving. Therefore, if a sow is too fat, reduce her
feed.

Reasons for not conceiving


The sow is too fat.
It is the animals first heat cycle.
The boar is too young.
The boar is overworked (used for more than five matings a week).

Too big male

Similar body size

Too small male

Similar body size

Care and Management of breeding Boar


High priority should be given to the management of animals newly introduced
into the breeding herd to achieve maximum reproductive efficiency. Good
reproductive and nutritional management pays dividends through an increased
number of pigs farrowed live and weaned. The following boar and gilt
management practices will assist in the maximization of fertility and longevity.
Upon completion of test, boars should be fed at a level of energy that will
prevent excessive fat deposition. This practice should help ensure that they are

22

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

physically adept and sexually active. Nutrients other than energy should be
provided to meet the minimum daily recommended allowance of the National
Research Council. See Appendix A for details.
Boars tested individually or in small groups in close confinement should be
managed upon completion of the test in a manner to develop physical
hardening and to stimulate sexual arousal and libido. Where possible, this
should be done before delivery to their new owners and might include the
following: a) Shifting boars to different locations. b) Providing fence-line contact
with cycling females. This may be especially important where the
aggressiveness of the boars precludes mixing them together.
Although boars tested in large groups and in less confined settings are likely to
require less physical conditioning and sexual stimulation before use, they may
also benefit from exposure to the management procedures described for boars
reared in close confinement.

Care and Management of breeding Boar


To be evaluated for reproductive soundness, boars should be at least 7 1/2
months of age. The evaluation should be completed before the breeding period
so problem boars can be identified and culled. Boars should be evaluated on the
following criteria.
Mating behavior may be evaluated by bringing a gilt in standing heat into the
boar's pen and observing the following:
Libido: Observe the boar's aggressiveness and desire to mate. Boars may
need assistance through at least one mating experience.
Mounting: Boars must have the ability to mount correctly. Some boars may
be interested in mounting but lameness, arthritis, or injury may prevent
success. Boars that mount the front end of gilt should be gently moved to the
proper position.
Mating: Observe the boar's ability to erect the penis and properly enter the
gilt. Examine the boar's penis for normal size and condition. Penis
abnormalities encountered occasionally are: (1) adhered or tied penis, (2)
limp penis, (3) infantile penis, and (4) coiling of the penis in the diverticulum.
These conditions may be heritable, and boars exhibiting these problems
should not be used to produce breeding stock.
Semen. A few boars fail to produce sperm cells. Hence, semen from young boars
should be submitted to a check. The simplest way to collect semen from a boar is
to allow the boar to mount a gilt in standing heat. First place a rubber glove (latex)
on one hand and after the boar begins to extend his penis, grasp firmly the
corkscrew end of his penis and bring the penis gradually forward once extended
ejaculation begins. Collect the entire ejaculate into a wide-mouth container

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

23

covered with a double layer of cheesecloth to separate the gel fraction. The
volume of semen obtained is quite variable between boars but averages generally
between 200-250 milliliters (about 1 cup). If the sperm concentration is high, the
semen will be milky in appearance. Boars with watery or bloody semen should be
evaluated by a reproduction specialist. Usually 70 to 80 percent of the sperm
should be motile immediately after collection. Low sperm motility is not a serious
matter unless the condition persists for several months. Boars that produce semen
with no sperm or only a few sperm should be rechecked several times at weekly
intervals. If the condition persists, the boar should be culled. The first ejaculate of a
new boar may not provide an accurate test and should not be used for evaluation.
Test Mating. To complete the soundness evaluation, two or three gilts should
be bred and carefully checked as to whether they return to estrus within 4
weeks. Exposure to conditions or microorganisms on the new farm may have
produced temporary infertility. High environmental temperatures, stress of
transportation, illness, lameness, or injuries causing high body temperature can
alter sperm motility and reduce fertility for up to 8 weeks.

Care and Management of breeding Sow


At the end of the test, energy intake of selected gilts should be restricted to
prevent overweight conditions. Nutrients other than energy should be provided
to meet the minimum daily recommended allowances of the National Research
Council (Appendix A).
Moving gilts to new pens, increased exercise, and daily exposure to boars
beginning between 160 and 180 days of age will help stimulate the onset of
estrus. Breeding should be delayed until the second or third estrus to increase
the probability of large litters and prevent dystocia. Gilts that do not conceive
after mating at two estrous periods should be marketed. Likewise, gilts that
have not expressed heat by 9 months of age should be culled. During gestation,
gilts should be fed to gain about 75 lb and not become overly fat.

Minimum Breeding Ages for Boars and Gilts

24

In order for the seed stock producer to measure performance to acceptable offtest weights, delivery of boars and gilts to the buyer is seldom earlier than 5.5
months of age. Sexual maturity and reproductive performance also are highly
age dependent. The minimum age for successful breeding in boars is 7.5
months. Gilts should be bred on the second or third heat to take advantage of
the expected increase in ovulation rate that usually occurs following puberty.

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Care and Management of New Born Piglets


A few minutes after the birth the
umbilical cord may be pulled gently away
or cut if necessary (to about 5 cm length).
After birth, the navel of each piglet
should be soaked in a cup of iodine
solution to prevent inflammation and
tetanus. Each piglet should be rubbed
carefully, dry with a cloth.
The navel of a piglet being dipped in iodine solution

Newly born piglets being assisted to suckle

Make sure the piglets are able to suck from


the udder as soon as possible after birth.
Their sucking will encourage the sow to let
down her milk. Weak piglets may need to
be assisted .It is important that the piglets
immediately take advantage of the first
milk called colostrums. Colostrums should
be taken by all the piglets on the same
day they are born. If taken at this time the
colostrums is able to protect the piglets
against diseases.

After the first one or two days, the


digestive system of the piglets breaks
down the colostrum and its ability to
protect from diseases is lost.
The piglets can be given additional
feed of goat or cow's milk, or a
mashed bean porridge to which a
little sugar has been added. If the milk
produced by the sow is too little to
meet the needs of the piglets or the
A sow with her two-day-old piglets resting after
suckling
sow completely neglects the piglets,
they should be put on another sow or reared on cow or goat's milk.

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

25

Feeding piglets whose mother does not produce enough milk


If the sow does not produce enough milk the piglets should be given to another
sow which farrowed or gave birth up to three days before. This sow should have
fewer piglets than the number of teats on her udder. This is because the teats
which are not being used by piglets dry off after three days. Piglets normally
take control of one teat at birth and continue to feed from it until they are
weaned. Transfer extra piglets to the sow with fewer piglets after disguising
them with a spray which has a strong smell e.g. engine oil/kerol diluted with
water to last at least 1 or 2 days.
All piglets should be sprayed as soon as introduction is done so that the foster
mother doesn't recognize its own as foreigners. If there is no sow to take over
feeding the piglets, they will have to be given extra food by hand. Goat or cow's
milk can be given to the piglets in the same way as for motherless or orphaned
piglets.

Colostrums Substitute
Colostrums Substitute is a complete
nutritional colostrums substitute for
newborn piglets containing sources of live,
viable natural-occurring micro-organisms
that need to be substituted when sufficient
amounts of colostrums are not available to
the piglets because of poor milk letdown
or when the sow will not allow the piglets
to nurse.
Colostrums Substitute may be frozen, as a powder, for longer shelf life. It is highly
recommended that all breeders and rescuers have Pet Pig Colostrums Substitute on
hand during farrowing in case of emergency.

Teeth Trimming
It is usually necessary to trim the piglets'
teeth to prevent them biting the udder.
The piglets are born with needle sharp
teeth which may injure the sow's udder
and prevent the sow from letting the
piglets suckle. The piglets would then
be left to starve. Only the points of the
teeth should be removed. If any more is
26

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

The needle-sharp
teeth of piglets
being trimmed

removed there is a risk of damaging the


mouth. When trimming the teeth the
tongue of the piglets should be rolled
back to avoid injuring it.

A teeth trimmer

Anaemia or Iron deficiency


Oral Iron Supplement
Oral Iron Supplement is an iron supplement for newborns. The manufacturing of
Oral Iron Supplement uses a special, chelated process that bonds the available iron,
thus allowing the piglets system to safely absorb the iron in order to raise and
maintain adequate iron levels.
The ideal method of administering Oral Iron Supplement, to the newborn piglet,
is to rub the liquid iron onto the udder of sow. When the piglets move from teat to
teat they will slowly absorb the iron thus reducing the chances of any toxic reaction
due to excessive amounts of iron. No injections are required when using Oral Iron
Supplement thereby eliminating chance of toxic reaction due to iron dextran.
Anaemia is caused by iron deficiency. This iron is needed for the formation of
haemoglobin. This is an important problem, especially for young piglets kept
indoors. At birth the piglets have about 50mg of iron in their body. They receive
additional 1-2 mg/day from milk while they need 7mg during the first week. It is
obvious that the quantity of iron decreases rapidly and if not supplemented. The
piglets become very pale a few weeks after birth and their growth slows down.

Iron injection solution

This can be prevented by:


Giving the piglet (3 and 10 days after birth) iron injection (1 and 2 ml
respectively) IM preferably at neck muscles.
Oral iron- paste containing iron is put in the mouth within 24 hours of birth
Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

27

Feeding compost- must be of good quality and supplied daily. Compost of poor
quality may contain bacteria.
Wood ash can also be put into the pen. This will not provide iron, but it does
contain other important minerals.

Tail Cutting
Cut the tip of the tail within 4-7 days. This prevents tail chewing, which can lead to
infections. A piece of chain can be hung down from the ceiling for the piglets to chew.

Heating for Piglets


In cold weather, a small area can be
heated with an infrared lamp. This keeps
the young pigs warm. It helps prevent
pneumonia and crushing as the piglets
tend to stay under the lamp when not
feeding.

Creep feeding

Piglets in creep area warmed by an infra red bulb

Young piglets from 7 days onwards


should have high protein feed available to them. This has to be fed in a small
area where the mother cannot eat the feed. The feed conversion rate of young
piglets is very high and thus creep feeding is particularly economic. Creep
feeding helps the piglets to get used to feeding at an early age.

NB: The sow's milk yield also begins to decrease just as the growing piglets require
feed.

Rearing motherless piglets


It is very important that newly-born piglets receive colostrum straight after birth
to build up their natural resistance. Colostrum is the first milk that the sow
produces after farrowing. If the sow dies whilst farrowing, the colostrum will
have to be taken from another farrowing sow for the piglets. If they get no
colostrum, their chance of survival is very small.
Cow's or goat's milk can be given to the piglets. This is after the piglets have
taken colostrum. The milk should not be diluted, as sow's milk is very
concentrated. It should be warmed up to slightly above body temperature (37 40C) in a pan lowered into a larger pan containing boiling water.

28

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Feeding program
For the first two days the piglets should be fed at regular intervals 5 times a day, for
about 10 minutes each time. On the third and on the fourth day they should be fed
four times a day, and after that 3 times a day. After 14 days, increase the quantity of
milk at each feed, but gradually decrease the number of feeds per day. Gradually
change over to more solid feed, so that by the age of about three weeks they
should be able to take regular feed. If no nutritious feed is available they should
continue on milk for a while longer. The weaker ones can be fed four times a day for
a longer time. The figures in the table are maximum quantities - it is better to give
too little rather than too much feed. There should be a continuous supply of water,
which should be boiled to avoid any contamination.

Feeding program for orphan piglets


Day
1
2
3
4
5-7
8-9
10 - 11
12 - 14

No. of feeding times


5
5
4
4
3
3
3
3

Quantity each time (ml)


30
40 45
60
70
80 - 100
120
140
160

As soon as possible, the orphan piglets should move onto regular food. This should
be of good quality, protein-rich, and easily digestible. Note-despite the amount of
care they receive, hand-reared piglets will never grow as fast as those reared by a
mother sow.

Weaning
Successful early weaning of pigs requires skill and attention to detail in all areas.
Weaning is a great challenge to the young pig. Knowledge of the nutrient
requirements, health status and growth patterns for modern breeds of early-weaned
pigs continue to develop. Early weaning of piglets at 14-21 days increases sow
productivity through the potential increase in the number of litters per sow per year.

Selection of Replacement
Boars must be replaced when they become too large to serve most of the sows
on the farm.
Boars usually have a maximum working life of between 18 and 24 months. This
means they should be replaced when they are 30 to 36 months old.

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

29

It is very important to keep record of the boars' use so that infertile ones can be
detected and replaced as soon as possible.
A low sex drive (libido) can also be a problem. Some boars are slow workers and
are sometimes reluctant and only now and then willing to work. Attention must
be given to these boars so that they can be replaced if necessary.
If replacement gilts are not available when needed or if they do not comply with
the requirements, the gilts should be bought. It is advisable to buy them from
the same farm where the boars come from, because in this way the previous
owner can advise you on the breeding policy for a small pig farm.

Culling of sows
Culled sows must be removed from the farm and sold as soon as possible. It
does not pay to keep culled sows on the farm to gain weight before they are
sold. As soon as the sow's udder has returned to normal after weaning it is wise
to send her to the abattoir. Replacement gilt can then be brought into the herd
immediately.
Reasons for removing sows from the herd are usually not known beforehand.
Therefore, replacement gilts should always be available so that the number of
breeding sows on the farm always remains the same. Some of the major
reasons for culling are reported by big piggeries;

Reasons for culling


Not pregnant
Failure to conceive at service
Do not come on heat
Abortions
Lameness
Poor performance (small litters, etc)
Old age
Disease
Lack of milk
Total
30

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

% of sows to be culled
17
12
5
6
12
14
25
4
5
100

Sows that farrow regularly and rear large litters (nine or more piglets) and are
free of other problems and diseases should rear five to six or even more litters
before they have to be removed from the herd. A sow is usually removed from
the herd when her litters start to become smaller (two small litters in succession)
or when she does not readily come on heat after weaning.

Castration
Male piglets are castrated to prevent their meat from boar taint. Castration also
makes them more manageable when they become sexually mature. Castration
should be done in the first two weeks of a piglet's life. The animals should be fit
and healthy. If this is not the case it is better to postpone the operation. Two
people are needed when castrating a piglet.
One person will carry out the small operation and the other person will hold the
piglet. The pen should be dry and very clean to prevent infection to the wound.
The knife should be thoroughly cleaned with a disinfectant. One person takes
the pig by the hind legs and holds it firmly between his or her legs. The piglet's
head should point towards the ground.

A pig is held securely between the legs of the assistant with the scrotum exposed and testicles rounded out

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

31

Castration - step by step

Step 1: Wash and wipe the scrotum with a disinfectant

Step 2: Press one testicle against the scrotal skin to


tighten the skin over the testicle. Make a cut, large enough
to allow the testicle to be pushed out. Uses a very sharp and
clean knife for the operation

Step 3: Pull the testicle out, so that the attached cord is


also pulled to the outside.

Step 4: Hold the exposed testicle with the left hand while
the cord is twisted twice.

Step 5: Cut the cord attached to the testicle by scraping


away with the edge of the knife. There is more bleeding if
the cord is cut in one stroke or sweep of the blade.

Step 6: Afterwards wash the wounds thoroughly with a


disinfectant like iodine to prevent infection. The other
testicle is removed in the same way.

Always Request Technician to Perform Task


32

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Feeding
Good feed is necessary for growth, body maintenance and the production of meat
and milk. You can use locally available feeds that are less expensive, but can

be nutritionally complete when properly prepared. In fact, pigs can be fed


well, using only kitchen scraps from a familys household. The nutritional
needs of pigs can be divided into six categories or classes. These are water,
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins and minerals.

Pigs Digestive Systems


Anatomy of the Digestive System
Stomach

Diseases Gastric problems


E. coli
Epidemic diarrhoea
Gastric ulcers
Parasites
Poisons
Vomiting wasting disease

Oesophagus
Oesophageal region
Pyloric region

Small
Intestine

Caecum
Terminal ilum

Colon

Rectum

Enteric problems
Bloody gut (PHE)
Clostridal
Coccidiosis
Dysentery
Epidemic diarrhoea
Parasites
Porcine enteropathy
Rotavirus
Salmonellosis
TGE
Toxins
Colonic problems
Campylobacter
Colitis
Cryptosporidia
Salmonellosis
Serpulina pilosicoli
Swine dysentery
Trichuris suis
Rectal problems
Rectal prolapse
Rectal stricture

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

33

What you can feed to your pig?


Commercially prepared swine rations from grain, fruit
and vegetable from markets

Vegetable, fruit or bread scraps that have been not in


contact with animal products or by-products if they
are properly cooked.

Restaurants, food transporters and disposers of food


waste products if they are properly cooked.

Forest Products, wild vegetables, wild bananas, wild


cola cassia, yam, forage grasses etc. if they are
properly cooked.

Alcohol distilling residues: local alcohol can be made


from millet, rice, maize, sweet potato, banana, etc. if
they are properly cooked.

What you cannot feed to you pig?


Any meat products; includes pies, sausage rolls,
bacon and cheese rolls, pizza, salami and other
delicatessen meats and table scraps without proper
cooking and screening.

34

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Any carcass or part of a carcass of any mammal or bird


(raw and uncooked); includes any meat blood, offal,
hide or feathers. Pigs that feed on carcass are also at
risk of contracting diseases which is contagious to
humans.

Any fish products and bones.

The excreta (droppings) of any mammal or bird


Any substance that has come into contact with
a prohibited substance via collection, storage or
transport in a contaminated container such as meat
trays and take away food containers.
Household, commercial or industrial waste includes
restaurant waste, without proper cooking and
screening.
Risks Associated with Feeding Raw or Improperly Cooked Food Wastes to
Swine, if in doubt dont feed any food waste without checking first

Formulation feed
Creep feed
Creep Feed is the baby piglets first and most important dry food. It contains
20% protein that is highly fortified with milk by-products and is available in
small, chewable, highly palatable pellets for easy digestion.
A combination of protein source, milk replacer, vitamins, amino acids and rich
feed ingredients makes this complete feed the ideal start for young healthy
piglets.
Feed ingredients in descending order: corn, soya bean meal, barley, wheat bran,
vegetable protein, oilseeds extracts, fatty acids, feed phosphate, pig vitamins,
and trace minerals.
Creep feed (about 20g per piglet per day) or a good home-made mixture with
fine rice bran, broken rice and milled maize grains. Clean drinking water must
always be available.
Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

35

Traditional pig feeds


Feeds should meet the animals needs for maintenance, growth and reproduction.
Good pig feed contains sufficient energy, protein, minerals and vitamins. Rice bran,
broken rice, maize, soya-beans, cassava, vegetables and distillers residues are often
used in pig feed.
Distillery waste is much appreciated in the traditional pig husbandry, especially for
fattening pigs. It is advisable however, not to give this high valued feed to pregnant
and lactating sows and to piglets and weaners because of the alcohol contents in
the waste.
Rice Bran: is very suitable for pig feeding. It
contains 11% protein and can be used as the
main ingredient. Rice bran can be mixed with
other feeds to 30 - 45%. Rice bran can be kept
no longer than 1 month because it can become
mouldy.

Broken Rice: is very suitable for pig feeding. It


can be mixed with other feeds up to 15 - 20%.
Broken rice contains about 8% protein.

Maize: is a very good animal feed. It contains


up to 65% carbohydrates and 9% protein. It can
be mixed and cooked with other feeds, but not
more than 40% in the mix ration
Soybeans: is a crop which has a high
nutritional value and is very good for pig
feeding. It contains 38% protein (=very high).
It should be dried, milled or well cooked in
combination with other feedstuff like rice bran,
broken rice and maize.

36

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Wheat Bran is particularly rich in dietary


fiber and contains significant quantities of
Carbohydrate, protein, vitamins, and minerals.
Wheat Bran and is widely used as a major
component animal feed. it contain ; Protein
14% to 16%, Fat Max 9.5% , Crude Fibre 8.0 to
10.0% and carbohydrate up to 25%.
Ipil Ipil : Leucaena and Acacia are traditional,
locally available tree-crops. The leaves are rich
in protein. After drying, they can be mixed and
fed to pigs with other feeds.
Root Crops: are being used for pig feeding,
they can be mixed with other feeds up to
around 10 - 20% (never more than 30%). First
it should be peeled and washed and then
sliced, dried and ground before use. It should
not be fed to pigs as raw cassava with the skin,
because of toxic substances. The sliced and
dried cassava can be kept longer.
Fruits: Fruits damaged during transportation,
storage and handling are used as
supplementary feeds for pigs by boiling and
mixing with other feeds such as rice bran,
broken rice and maize. They can also be given
fresh. Suitable fruits are: Banana, papaya,
apple, pear, melons etc
Vegetables:Vegetables damage during
transportation, storage and handling are used
as supplementary feeds for pigs by boiling
and mixing with other feeds such as rice bran,
broken rice and maize. They can also be given
fresh. Suitable vegetables are: cabbage, lettuce,
spinach, morning glory, sweet potato vine,
cola-cassia (needs boiling), pumpkin, guards,
water hyacinth etc

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

37

Restaurant/Kitchen waste: needs to be


properly screening and cooking

Slaughter house offal; needs to be pruperly


screen and cooking

Sweet potato vine and tubers can be used as


pig feed

Potato, yam, papaya, sweet potato, etc

Maize, wheat, millet etc

38

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Green Soya bean plant: A reach sourceof


vegetable protein

Cola-cassia/Pandalu : leaves and stems are


quite a good local protein resources for pigs.
Leaves contributed 20% of the dietary dry
matter and 46% of the crude protein after
cooking. It is also a rich source of calcium,
phosphorus, iron, Vitamin C, thiamine,
riboflavin and niacin, which are important
constituents of diet. The fresh tuber has about
20% dry matter, while the fresh petiole has
only about 6% dry matter (Inno Onwueme,
1999). Leaves and stems have a good
composition with high crude protein content
(16.51-18.20 % DM basic), they were used as
local protein resource for pig production
Chayote; Both the fruit (vegetable) and the
seed are rich in amino acids and vitamin C,
potassium, phosphorus and calcium. Fruits is
very low in calories, (12 calories per 100 g on
average), chayote contains 0.5% protein, 0.2%
lipids and 2% sugars
Banana Stem: The best way of feeding fresh
green banana or plantain fruits is to chop them
and sprinkle some salt on the slices since the
fruits are very low in the in-organic nutrients.
Cattle and pigs relish this material. For ensiling
purposes, the chopped green bananas or
plantains are preferred to the ripe fruits which
lose some of their dry matter and, in particular
sugars during ensiling. Similarly, green fruits
are more easily dried than ripe fruits which are
very difficult to completely dehydrate.
Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

39

Pumpkin: Pumpkin is a good source of the


vitamin B group, while a large proportion of
these vitamins is lost during the preparation of
the protein concentrate and isolates.
Bottle gourd: Important nutritive value in
100 grams of bottle gourd like energy-12
kacl, moisture- 96g, protein-little , fat- little,
carbohydrates- 2g, fiber- 1g, calcium- 20mg,
Iron- little and Phosphorus-10 mg.
Winter melon (Wax Gourd, White Gourd,
Ash Gourd): The Winter Melon is a very large
gourd that can grow up to 50 lbs or more! It
develops a waxy coating when it matures.
Unopened, the winter melon can typically be
stored for up to 12 months. After it is cut open,
it can only be stored for a single week
It contains very low Saturated Fat and
Cholesterol, also a good source of Thiamin,
Iron, Magnesium and Manganese, and a
very good source of Dietary Fiber, Vitamin C,
Riboflavin, Zinc and very high in Sodium.
Fruits damaged during transportation, storage
and handling are used as supplementary feeds
for pigs by boiling and mixing with other feeds
such as rice bran, broken rice and maize. They
can also be given fresh. Suitable fruits are:
Banana, papaya, apple, pear, melons etc
Vegetables damage during transportation,
storage and handling are used as
supplementary feeds for pigs by boiling and
mixing with other feeds such as rice bran,
broken rice and maize. They can also be
given fresh. Suitable vegetables are: cabbage,
lettuce, spinach, morning glory, sweet potato
vine, cola-cassia (needs boiling), pumpkin,
guards, water hyacinth etc
40

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Clover: sodium content is lower (0.05% vs


0.15%). Crude protein levels in the DM are
around 25%. Phosphorus is 0.3% dry matter
digestibility is up to 75%.
Stylo: is rich in protein, DCP levels range from
17-24% in green leaf and 6-12% in the stem,
grows well in poor soil and can be feed directly
to pigs without being cooked (unlike forest
plants).
Alfalfa: Low in fiber, Palatable to consume
for animal, Easily digestible, It is the best
nutritional package you can put into the
rations feeding your livestock, dairy cattle,
poultry or pig. Contains a blend of 47
nutritional elements one of natures most
liberal balances of vitamins, minerals and
amino acids.
Berseem: It is very palatable and is relished
by all livestock. There has never been a case
of bloat reported if given excess amount. It
contains from 18 to 28 percent crude protein.
Water hyacinth: it is very important to the
pigs, can replace 6% feed, but it cannot be fed
to the cattle and the goats.
Effect of mixtures of water spinach and fresh
water hyacinth leaves on growth performance
of pigs fed a basal diet of rice bran is found
good.
Mulberry: The protein content 89 g/kg dry
matter in the fresh foliage of mulberry leaves is
well utilized by growing pigs fed a basal diet of
broken rice.
The tree foliage allows saving the cost of
raising a pig by 15%.
Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

41

Traditional feed processing


Different feeds are mixed and boiled to make the pig feed more palatable. There are
2 types of traditional processing:
Mixing all different feeds together (rice bran, broken rice, crushed maize and
soya, dried legume leaves, etc) in proportion and giving it directly to the pigs.
Breeder feed
Fattener feed

Breeder feed

Locally
available
feeds

Locally available materials, cleaning pig feeds

Cooking the different raw materials together to improve digestibility and to


break- down toxins from some feeds as raw cola-cassia, banana stem, maize and
soya grains, beans, kitchen waste, forage crops, etc.
Food Waste Feeding to Swine is also commonly known as Garbage Feeding or
Swill. Food waste or garbage fed to swine must be cooked and sterilized
properly.

(5) Make Money


(1) Cola-cassia or green
vegetable leaf

(2) Wheat / Ricebran

(3) Broken Rice/Wheat

42

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

(4) Kitchen waste

Feeding Forest Products


Pig feed can also be prepared with forest
products (wild vegetables, wild bananas,
wild cola cassia etc). At the same
time, food waste can be used (kitchen,
restaurant, fruits, soup, rice, noodles etc).
Growing legumes as feed for village pig
production is having a big impact on
the livelihoods of rural families in Nepal.
Below is an example of a locally prepared
supplementary pig feed from forest
products.

A female farmer chopping stylo


grous female

1
Water

2
Salt

3
Yeast

4 Churn
and mixed
properly

Mixed properly
8
5

Add
chuped sweet
potato,
vine/leaf

6
Mixed

7
Add
some
grains

Don't feed
to a young
piglets

Feeding

Feeding Alcohol distilling residues


Local alcohol can be made from millet, rice, maize, sweet potato, banana, etc. Most
popular for pig feeding is distillery wastes from millet. It should be mixed with
other feeds such as rice bran and broken rice/maize grids. Distillers residues can be
fed to fattening pigs, but not to pregnant or lactating sows. The following mixing
ratio is commonly used in combination with distillery waste; Rice bran/Wheat bran
(2 kg), broken rice (1 kg), and Distillers residues (5-10 kg) and other locally available
agricultural by-products.
Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

43

Distillery Residues 5-10lit

Rice /Wheat Bran-1kg

Broken Rice or Maize grids-1kg mixed

Local alcohol can be made from millet, rice, maize, sweet potato, yam (Phul Tarul),
banana, etc. Most popular for pig feeding is distillery waste from millet and rice,
protein content ranged from 17 to 33% (mean of 23%) in dry matter basis. It
should be mixed with other feeds such as rice bran, wheat bran, maize/millet
flour, and broken rice etc. Distillers residues can be fed to fattening pigs, but not
to pregnant or lactating sows. Yet, these animals require high quality of feed and
therefore distillery waste needs to be replaced by other high quality feed like
commercial feeds

Local pig feed/ration: Mixing ratio (Kg)


Ingredients
Pig weight 15 - 30 kg
Soya beans
25
Rice bran
25
Maize
20
Broken rice
5
Wheat bran
20
Leucaena tree leaves
5
Total (100 Kg)
100
Crude protein (%)
16

Pig weight 30 - 60 kg
20
30
25
5
15
5
100
15

Pig weight over 60 kg


15
35
30
5
10
5
100
14

Daily Fee requirements


Dry/pregnant Sows and Gilts: Dry sows and gilts give 2.5/kg day of sow and
weaner meal. Give extra 1kg/day one week before serving gilts and sows and
one week after service. Give lactating sows 2.5 kg/day of sow and weaner meal
for maintenance and 0.25 kg/day extra for each piglet being suckled.
Boars: Give boars 2.0 kg/day. If the boar is regularly used give it 2.5 Kg.
Piglets: Give creep pellets i.e. 0.5 - 1.00 kg/day from day 7 up to weaning
time(21 days) per piglet. The feed should be mixed with sow and weaner meal
the last one week before weaning.
Feeding of Growing and Finishing pigs: - Pigs weaned at 3 - 5 weeks of 11 - 13
kg body weight should continue being fed on the starter diet until they reach 18
kg live weight. Pigs weaned at 7 weeks or older may be switched gradually to

44

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

sow and weaner diet.


For growing or finishing pigs all ration changes should be made gradually. If this is
not possible the feeding level of the new diet should be low until the pigs become
accustomed to it.
Where post-weaning scours are a major problem, restricted feeding during the fist
week after weaning may reduce the incidents of scours.
For treatment in case of an outbreak of scouring, medication through drinking
water is preferable since sick pigs go off feed.
Feeding rates by age and expected body weight gain
Age (wks)
Body Weight (kg)
8-10
12-15
10-12
15-20
12-16
20-40
16-18
40-50
18-24
50-84
24-28
84-105

Feed kg /day
0.66
1.0
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5

Feed type
Sow and weaner/starter
Sow and weaner/grower
Sow and weaner/grower
Finnisher
Finnisher
Finnisher

NB: When feeding animals any sudden changes can lead to loss of production. Thus
feed changes should be as gradual as possible.

Feeder trough size


The feeding trough should be firmly anchored to the floor to prevent overturning
and wasting feed. Size of feeding trough for different age and purpose is given in the
table;
Pig categories
Suckling piglet
Fattening pig
Pregnant sow
Lactating sow
Breeding boar

Length
15-20 cm per pig
30-35 cm per pig
40-50 cm per pig
40-50 cm per pig
40-50 cm per pig

Width
20 cm
20 cm
35-40 cm
35-40 cm
35-40 cm

Height
10 cm
15 20 cm
15 20 cm
15 20 cm
15 20 cm

Good pig appetite is important. Pigs will eat more fresh clean feed than if it is
contaminated, stale or moldy. Clean feed troughs daily. Sufficient feeder space is
necessary, so each pig can eat what it wishes every day. On many farms feed waste
is 15% or more. Feed waste must be avoided as much possible:
Pigs must be fed on time: this makes the pigs familiar to the feeding regime. Pigs
need to be fed according to their sizes and ages. Troughs must be anchored so they
cannot be turned over
Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

45

40cm

20cm

100cm

15cm

15cm

60cm

Drinkers
The feeding trough can also be used to
supply water. At large farms automatic
drinkers are used (bowls or nipples).
All pigs need sufficient clean drinking
water. A pregnant sow: 10 - 12 liters
water per day. A lactating sow: 20 - 30
liters per day. A growing pig: 6 - 8 liters
per day. A boar: 12 - 15 liters per day.
Not enough water can reduce daily feed
intake. Ample clean water must be available to drink at all times.

46

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Housing Management
Elements for a good housing

Separate house for breeding boar/pregnant sow

Separate house for gilt and dry sows

3
Provision for farrowing pan

Heating and cooling arrangement

5
Provision of piglet nest/ box

Provision of creep feed/starter feed

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

47

7
Suitable size of drinkers
Wooden poles

Suitable size of feed trough

Wooden/
Stone slates/Bricks

Cement floor

10

9
Suitable floor space

Sufficient space for exercise

How to keep a healthy pig


Appropriate
House

Clean and sufficient


drinking water

Introduction of healthly
Improved breeding male

Breeding
between
selected
Regular
vaccination,
drenching
and veterinary
serrtvices

Iron and
vitamins
supplements

48

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Proper feeding

Provision of farrowing pan

Effect of bad housing


Abortion

Slow/retarted growth
and poor health

Piglets dead after birth

Economic losses due to less meat


production

Dysentery/Diarrhea

Parasitic Infection

Effect in
Human
health

Spread of Contagious diseases

Selection of housing locations

The site should be at an elevated place


that cannot be flooded by rain water.
The site should be protected from the
sun (shade from trees) and have ample
fresh air.
Away from residences (around 8-10
meter away downwind).
In case of a large scale pig farm, the site
selected needs also to be: well
connected to roads throughout the
year,
Suitable for manure disposal, connected to reliable water and electricity sources.

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

49

Construction plan for a good pig house/shed


The important points about the pig house are as follows:
The floor of the house must be 3 X 3 m.
The floor of the house must be raised about 60 cm above the ground.
The floor boards should have spaces of 2 cm between them.
The roof must be rain, proof.
The high side of the roof should face in a direction where some sun can shine a
little way into the house on this side: but there must always be shade in some
part of the house.
The house must be strongly built.
A pigsty can be constructed cheaply by using locally available materials. It needs to
be constructed according to climatic conditions and according to the pig production
system.
The pigsty should be comfortable for the pigs: good ventilation and ample
shade, no overheating, no smells, no draft and no dampness.
The building should be constructed with its length axis in an East-West direction
(protected from sun and rain).
The pig building needs to be divided into different pens for each phase of the
produc- tion cycle. The number and the size of the pens depend on the expected
numbers of pigs to be housed in each production phase.
The costs of constructing the pigsty should fit the pig production systems. An
efficient pig production is required to cover high construction costs.

Generally, there are 3 types of pigsty buildings:


Wooden poles

Wooden/Stone slates/Bricks

Cement floor

50

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Space requirement for pigs


Pigs
Space
Category required
Fattening Per
pig
pig 0.5
- 1.0
sqm

Pregnant Per
sows
sow
1.5
- 2.0
sqm

Lactating Per
sows
sow 4
- 6 sqm

Weaner
piglets

Per
piglet
0.3
0.5
sqm

Model

Remarks
A flat, solid floor is
usually made from
cement (but not
polished to avoid
slipping) or from hard
soil. The floor should
be sloping away to
the rear to facilitate
cleaning with water.
Pregnant sows need
a quiet environment.
Therefore individual
pens are some- times
used for pregnant
sows. In hot climates
pregnant sows are
alternatively housed in
small groups of three.
Lactating sows need
a quiet environment.
Therefore individual
pens are used. There
should be provision
for; farrowing pan,
heating and cooling
arrangements, Piglet
nest/ box, creep feed
/starter feed for piglets.
A flat, solid floor is
usually made from
cement (but not
polished to avoid
slipping) or from hard
soil. The floor should
be sloping away to
the rear to facilitate
cleaning with water.
Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

51

Pigs
Space
Category required
Breeding Per
boars
boar 6
- 8 sqm

Model

Remarks
Special care is required
to prevent boars from
escaping to the gilts
and sows that are on
heat (strong and high
partitions).

Different models/types of pig house/sheds.

Good, enough shade

52

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Not good, no shade

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

53

Disease and Parasite


Sick pigs generally have the following signs:
It may not eat or not show interest in feed /water
It may breathe rapidly indication of a fever
In white skin-colored pigs the skin may become reddish.
It may have diarrhea which may sometimes be bloody or blood stained.
Droopy ears or ears pointing downwards.
Dull eyes.
Dull skin and hair.
Its tail will become limp.
Separates it self from the rest

Parasitic diseases
Parasites are divided into external and internal parasites.

Internal parasites (Worms)


Worms are one of the most serious threats to pig keeping. There are more than 30
types affecting the intestines of pigs. The most important two are the intestinal
roundworm and the tape worm.

The Location of parasites


Caecum
Trichuris

Kidney worms
Steohanurus

Mange,
Lice, Flies

Stomach worms
Trichostrongylus
Hyostrongylus

Lungworm

Oesophagus

Liver

Trachea
Large intestine
Trichuris
Oesphagostomum

Small intestine
Ascaris
Strongyloides
Trichinela
Macracanthorhynchus
Coccidia

The sites where the different parasites are found


Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

55

Roundworm
Roundworms live in the gut and take food from the pig. The pig can therefore
become thin. Giant intestinal roundworms (Ascaris lumbricoides) are common
around the world, especially in warm, moist climates. These worms are large, about
the size of a pencil. The infection begins with the ingestion of eggs which are
usually present in contaminated soil, or on fruits and vegetables grown in infected
soil.

Symptoms
Anorexia in advanced stages.
Anaemia loss of condition.
Weight loss in later stages.
When the worms die suddenly after treatment, they can block the gut and cause
sudden death

Prevention
Control with medicine in the food is useful and provide clean and dry pens.
Rotational grazing and periodic disinfection of pastures.
Separation of young ones from adults.
Washing sows before farrowing.

56

Periodic deworming
Herbal treatment: herbs such as moringa are considered to be antihelmintic
( able to kill intestinal worms)

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Tapeworm
Tapeworms are flat and long ribbon like creatures which are common in all parts
of the world. Tapeworms do not have a digestive system so they receive their food
through their skin as they absorb our nutrients. They especially absorb folic acid
and vitamin B-12. These parasites may cause what is referred to as verminous
intoxication as they put out and leave dangerous waste products in our bodies.
These tapeworms can roll themselves into a ball and can be felt on the right side of
the abdomen under the liver.
Pork measles is caused by tapeworms which live in the muscles of pigs. They do not
usually affect the pig, but can lead to pain and the pig may find it difficult to move
around. When people eat undercooked measly pork, the worms develop inside the
people, and can make them very sick.

Symptoms
Poor growth
Rough grey hair coat
Swollen belly
Emaciation
Anaemia

Prevention
Prevent the pigs from wandering about where they can feed on human faeces
Make sure that people working with pigs use toilets (hygiene and sanitation)
Deworming

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

57

External parasites
External parasites mainly include mange, lies and myiasis.

Mange
It is caused by small parasites called mites that live in the skin. They provoke severe
itching and irritation. Nowadays sarcoptic mange in pigs has been reported in all
major swine producing countries and is prevalent in Brazilian swine herds. Lesions,
or scabs, on the animals may start on any part of the body, but usually appear first
on the head, around the eyes, nose, or ears; lesions may progress to hyperkeratosis
and exfoliation of epidermal debris.

Symptoms

The pig becomes itchy, and scratches and rubs against the walls of the sty and
other objects with the skin between the legs, around the eyes, ears and neck
being principally affected.
The coat looks dull, and there are bare patches, heavy crusts, and lines on the
body that look like ribs
Restlessness and itching which can be very severe
Red pimples on skin, which turn into crusts and scabs. Later the skin looks very
rough, is thickened and covered with flakes scratching. Skin may show red spots
or bite wounds
Thick skin and rough hair coat
Anaemia in severe cases especially in piglets
Death in severe cases

Prevention
Wash the sow before farrowing at least twice at a one week interval.
Boars should be washed at least four times a year.
Treat gilts upon entering the farm and before serving.
Wash all pigs at the beginning of fattening if mange is already a problem.

58

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Maintain proper animal nutrition and health program to reduce severity and
spread of mange. Recommended control products are: ivermectin (1%
injectable), or malathion (1% spray).
General cleanliness.

Treatment
Remove scales and dirt with soap and water and a stiff brush.
Afterwards the pig should be washed with organophosphate compounds.
Repeat this treatment several times
Ivermectin injection is a very effective treatment against mange and all other
parasites. Spraying the animals with cattle dip also kills many parasites on the
skin
Herbal treatment: Smearing with coconut oil can be an effective control in cases
of light contamination

Lice
These are blood suckers that also cause irritation of the skin. The hog louse is the
largest louse species (6,4mm) commonly associated with domestic animals. It is
found most frequently in the folds of skin behind the ears and between the legs.
The blood-sucking activity of hog lice results in much irritation and discomfort to
swine

Symptoms
Itching
Skin may show red spots or bite wounds.
Thick skin and rough hair coat.
Anaemia in severe cases especially in piglets.

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

59

Prevention
General cleanliness
Treat piglets before putting them in fattening house. Fatteners don't need to be
treated
Treat gilts before first service
Treat boars twice a year
Treat new stock on arrival and seven days later. Piglets below three weeks
should not be treated

Treatment
The insecticide benzene hexachloride is a very effective remedy (0.1 - 0.25%
solution) against lice. Treatment should be repeated after 7 days since the
insecticide only kills adults and not eggs.
Lice can be kept away to a certain extent by planting a pole sturdily in the
ground at an angle of 45 with an old sack wound around it immersed in crude
oil or used motor-oil.

Myiasis
Disease caused by flies, which lay eggs in the wounds. The eggs hatch into larvae
which live and feed on the flesh and developed into pupate, and fall off when they
mature, creating more wounds.

Symptoms
Infected wounds look very wet and dirty and the edges can be covered with a
grey mass which are the eggs of flies.
Later on, larva can be seen as screw-shaped pinkish worms crawling through the
wound.
The pigs show annoyance and try to find a shabby place.
Death may occur.

60

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Prevention and treatment

Clean the wound daily with water and disinfectant then apply insecticide on
wound to cover edges too.
Best working insecticides are the long-acting ones e.g. diazinon or supona.
Good mange control program to prevent wounds smooth walls and floors.
Do not use sharp objects.
Avoid overcrowding to reduce fighting.
Tail docking, ears notching and castration should be handled properly and the
umbilical cord disinfected.

Deworming
Those dewormers that are currently approved for use are effective and usually
safe when given according to label directions. These include ivermectin (Ivomec),
fenbendazole (Safe-Guard), levamisole (Tramisol, Levasole), pyrantel (Banminth),
dichlorvos (Atgard) and piperazine. Their activity varies somewhat, so refer to Table
1 for the appropriate use.
The deworming schedule should include prebreeding for all breeding stock and
prefarrowing for gilts and sows, prevention of Strongyloides and roundworms in
baby pigs, and one or more dewormings in weanling and growing pigs. Specific
strategic schedules should be arranged with your veterinarian.
Boars - every 6 months
Sows - 2 weeks before farrowing and after weaning
Piglets - 1 week after weaning
Fatteners - 1 week after weaning and 3months latter
Gilts - 1 week after weaning, 3 months and at 7months of age at least 2 weeks
before service

Dewormers for common parasites


Worms and stages
Ascarids (adults)
Ascarids (migrating larvae)
Ascarids (infective larvae)
Whipworms
Nodular worms
Lungworms
Kidney worms (adult)
Kidney worms (larvae in liver)
Strongyloides

Compound
All of them
Fenbendazole
Fenbendazole, pyrantel
Fenbendazole, dichlorvos
All of them
Fenbendazole, ivermectin, levamisole
Fenbendazole, levamisole
Fenbendazole
Levamisole, ivermectin

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

61

Control of Lice, Flies, Mange


Scrub sows with Gamma BHC insecticides four days before farrowing.
Clean and scrub the farrowing pens before use.
Maintain proper animal nutrition and health program to reduce severity and
spread. Recommended control products are: ivermectin (1% injectable), or
malathion (1% spray).

62

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Reproductive Disorders and Diseases

Anaphrodisias
When the sow does not come on heat
Symptoms

No heat signs; This could be caused by low body weight due to poor feeding,
overweight, mineral deficiency, intestinal worms, chronic disease, the animal
has just given birth, heavy infestation with parasites

Prevention
Improve feeding of mineral-rich feeds.
Regularly deworm your animals.
Allow the female to stay with the boar.

Treatment
Gilts should not be treated at all because they may show anaphrodisias after
every litter, if this hormone is used
Sows should be treated on the same day as weaning, and in very severe cases, 3
weeks after weaning
Repeating treatment is of no use

Leptospirosis
Symptoms

Fever, anorexia, diarrhoea, bloody urine, nervous symptons caused by


meningitis.
Abortion in last trimester.
In sows which are affected later, weak piglets are born.
Mummified and macerated foetuses are common in the litters.
Infertility associated with venereal spread may be responsible for repeat
breeders.

Prevention and treatment

Elimination of mite and rats and other roddents.


Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

63

Vaccination and hygienic measures. Vaccines are not available for all types of
the diseases and vaccination may not prevent bloody urine.
Treat all sows with injection or streptomycin before serving.
Use antibiotibics especially streptomycin for all ages.

Brucellosis
Symptoms

Anorexia, fever, stiff legs, occasional lameness, early abortion (returns to oestrus
5 - 8 weeks after service as a result of infection of service)
Infection later in pregnancy gives rise to litter with mummified, still born or
weak piglets.
Bloody vulva discharge and endometritis.
Retained placenta.
Boars usually develop orchitis (inflammation of one or both testicles) and
epididymitis within seven days of infection.
The testicles are swollen and painful and permanent sterility can be the result.

Prevention and treatment


Prevention is based on hygienic measures and purchase of stock from clean
herds only.
Never treat by antibiotics.
No treatment/vaccination is 100% effective
Slaughter all animals and do restocking. Restocking should be after one month.

Uterine Prolapsed


Symptoms

64

The appearance of the uterus outside the vulva.

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Prevention and treatment

Uterine prolapsed reduction is often not possible since it is very traumatic and
the best therapy is to amputate the whole uterus. However 50% of sows do not
survive this operation, therefore slaughter should be considered.

Mastitis
Bacterial infection causes an
inflammation of the mammary organ and
results in changes in milk production.
These bacteria enter the wounds in the
udder.
Symptoms
Swollen, hot and painful udder.
Absence or reduction of milk in the
affected udder.
Sow refuses to suckle her piglets. As a result, piglets squeal due to hunger.
Sow has depression and often fever.

Prevention

Provide adequate bedding


Keep pig pens clean, dry and free of sharp objects, clip milk teeth of baby pigs.

Treatment

Gently massage the affected udder with lukewarm water.


Do not allow the young to suck milk from the infected sow.
Remove the milk from the infected udder and discard.
Separate sow from piglets and reduce access to teats (allow a few piglets to
suckle at a time). If possible, foster piglets to lactating mothers.
Use antibiotics. Inject penicillin-streptomycin into the muscle of hip or neck.

Endometritis (bacteria)
Symptoms

Vulval discharge of virginal or uterine origin during urination.


In case of metrititis, fever and agalactia may occur.

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

65

Prevention and treatment


Antimicrobial by injection or locally by inigation of the uterus and vagina,
oxytocin can be given to stimulate uteric contractions once or twice a day.
Hygiene.

Diseases and Disorders of Digestive Tract


Scouring
Hygienic measures should be taken to avoid or minimize scouring incidence.
Regular deworming should also be done as a control measure to scouring
Feed changes should be gradual and not drastic to avoid scouring

Birth diarrhoea
Symptoms
Acute diarrhoea in piglets is watery, yellowish grey and within a very short time
piglets become thin with sunken eyes due to dehydration.
Death can occur within 2 - 3 days. Death in piglets can occur even within one
day before any sign of diarrhoea is observed.

Prevention
Keep pens, feed and watering troughs clean.
Separate affected animals from healthy animals.
Do not change abruptly an animal's ration.
Make sure that piglets have sufficient colostrum within 36 hours of birth

Treatment
Vaccination
Plenty of drinking water with electrolytes
Use of antibiotics.
Herbal medicine: Fresh leaves of guava or star apple. This will treat the
symptoms only.

Red diarrhoea or clostridial enteritis


Symptoms

66

Acute haemorrhagic or necrotic inflammation of the gut during the first and
second week of birth.

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

In acute cases the diarrhea is watery with an orange-red color due to blood and
its often bubbly.
In later stages, shreds of dead tissues can be found.
Piglets are weak and don't suckle. They get pale and die within a few days.

Prevention and treatment

Vaccination
Make sure that piglets have sufficient colostrums within 36 hours of birth
Keep the pigs warm
Cleanliness
Contact the veterinary

Transmissible Gastroenteritis
Transmissible gastroenteritis is a common viral disease of the small intestine that
causes vomiting and profuse diarrhea in pigs of all ages. It spreads rapidly. Piglets
less than one-week old rarely survive the disease.
Symptoms
Very high mortality mainly in piglets upto 14 days old.
The piglets often vomit and have severe greenish-yellow watery diarrhoea,
dehydration.
In sows the diarrhoea is greyish, they vomit, abortion may occur.
In fatteners the symptoms are like those in sows.

Prevention and treatment


Give electrolytes to piglets and keep them warm.
Antibiotics prevent secondary infection but don't provide a cure.

Fat diarrhea
Symptoms

Faeces are pasty and fatty, white or yellowish

Prevention and treatment


Remove creep feed for a few days.
Use antibiotics as prescribed by a veterinary doctor.

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

67

Post diarrhea
Symptoms
Diarrhoea with no traces of blood.
Death from dehydration or blood poisoning (septicaemia).

Prevention and treatment


Increase creep feed before weaning.
Avoid stress to piglets by not mixing piglets from different litters.
Good hygienic measures include roughage in diet.
Use antibiotics as prescribed by a veterinary doctor.

Salmonellosis
Symptoms
High fever, dullness, anorexia, weakness, nervous symptoms.
Bluish-red coloring of the ears, limbs and the centre of the belly.
Bloody spots all over the body.
Wasting and persistent grayish diarrhea sometimes mixed with blood and
shreds or necrotic material from the gut.

Prevention and treatment


Normal hygienic measures pelleted feed, thorough cooking of the swill.
Remove feed for two days and provide clean water.
Use antibiotics as prescribed by a veterinary doctor.

Swine Dysentery
Known by a number of names, including bloody diarrhoea, hemorrhagic enteritis
bloody scours and black scours. It affects pigs of all ages, sometimes causing death.
Symptoms
In acute cases wasting and passing of diarrhoea containing varying amounts of
mucus, blood and necrotic material.
Fever.
In chronic cases, pigs have greyish or brownish faeces, rough hair coat and low
growth rate.

68

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Prevention

Delay reusing the pens of infected animals.


Disinfect pens.

Treatment:
Some herbal medicines (moringa tree leaves) can be used to relieve the
symptoms of diarrhoea and dehydration
Use antibiotics as prescribed by a veterinary doctor

Post weaning syndrome (oedema disease)


Symptoms
Development of oedema and nervous signs.
Paleness peculiar squiaky voice.
General incoordination and loss of balance.
Sudden death.

Prevention and treatment

Affected piglets should be weaned by removal of sow and placed on low-level


diet.
Avoid stress.
Hygiene.
Include roughages in diet.
Use antibiotics as prescribed by a veterinary doctor

Diseases of the Respiratory Tract


These include Influenza, pseudorabbies, pneumonia, atrophic rhinitis and
pasteurellosis.

Influenza
Symptoms

Affected animals are apathetic.


Anorexia
High fever, coughing and sneezing, difficulty in breathing
Red eyes with discharge
Loss of condition.

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

69

Prevention and treatment


Good ventilation.
Vaccination.
No specific treatment. To prevent secondary infection, use antibiotics as
prescribed by a veterinary doctor.

Pleural Pneumonia
Symptoms

Acute cases show anorexia, high fever, laboured respiration, red or blue
colouring of ear-tips, belly, legs and end of tail.
Death within 4 - 6 hours of onset of clinical symptoms.
Blood stained froth from mouth or nose.
Abortion.
In chronic cases, anorexia, coughing and depressed growth rate.

Prevention and treatment

Vaccines only prevent mortality.


Use antibiotics as prescribed by a veterinary doctor.

Atrophic rhinitis (inflammation of the nose)


Symptoms

Sneezing in younger pigs


Shortening or deviation of upper jaw poor growth

Prevention and treatment

Hygiene
Use antibiotics as prescribed by a
veterinary doctor

Pasteurellosis
Symptoms

70

Coughing
Breathing through the mouth

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Bleeding from nose caused by atrophic

Prevention and treatment

Hygiene
Use antibiotics as prescribed by a veterinary doctor

Porcine Respiratory and Reproductive Syndrome (PRRS)


Symptoms

Blue ears and forced breathing


Lactating sows have rough hair coat.
Gilts have problem getting on heat and early abortion.
High mortality in weaners
In boars, high percentage of ulterated (shapeless) sperms, low sperm mortality
and less libido

Prevention and treatment

Use of antibiotics as prescribed by a veterinary doctor.


Vaccination helps but it is so expensive that it may not be cost effective.

Disease Causing Problems in Walking

Arthritis
Symptoms

Inflammation of joints. Thick soft joints.

Prevention and treatment

Use antibiotics as prescribed by a veterinary doctor.

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

71

Streptococcal infections
Symptoms
Septicaemia (blood poisoning) which may cause immediate death.
Young pigs rarely recover
Sudden death in older pigs.
Fever, nervous signs and arthritis mostly in weaners and fatteners.

Prevention and treatment

Proper hygiene. Wash sow before it enters the farrowing pen.


Use antibiotics as prescribed by a veterinary doctor.

Greasy Pig Disease


Symptoms

Brown greasy areas of skin, scales,


scabs (no itching), weight loss, death

Prevention and treatment


Avoid fighting among pigs by mixing
pigs from different pens.
Teeth clipping, soft bedding
Hygiene. Wash sows before entering
farrowing pen.
Use antibiotics as prescribed by a veterinary doctor.

Nutritional Disorders
Anaemia
Symptoms
Pale skin, weak piglets with high respiratory rate.
Jaundice
Blood stained faeces.
Early death

Control and treatment

72

Provide iron injection or oral iron- paste containing iron

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Feeding compost- must be of good quality and supplied daily. Compost of poor
quality may contain bacteria.
Wood ash can also be put into the pen. This will not provide iron, but it does
contain other important minerals.

Other Diseases

Lesion; on foot

on tongue

on teats

Foot and mouth disease (FMD)


Foot-and-mouth disease is an acute, highly contagious, viral of animals with hooves,
such as cattle, water buffalo, goats and pigs.

Symptoms
Sudden onset of severe lameness, fever, formation of vesicles on coronary
bands.
Blisters can be found on thin-skinned areas like udder, teats, anal area and
eyelids. These blisters rapture within one day.
There may be frothy saliva, anorexia, sometimes hooves become loose and fall
off.
Sows may abort.

Prevention and treatment


Vaccination
Quarantine
Proper cooking of swill.
Slaughter and burial.

Swine fever/Hog cholera


Symptoms
Lesions on the body
Fall in temperature before onset of clinical signs.
Reddening of skin and ears.
Incordination of hind limbs.

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

73

Constipation diarrhoea, anorexia.


The animal dies the next day after the
attack. 95 - 100% mortality.

Prevention and treatment

Quarantine.
Boiling of swill.
Restriction of movement of meat from
infected areas
Vaccination
Disinfection
No therapy (treatment)

A pig with swine fever symptoms


Bluish-purple color and bleeding under the skin

Anthrax
Rare in pigs and associated with contaminated feed containing meat.
Symptoms
Oedema and swelling of the neck region.
Dysponea (breathing difficulty).
Fever, anorexia and passage of bloody feaces.
Sudden death.

Prevention and treatment


Use antibiotics (penicillin) as prescribed by a veterinary doctor.
Thorough disinfection of the farm and burning of carcasses.

Vaccination Schedule for Pigs


Name of disease Type of vaccine
Anthrax
Hog Cholera
Foot and mouth
disease

Time of vaccination

Spore vaccine

Once in a year, pre-monsoon


vaccination
Crystal Violet vaccine
After weaning
Polyvalent tissue culture At about six months of age
vaccine
with booster done after 4
months

Swine Erysipelas

Alum treated vaccine

Tuberculosis

B.C.G vaccine

After weaning with a booster


dose after 3-4 weeks
At about six months of age

Warning: Do not administer any medicine and drug within 72 hours of slaughter for food.

74

Farmer's Handbook on Pig Production

Duration of
Remarks
immunity period
One season

One year
One season

About one year


One to two years

After vaccine repeat


Vaccination every
year in October/
November

To be repeated every
2 or 3 years

MANUAL ON HOUSING FOR PIGS

Hentie Breedt

INSTITUTE FOR AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING


INSTITUUT VIR LANDBOU-INGENIEURSWESE
Private Bag / Privaatsak X519, Silverton 0127, South Africa / South Africa
Tel: 012 842 4000 z Fax / Faks: 012 804 0753
Website / Webtuiste: www.arc.agric.za

CONTENTS
1.

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................1

2.

BIOLOGICAL FEATURES OF PIGS ..........................................................................2

3.

THE PIG AND ITS ENVIRONMENT ..........................................................................4


3.1 Influence of the thermal environment on pig production ..........................................4
3.2 The social and structural environment of a pig..........................................................5
3.2.1 Grouping........................................................................................................5
3.2.2 Changing pens ...............................................................................................5
3.3 The chemical environment.........................................................................................6

4.

VENTILATION CONTROL IN INTENSIVE PIG PRODUCTION UNITS ............7


4.1 Objectives of ventilation ............................................................................................7
4.1.1 Controlling ambient temperatures .................................................................7
4.1.2 Controlling humidity .....................................................................................9
4.1.3 Supplying fresh air ........................................................................................9
4.1.4 Removing harmful gases ...............................................................................9
4.1.5 Air movement ................................................................................................9
4.1.6 Light.............................................................................................................10
4.2 Ventilation control ...................................................................................................10
4.2.1 The mechanism of natural ventilation .........................................................10
4.2.2 Requirements for effective natural ventilation ............................................11
4.2.3 Design, layout and management of buildings .............................................11
4.2.4 Ventilation control.......................................................................................13
4.2.5 Mechanical ventilation ................................................................................13

5.

HOUSING REQUIREMENTS OF PIGS ....................................................................14


5.1 The boar and boar pen..............................................................................................14
5.2 The sow and sow pen...............................................................................................15
5.3 Dry sow and dry sow housing..................................................................................18
5.3.1 Pregnant sows housed in crates ...................................................................18
5.3.2 Pregnant sows housed in groups..................................................................19
5.3.3 Pregnant sows in tethers ..............................................................................20
5.4 Farrowing pens.........................................................................................................20
5.4.1 General.........................................................................................................20
5.4.2 The farrowing crate .....................................................................................23
5.4.3 The creeping area.........................................................................................23
5.4.4 Water supply................................................................................................25
5.4.5 Feed supply..................................................................................................25
5.5 Weaners and weaner housing...................................................................................25
5.5.1 Housing for weaning at 35 days, with two litters combined .......................26
5.5.2 All-in-all-out pens........................................................................................28
5.5.3 Housing for early weaning ..........................................................................29
5.5.4 Flat deck housing.........................................................................................29
5.6 Grower and finishing pens .......................................................................................30

6.

CALCULATING THE HOUSING REQUIREMENTS FOR A PRODUCTION


UNIT OF 100 SOWS IN A GIVEN MANAGEMENT SYSTEM..............................36
6.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................36
6.1.1 Assumptions ................................................................................................36
6.2 Facilities for working boars .....................................................................................36
6.3 Facilities for weaning sows......................................................................................37
6.4 Facilities for pregnant sows .....................................................................................37
6.5 Facilities for gilts .....................................................................................................38
6.6 Facilities for farrowing ............................................................................................39
6.7 Facilities for weaned piglets from the age of 35 days to 70 days ............................39
6.8 Facilities for growers ...............................................................................................40
6.9 Facilities for finishers ..............................................................................................41
6.10 Additional needs ......................................................................................................42
6.11 Special equipment....................................................................................................42

7.

HEALTH ASPECTS IN INTENSIVE PIG PRODUCTION UNITS........................44


7.1 General.....................................................................................................................44
7.1.1 Quarantine facilities.....................................................................................44
7.1.2 Security fencing and visitors .......................................................................44
7.1.3 Transport......................................................................................................44
7.1.4 Storage facilities ..........................................................................................45
7.1.5 Water supply................................................................................................45
7.1.6 Insulation .....................................................................................................45
7.1.7 Subdividing of buildings and health............................................................45
7.1.8 Drainage and health .....................................................................................45
7.1.9 Foot dip........................................................................................................45
7.1.10 Cooling ........................................................................................................45
7.1.11 Destroying dead animals .............................................................................45
7.1.12 Herd immunity.............................................................................................46
7.1.13 Conclusion ...................................................................................................46

8.

THE HANDLING OF WASTE IN INTENSIVE PIG PRODUCTION UNITS ......47


8.1 The value of waste ...................................................................................................47
8.2 Positioning of new units...........................................................................................47
8.3 Methods for handling waste.....................................................................................48
8.3.1 Handling of solid manure ............................................................................48
8.3.2 Handling of liquid manure...........................................................................49
8.3.3 Slatted floors................................................................................................49
8.3.4 Deep channel storage systems .....................................................................50
8.3.5 Shallow channel and open channel manure removal systems.....................51
8.3.6 Flush systems...............................................................................................54
8.4 Disposal of disease-infected carcasses.....................................................................57
8.5 Structures and equipment for the handling of manure.............................................57
8.5.1 Anaerobic storage lagoons...........................................................................57
8.5.1.1 Single or double lagoons ..............................................................58
8.5.1.2 Design considerations for anaerobic lagoons ...............................58
8.5.2 Manure storage tanks and agitators .............................................................64
8.5.3 Structures and equipment for separating solid manure ...............................66
8.5.4 Pumps for handling liquid manure ..............................................................68

8.5.5
9.

Manure spreaders and sprinklers and the use and application of manure ...68

TRANSPORTATION OF PIGS ...................................................................................70


9.1 Animal behaviour.....................................................................................................70
9.2 Stress ........................................................................................................................70
9.3 Loading facilities .....................................................................................................71
9.4 Floor construction of the vehicle .............................................................................71

10. PROPOSED LAYOUT OF BUILDINGS FOR A 100-SOW PRODUCTION


UNIT ................................................................................................................................73
10.1 General considerations.............................................................................................73
10.2 Disease control.........................................................................................................73
10.3 Layout of buildings ..................................................................................................74
10.4 Supervision ..............................................................................................................74
10.5 Feed and herding passages.......................................................................................74
10.6 Choice of building....................................................................................................74
10.7 Distance between buildings .....................................................................................74
10.8 Workshop/machinery parking..................................................................................75
10.9 Manure handling and storage system.......................................................................75
10.10 Future expansion.....................................................................................................75
NO-FINES CONCRETE FLOORS .....................................................................................77
MECHANICAL VENTILATION........................................................................................79
LITERATURE REFERENCES ...........................................................................................82

MANUAL ON HOUSING FOR PIGS


CHAPTER 1
1.

INTRODUCTION

Pig production in South Africa is characterized by large intensive production units


representing high capital investment. Currently, more than 25% of intensive units have
between 200 and 1 000 sows.
While planning and creating facilities for intensive pig production units, a compromise must
be found between the maximum production performance of the pigs and efficient
management and labour on the one hand, and the cost of supplying these on the other hand.
For efficient planning and management of intensive production units, it is of the utmost
importance to know what the environmental requirements of the pigs are. Investment in pig
production entails creating indoors environmental conditions that differ completely from the
prevailing conditions outdoors.
There is a worldwide tendency, which has also become evident in South Africa, to increase
the size of intensive pig production units, while the numbers of breeders are dwindling. While
the consumption of pork in South Africa is still relatively low compared with other types of
meat, such as beef, chicken and mutton, it is keeping in step with the population growth.
The importance of housing in the production of pork is often ignored. Ineffective housing
more often than not is the main cause of less successful enterprises.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

CHAPTER 2
2.

BIOLOGICAL FEATURES OF PIGS


The pig is a homeothermic or warm-blooded animal. It has the ability to maintain a
stable body temperature under limited fluctuating ambient temperatures.
A newborn piglets body temperature drops 2 C to 8 C during the first 20 minutes
after birth because of a poorly developed heat regulation mechanism. However, it
may return to normal levels after one to ten days, depending on the ambient
temperature. The piglets thin coat, which is 1,5 mg/cm of hair, as well as body fat
of only 1,4%, forms a poor insulation mechanism against cold. As the piglet gets
older, the percentage of body fat increases, thereby increasing its natural insulation
against cold.
Because it does not have effective sweat glands, a pig is not properly protected
against high temperatures. Pigs try to cool themselves by breathing more rapidly,
spilling water from the drinking troughs or water bowls and by urinating on the floor.
Providing shallow water troughs or fine overhead water sprinklers will help to
improve heat loss by means of evaporation from the wetted body surface.
As a pig gets bigger, or as its live body weight increases, the maximum critical
temperature falls from about 34 C at birth to 25 C at 45 kg, and to between 17 C
and 22 C at 100 kg body weight. The maximum critical temperature is that
temperature whereby heat production by the animals body, that is its metabolic rate,
increases as the ambient temperature drops in order to try to maintain its normal body
temperature of 39 C. With further drops in the temperature, the minimum critical
temperature is reached, that is the stage of maximum metabolic rate or heat
production.

Figure 2.1: Indication of the neutral temperature zone suitable to pigs

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

Between the boundaries of maximum and minimum temperatures, the thermal neutral
zone prevails. At temperatures below the minimum critical temperature, the body
will not be able to produce sufficient heat to make up for heat loss. Death because of
hypothermia (too little heat) will occur. Heating above the critical maximum
boundary, that is where the metabolic rate is too low, will cause an increase in body
temperature and death due to hyperthermia or heat stress.
Piglets are very prone to hypoglycaemia, or low blood glucose content, during the
first seven days after birth. It commonly occurs due to a lack of feed because the sow
suffers from agalactia (no milk flow). The lower the ambient temperature, the sooner
this fatal condition steps in. Heat stress due to too high temperatures is an important
contributing factor to agalactia. Other clinical symptoms of hyperthermia in sows are
an increased body temperature (up to 42 C), rapid pulse, immobility and diminished
appetite.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

CHAPTER 3
3.

THE PIG AND ITS ENVIRONMENT


The environment for pig production may be subdivided into three sections, namely
the thermal, the social and the chemical environment. All three environments, but
especially the thermal, have a particular influence on the production performance of
pigs.

3.1

Influence of the thermal environment on pig production


The thermal, or climatologic environment, is determined by air temperature,
humidity, radiant heat and air movement.
With growing pigs, the purpose of optimum temperature environments is primarily to
ensure optimum health status, maximum growth rate, high efficiency of feed
utilization and the production of ideal carcass quality.
Rapid decreases in the growth rate and the efficiency of feed utilization occur if the
air temperature increases to a higher level than the optimum (which is 21 C for
maximum growth rate). At air temperatures of 37 C and higher, weight loss and
even death may set in.
High temperatures very often have a more detrimental effect on production
performance than low temperatures. Depending on the live body weight of a pig, an
increase of 11 C above the optimum of 21 C may cause a decrease in the growth
rate of between 30% and 70%. There will be a decrease in the growth rate of between
26% and 35% if the air temperature decreases 11 C below the optimum. For a high
growth rate, constant temperature conditions are better than temperature changes
over extended periods.
The heavier the pig, the bigger the negative influence of high temperatures on its
performance. At temperatures higher than 30 C, a pig is extremely vulnerable to
heat stress, bodily exhaustion and sunstroke.
Research results have shown that deviations from the optimum temperature may
suppress the pigs appetite and therefore also its feed intake. It is calculated that an
additional 0,3 g feed per kilogram body weight is required for every 1,0 C that the
temperature decreases to below the effective critical temperature.
Exposure of pigs to too high or too low ambient temperatures also has an influence
on their body composition. For example, exposure to extreme temperatures may
change the size and activity of various organs. Protein deposit, that is muscle
development, is highest at ambient temperatures of 15 C to 23 C. Both higher and
lower temperatures result in greater fat deposits in baconer carcasses.
Ambient temperatures have a great influence on the performance of breeding pigs.
High environmental temperatures have an obvious influence on the fertility of gilts,
among other things. Pregnant sows are more prone to heat stress than non-pregnant
Institute for Agricultural Engineering

sows. Exposure of pregnant sows to high environmental temperatures of between


32 C and 37 C and a relative humidity of 50%, especially during the first few days
after servicing, drastically increase embryo deaths, while the sows appetite and live
weight will also decrease. White sows and sows with no pigmentation that are
sunburnt as a result of exposure to direct sunlight, show high resistance to natural
mating during oestrus, with a resulting negative influence on productivity. High
temperatures also have a negative influence on working boars. It greatly reduces the
libido, or sex drive, as well as the semen concentration, thus causing lower fertility.
3.2

The social and structural environment of a pig


As in the case with other animals, pigs have a hierarchy of domination and
submission within the group. If this order is disturbed by removing pigs from or
adding pigs to the group, the hierarchy will be re-arranged with accompanying
fighting and stress.
The social domination hierarchy is established even before the litter is weaned.
During the first days after birth, a specific weaning hierarchy is formed. This happens
when the stronger piglets take possession of the front nipples, which contain the most
milk. Disturbance of this order retards the growth and development of the piglets.

3.2.1

Grouping
Pigs grow larger when they are housed in groups instead of individually. However, if
the total floor surface for pigs with a live body weight of 60 kg and more is smaller
than 0,5 m per pig, the growth rate may be lower. A large number of pigs on a
limited floor surface in the same pen will result in diminished growth rates and feed
utilization, cannibalism (such as tail biting), dung and urine soiling of the pens and
heat stress.
The ideal group size is determined primarily by the size and weight of the pigs,
environmental conditions, feeding and pen changing practices. Grouping and large
groups are not advisable with the use of hayless and/or slatted floors. Grouping of
eight to 12 pigs per pen during the growth stages of 45 kg to 115 kg live body weight
apparently has good growth and feed utilization results (refer to Chapter 5). Pigs with
a live body weight of less than 45 kg may be grouped together in larger numbers,
provided that the social hierarchy can be established early.

3.2.2

Changing pens
Changing pens means transferring a litter or group of pigs from one type of pen to
another, from birth to weaning or slaughter stage.
When changing pens in large intensive units, it is important to handle the pigs with
care. It is therefore essential to create favourable conditions while planning and
arranging pens, passages and troughs to ensure that they do not suffer any discomfort
or undue stress.
The major objective of changing pens is to ensure the economical utilization of the
available housing, especially for growers and finishers. By changing pens, a saving

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

of up to 36% of the floor surface for sleeping space may be achieved. The saving is
possible because pigs require floor space of varying sizes, as they grow bigger. If
they are kept in the same pen from birth to marketing, floor space is wasted. If pens
are changed only twice, there already is a saving of 31%. When changing pens, the
following needs to be kept in mind:

It has a stressful influence on pigs because the unfamiliar surroundings of the


new pen could debilitate the growth rate, as well as feed utilization.
It may promote the spreading of disease.
More than two pen changes are not advised because the saving on floor space
does not merit the negative influence the changing of pens has on the growth rate
and feed utilization.
Pen changing is only beneficial if the production unit is large enough to regularly
supply the quantity and size pig to utilize the floor space.
Because the pigs are handled regularly and the pens have to be disinfected, pen
changing requires more labour costs.
Management is more demanding.

With single pen systems, the litter is housed in a single pen from birth or weaning to
slaughter stage. Pigs housed in a single pen system show about 2% better growth rate
and 13% more efficient feed utilization than pigs that change pens in the normal
fashion. Also, there are fewer cases of tail biting and cannibalism, while pens need
not to be disinfected as often. The system also requires less labour.
The disadvantage of the single pen system is that it makes specific demands
regarding the planning and erection of the building. Because of the various different
sizes of pigs and the fluctuating number of piglets per litter, pens cannot be used
optimally. This increases the housing costs.
Compared to other aspects, such as the climate in the building, transport methods,
removal of manure and run-off, health and hygiene, pen changing is relatively
unimportant. The larger and more intensive the pig production unit becomes, the
more desirable it is to provide separate housing for each of the different life stages of
the pigs. Pen changing then becomes an essential activity in the production system.
3.3

The chemical environment


The different reactions that take place inside the buildings of intensified pig
production units may change the composition of the air through pollution to such an
extent that harmful gases appear, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane gas (CH4),
ammonia (NH4), and hydrogen sulphide (H2S).
Temperatures higher than 33 C and a high relative humidity of 100%, ammonia
levels higher than 89 ppm and carbon dioxide concentrations higher than 0,7%, lower
the growth rate, the utilization of feed and the health standard of pigs housed under
such conditions.
Efficient ventilation is therefore essential to create the optimum temperature and
other climate conditions, and to ensure an unpolluted air environment for the pigs
(refer to Chapter 4).
Institute for Agricultural Engineering

CHAPTER 4
4.

VENTILATION CONTROL IN INTENSIVE PIG PRODUCTION UNITS


Intensive pig production facilities require ventilation systems to regulate the moisture
and heat produced by the pigs, as well as air pollution produced by dung, feed and
the pigs themselves.
South Africas climate is more moderate than that of some overseas countries. For
that reason, natural ventilation has been used here for decades with excellent results,
provided that proper design considerations have been taken into account. Mechanical
ventilation (air and temperature conditioning) is indeed used, especially for piglets
that are weaned early at 21 days. However, the installation cost is very high.
Buildings with natural ventilation are more economical in terms of fixed and running
costs. Such buildings will still only function effectively if the principles of natural
ventilation are strictly adhered to.

4.1

Objectives of ventilation
The objective of ventilation is the control of the ambient temperature and humidity,
the provision of fresh air, the removal of harmful gases and the movement of air.

4.1.1

Controlling ambient temperatures


The micro ambient temperature, that is the temperature surrounding each pig, can be
controlled effectively by means of ventilation. Pigs that are herded together in a
building create heat. The heat may be applied to good effect during cold conditions,
but during warm conditions, it must be removed by means of effective ventilation.
Heat derived from sunbeams causes an increase in the conduction and radiation heat
inside the building. Figure 4 indicates the expected increase in solar heat inside an
uninsulated piggery with a maximum height of 3,0 m in South Africa.
Ventilation means replacing the air inside a building with fresh air from outside.
Controlled ventilation is to control the rate at which the air is replaced, depending on
the environmental conditions outside the building, such as temperature and wind
speed.
Figure 4.2 illustrates the interrelationship between temperature increase, insulation
and various ventilation rates.
Temperature increases occur when the temperature inside the building rises above the
outside temperature due to heat emitted by the pigs.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

Figure 4.1: Solar heat values at 14:00 in the RSA


for a piggery of 3 m high (W/m)

Figure 4.2: Temperature increases as against the


rate of air replacement for insulated, partly insulated
and uninsulated, fully occupied buildings, with an
outside temperature of 15 C

The graphs in Figures 4.1 and 4.2 illustrate the following:

The ability of pigs to create heat and increase the temperature of the ambient
micro environment.
The relative increase of solar heat inside the piggery.
The relative effect of total insulation, partial insulation (roof) and no insulation.
The important role of ventilation to curtail temperature increases during warm
conditions.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

Temperatures inside buildings can be controlled effectively with the use of natural
ventilation, provided that the design of the building, as well as the layout and construction are
done properly.
4.1.2

Controlling humidity
Humidity plays an important part in the micro climate conditions inside piggeries.
The ideal is to keep pigs in a relative humidity range of between 45% and 75%.
Relative humidity values of more than 80% and less than 40% should be avoided.
This may be brought about randomly by means of natural ventilation, or by means of
controlled ventilation and proper management.

4.1.3

Supplying fresh air


Fresh air is best for pigs. Ventilation supplies fresh air rich in oxygen.

4.1.4

Removing harmful gases


Harmful gases should be removed for the sake of the pigs health. The building
should be managed in such a way that it requires the minimum amount of air changes
to regulate the temperature. At the same time, it has to be ensured that gases, dust
particles and pathogens are removed effectively.

4.1.5

Air movement
Draughts cause the temperature to fall due to evaporative cooling, that is to say
increases in both the lower critical and upper critical temperatures occur. The graphs
in Figure 4.3 give approximate indications of how the effective temperatures on the
skin surface are lowered due to air movement. Draughts should be avoided. Air
movement should be limited to the minimum during winter. During summer however
air movement should be used to cool the environment by means of judicious
ventilation control.

Figure 4.3: Approximate reductions in the dry bulb


temperatures due to air movement at different
speeds over the human skin

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

4.1.6

Light
Artificial lighting is not usually required in piggeries. Translucent flaps or shutters
usually allow enough daylight to enter the building. Even solid flaps will allow
enough daylight into the building when they are opened and closed for ventilation
purposes.

4.2

Ventilation control
An important facet of production management in a pig production unit is proper
ventilation control. Inadequate ventilation could have the following results:

More deaths
Poor health
Lowered production performance
Unsatisfactory working conditions
Increased maintenance costs for buildings and equipment

In most parts of South Africa, the climate conditions are such that natural ventilation
is adequate.
4.2.1

The mechanism of natural ventilation


There are two mechanisms involved in the natural ventilation of a building (see
Figure 4.4):

Thermal forces or the stack effect


Wind forces or the wind pressure effect

The stack effect occurs when warm air inside the building rises and gets replaced
with cold air lower down. It depends on the following:

The temperature difference between the air inside and the air outside the building,
namely t.
The height difference between the inlet and outlet points, h.
The areas of the inlet and the outlet vents, A1 and A2.

The buildings in Figure 4.4 are designed in such a way that, when the flaps are fully
opened, the stack effect will ensure sufficient air replacement to provide oxygen and
remove gases. It may even cause the temperature in the building to drop notably,
although there is little airflow.
The wind effect develops due to pressure differences generated when the wind blows
over the building. The pressure forces effect air movement or natural ventilation
through the building.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

10

Figure 4.4: Two natural ventilation mechanisms

4.2.2

Requirements for effective natural ventilation


The design, layout and construction of buildings have to be accurate from the start in
order to facilitate ventilation. The following basic principles apply:

4.2.3

Fresh air has to come from a lower level.


Stale air has to be extracted from a higher level.
Roofs with flat gradients are completely subject to suction during windy
conditions. This aids the extraction of stale air.
Airflow is directly linked to the size of the vents and is determined by the area of
the smallest vent.
The further apart the vents, the less the airflow will be.
Practical observations have shown that wind directions may deviate up to 50
from a line perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the building, without
significantly influencing the suction force.
The windbreak effect of an object extends to approximately six times its height
on the down-wind side. This should be kept in mind to ensure maximum
ventilation in summer. It may also be used to soften the effect of cold winter
winds.

Design, layout and management of buildings


The design of buildings should adhere to the basic dimensions as shown in
Figure 4.5. This is to ensure optimum ventilation regulation. The following should
also be kept in mind:

11

Use economical materials


Use good quality concrete

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

Apply damp proofing to the floors and insulate the floors with no-fines concrete
(Appendix A), especially in wet areas.
Insulate the roof where high temperatures can be expected.

For effective natural ventilation, buildings should be positioned in such a way to


make optimum use of prevailing winds and topography, while at the same time
minimizing heat increases due to radiation. The ideal is to place the longitudinal axis
of the building in an east-west direction. However, the directions of prevailing
summer winds should be the determining factor. The longitudinal axis is therefore
placed rectangular to this direction. The low side of a flat-roofed building should be
placed in an up-wind direction. Best results are obtained if the gradient of the
building site also lies in this direction. In cases of any doubt, professional advice
should be sought.

Figure 4.5: Main dimensions applicable to naturally ventilated piggeries

The following are important points to consider when planning the layout of
buildings:

Buildings must be spaced at least 18 m apart to ensure effective air movement


between the buildings and to combat the spread of disease.
There should be no obstructions in the way of warm winds.
If the land falls in the direction of prevailing warm winds, smaller spaces
between the buildings may be considered.
Obstructions to cold winds however are advisable.
If the ground falls in another direction than the prevailing warm winds, that is
downhill, bigger spaces between buildings should be considered.
Institute for Agricultural Engineering

12

4.2.4

Ventilation control
The ventilation of a modern piggery entails the following:

4.2.5

Meticulous control of ventilation vents.


Monitoring of the temperature and relative humidity in the building.
Meticulous removal of dust, gases and pathogenies by means of sufficient air
replacement.
Keeping of performance records.
Supplying heat to piglets.

Mechanical ventilation
The principle of mechanically ventilating pig housing facilities is described in
Appendix B.

13

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

CHAPTER 5
5.

HOUSING REQUIREMENTS OF PIGS


Intensive pig housing represents the largest capital outlay of pig-breeding. Planning,
not only of efficient buildings, but also of economical buildings, is therefore
extremely important. The main aim of pig-breeding should be to produce the
maximum amount of quality meat in the shortest possible time.
The efficiency of pig housing in intensive housing units is strongly influenced by
especially temperature control and ventilation (as discussed in the previous chapter).
Experiments have clearly shown that space, the length of feeding troughs and the
comfort and facilities of pens, play an important role in optimum pig production.
Pigs have different environmental and climate requirements during different stages of
growth. In order to reach their full potential, boars and sows especially need special
attention as far as prevention of high ambient temperatures and other stress factors
are concerned.
The housing requirements of different pigs at different growth stages will be
discussed separately in this chapter. Special attention will be paid to required floor
space, feed and water supply and the treatment of manure. The common layout for a
100-sow production unit is shown in Figure 10.1

5.1

The boar and boar pen


One boar is required for every 15 to 20 sows. The boar should be kept separately in a
pen with a minimum floor area of 7,0 m. However, if the pen is to be used for
servicing purposes, a minimum floor area of 9,3 m is required, with the shortest side
not shorter than 2,1 m. This is necessary so that the boar may easily turn around in
his pen.
The floor in the boar pen should be non-slippery and equipped with bedding. If the
pen is used for servicing, the floor should be free of slats and other obstructions. The
floor is cast with a fall towards the sides to enable urine to drain towards a shallow
manure channel on the side of the service passage or along the side of the building.
The channel in turn drains to the main manure channel.
All non-solid gates should be designed with vertical spacers to prevent the boars
from climbing up against the gates. The spacers are usually made of round iron pipes,
with a 20 mm diameter, spaced vertically, no further apart than 75 mm. The height of
the gate should correspond with the height of the surrounding wall, that is 1 400 mm.
Bedding in the sleeping area of the boar pen will prevent the sides of the hooves and
false hooves from chafing against the concrete when the boar gets up from a lying
position. It will also prevent the development of bedsores on the shoulders of heavy
boars.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

14

The feed trough has to be placed in such a way that wood shavings on the floor are
not eaten with the feed. Each boar requires a trough of between 460 mm and 600 mm
long, 150 mm to 200 mm high and 500 mm wide. The condition of the boar is
important because he cannot be allowed to become too heavy for the sow.
A boar needs about 10 to 15 litres of drinking water per day. High quality drinking
nipples (12 mm in diameter) with a flow rate of at least 2 litre/min are commonly
used. If the drinking nipple is placed at a 90 angle with the vertical, the height from
the floor has to be between 550 mm and 650 mm. If it is placed at an angle of 45,
the required height is 650 mm to 750 mm.
Because pigs are in the habit of defecating where they drink water, their water has to
be placed in the dunging area. To prevent the feed from getting wet or soiled by urine
or faeces, the feeding trough has to be placed as far away as possible from the
dunging area and the drinking nipple.
The boar pen has to be cool, well ventilated and free of draughts. If possible, the
temperature in the pen should never go higher than 22 C for long periods. Boars that
are exposed to temperatures of higher tan 32 C may become infertile for up to six
weeks thereafter. Sufficient roof insulation is essential for proper temperature
control.
If there are problems in keeping the boars cool due to high ambient temperatures,
they may be sprinkled with water, or moistened with water in some other way. Pigs
do not sweat and cooling is brought about through evaporation. For this reason,
sprinklers are preferable to moistening because moistening only cools the air, while
sprinkling wets the pig and causes the skin to cool through evaporation.
5.2

The sow and sow pen


In an intensive pig production system provision is made for five single sow pens per
boar, because the sow has to stay there for five weeks and a sow/boar ratio of 1:20
has to be maintained.
It is important to bring the boar into contact with the sow as often as possible. The
boar is therefore allowed to pass through the feeding passage, about 1,5 m wide, in
front of the sow pens (Figure 5.1A). To manage even more contact between the boar
and sows, or in cases where there are no feeding passages, partitionings made of iron
pipes 20 mm in diameter, spaced 75 mm vertically, are placed over the slatted floor
area between the adjoining boar and sow pens (Figure 5.1B). The reason for placing
the partitioning over the slatted or dunging area is that pigs tend to defecate while
communicating with pigs in adjoining pens.

15

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

Figure 5.1A: Sow and boar house

Figure 5.1B: Cross-section of the sow and boar pens

Alternatively, the sow may be placed in a pen directly next to the boar right after she
weaned her litter. The pens are divided by a pipe partitioning. A direct connecting
gate may be placed between the pens (Figures 5.2A and 5.2C). The gate is opened
and closed from the service passage. The boar is allowed access to the sow twice
daily by simply opening the gate. This avoids unnecessary moving of the sow from
her place to the boar and back, and makes it easier to manage the boars oestrus
identification problems. The arrangement as mentioned above also has a calming
effect especially on the boars. As soon as the sow has been served and does not want
to stay with the boar any longer, she is moved to an individual pen close to the boar
pen. If it is confirmed after three weeks that conception has taken place, she is moved
to a crate partition or to group housing where she remains until her 12th week of
pregnancy.
An alternative is to follow the same construction as in Figure 5.2A, but to leave out
the gates that link the boar pen with adjoining pens. All movement from and to the
boar pen then takes place via the passage.
For individual feeding, the sows are placed in pens of about 1,8 m adjacent to the
boar pen. The sows are kept in the same building as the boar. For this reason, the
same temperature and ventilation requirements apply as those for the boar.
Temperatures of between 9 C and 22 C are acceptable, with an optimum of 16 C.
The relative humidity should be between 40% and 70%.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

16

Slatted floors, with a width of one third of the length of the sow pen, are frequently
used. The slats keep the sows relatively dry and clean, and facilitate management of
the system significantly. A drinking nipple with a 12 mm diameter is placed 550 mm
to 650 mm high at an angle of 90, or 650 mm to 750 mm high at an angle of 45
above the slatted floor. The estimated water requirements of a non-pregnant sow is
five litres per day and the required water flow rate two litres per minute. The feeding
trough measurements are the same as those for boars.
The sow and boar stable has to make provision for pens adjacent to the boar pens
where gilts can be placed in groups of four. The boars that are placed next to the gilts
should preferably be older boars that are more relaxed and have more experience.
Hand servicing should be supervised and requires a lot of patience because it may
take a while.

Figure 5.2A: Sow and boar House 2

Figure 5.2B: Cross-section of sow and boar pens House 2

Figure 5.2C: Cross-section of boar pen House 2

17

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

5.3

Dry sow and dry sow housing


For a period of about one month after weaning her litter, and for about two weeks
before she farrows, the housing, feeding and management of the dry sow go through
a critical phase. Dry or pregnant sows may be housed in crates, in groups or in
tethers.

5.3.1

Pregnant sows housed in crates


The crates that house the sows are about 600 mm wide, with a minimum length of
2 000 mm and a height of 1 000 mm above floor level. The height of the bottom
railing has to be between 150 mm and 225 mm above floor level to allow the sow to
lie down comfortably and to allow enough room for her legs. It is important to close
the crate at the top with steel rods to prevent the sow from turning around and
jumping out. About 50 crates are required for a 100-sow unit. It is advisable not to
keep gilts in crates. If they are, they should preferably not be put next to older sows,
but rather next to boars.
Slatted floors at the back of the sow keep the crate dry and allow for easy
management. The slatted floors have to extend 300 mm behind the crates to prevent
the sow from defecating in the passage when standing against the back of the crate.
The quality of the slats is important because sharp edges will seriously damage the
hind legs and hooves of the sows. The gaps between the slats should be 25 mm. A
water pipe, 20 mm in diameter, can be used to determine the space. The floor
underneath the crate should have a slope of 1:100 in the direction of the slats and link
up with the slats evenly, without a step. No-fines concrete floors (Appendix A) are
recommended for insulation against cold. The building where the dry sows are
housed must be draught-free to maintain an optimum temperature of between 15 C
and 16 C for maximum conception and survival of embryos. Roof insulation will
also be extremely beneficial for temperature control and is strongly advised.
Sunken or above-ground feeding troughs may be used. Trough measurements for dry
sows are as follows:

Length:
Height:
Width:

460 mm to 600 mm
150 mm to 200 mm
300 mm to 500 mm

In the case of sunken troughs, a crate length of 1 800 mm will be sufficient. To


eliminate unnecessary excitement among the sows during feeding time, tippingbowls may be fixed to a common railing per section, which serves as a hinge. The
troughs are filled while the sows are still busy with the previous meal. At feeding
time, all the bowls are swivelled from a common point and all the sows are fed
simultaneously. The bowls need to be swivelled away from the sows to prevent the
feed from spilling on them. This feeding system may also be used in the boar and
sow house.
Water can be supplied by means of a flushing system in a continuous feeding trough
or by means of drinking nipples with a diameter of 12 mm. The approximate drinking
water requirements of dry sows are 10 to 18 litres/day/sow and the flow rate at which

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

18

water should be provided per nipple should be about two litres/min. Nipples that are
placed at an angle of 90 with the vertical have to be 550 mm to 650 mm above
ground level, and nipples at an angle of 45, 650 mm to 750 mm above ground level.
Drinking nipples are often placed above the feeding troughs to ensure that water
spills only into the trough.

Figure 5.3A: Dry sow crate housing

Figure 5.3B: Cross-section of dry sow crate housing

5.3.2

Pregnant sows housed in groups


Research has shown that sows that are housed in groups of four to five significantly
increased the number of litters per year. Pens have the advantage that sows that are in
heat again can be noticed much easier. However, the sows have to be fed individually
to prevent fighting. A feeding trough with individual partitions for each sow can be
used for this purpose.

19

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

Where possible, sows with the same body weight and condition have to be grouped
in the same pen with a floor area of 3,9 m to 4,9 m per sow. The area includes a
sleeping area of 1,3 m to 1,8 m, a dunging passage of 1,3 m to 1,8 m and an
individual eating space of 1,3 m per sow. The height of the pen wall must be
1 200 mm. A gate 1 200 mm high and 750 mm wide, consisting of mild steel rods
with a diameter of 12 mm and spaced about 50 mm vertically, must be provided.
Group housing can also be done semi-intensively by merely placing a roof over the
pens and keeping the sides open. This layout requires less material and construction
costs, but could possibly create problems regarding the regulation of temperature and
ventilation. Instead of using wall partitions between pens, vertical trellis partitions
consisting of mild steel pipes 20 mm thick, or else mild steel 12 mm in diameter,
spaced 50 mm to 75 mm vertically, can be used.
Where slatted floors are used, the slats should cover one third of the length of the
pen, and the drinking nipples should be installed above the slatted floor to prevent
water from spilling on the floor. Use can also be made of a shallow manure channel
with a flushing system (refer to paragraph 8.3.5).
5.3.3

Pregnant sows in tethers


The sows movements are restricted by means of a belt around her body, just behind
the front legs, or around the neck. The belt is fastened to the floor with a short chain,
about 300 mm behind the feeding trough. The crate areas are 600 mm wide, 800 mm
to 1 000 mm above floor level and about 1 000 mm to 1 300 mm long.
The tether requires little material, but the cost of the belt implies that the cost of the
system as a whole is more or less the same as that of a conventional crate. Handling
and accessibility are easier with a tether, because the crate is open at the back. It also
simplifies testing for pregnancy in large intensive units.
Care should be taken that the tether does not chafe or strangle the sow when she lies
down too far away from the point where the chain is fastened to the floor. The length
of the chain should be adjustable according to the height and condition of the sow.
The tether should also not interfere with the freedom of the sow to get up or lie
down.

5.4

Farrowing pens

5.4.1

General
The most important considerations regarding housing during farrowing and the first
seven to ten days thereafter, are to supply optimum temperatures to the sow and her
litter and to limit deaths among the piglets through trampling or overlying.
Approximately 30 farrowing pens, 1,8 m to 2,0 m by 2,2 m to 2,5 m big, are required
for a 100-sow unit. A large variety of farrowing pens is commonly used. Very good
results are obtained by using the two alternative Holderness type pens as shown in
Figures 5.4A and 5.4B. The sloped sides, which force the piglets to defecate on the
slatted floor, are typical of these pens. Because the system requires more material and

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

20

due to construction and other practical problems, it is not very popular. Figures 5.5A
and 5.5B show a farrowing pen with parallel sides, which is easier to construct and
which requires less floor space per pen. The measurements indicated allow for a
large enough pen to keep the sow and her litter there until they are weaned at five
weeks. The height of the partitioning between adjoining farrowing pens is between
500 mm and 600 mm.

Figure 5.4A: Farrowing pen (Holderness type)

Figure 5.4B: Cross-section of Holderness type farrowing pen

Figure 5.5A: Farrowing pen (rectangular layout)

21

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

Figure 5.5B: Cross-section of a rectangular farrowing pen

Sows should be placed in disinfected farrowing pens one week before farrowing to
allow time for adjustment to the new surroundings. The sow or gilt is washed and
treated for scabby skin, not less than two days before she farrows.
The floor of the farrowing pen has a gradient of 1:50 in the direction of the manure
channel. The floor ends in a manure channel or is linked to slatted or perforated
floors to direct all urine away from the sow. When any kind of perforated floor is
used, care should be taken that the sows nipples cannot be damaged. Expanded
metal is not recommended. No-fines concrete is strongly recommended as flooring
material (see Appendix A). If possible, the level where the sow lies should be 25 mm
higher than the level where the piglets move around. It allows the piglets greater
access to the sows nipples. To a certain extent, it also prevents the piglets from
creeping underneath the sow where she can squash them.
To create more pleasant working conditions for labourers and to facilitate the
removal of manure, farrowing pens are placed over slats. Placing the pens on a
perforated sheet over a shallow manure channel (see Figure 5.5B) underneath the
sow, requires more labour. It is also more difficult to clean this system. The spaces
between standard concrete slats are, however, too large for piglets because their feet
get stuck. A grid floor consisting of flat (6 mm 20 mm) and round (10 mm
diameter) mild steel rods welded alternately onto a framework should rather be used.
The spaces between the rods should be maximum 10 mm across in the direction of
the farrowing crate to prevent the sow from slipping. Concrete and plastic slats may
also be used. The vertical partitions between adjoining farrowing pens, usually round
mild steel rods 8 mm in diameter, vertically spaced 50 mm apart and 500 mm high,
should be removable to allow for repairs to the grid floor.
The temperature requirements of the sow that is between 10 and 22 C must be
observed. Daily variations may not exceed 4 C to 5 C. As mentioned before, the
optimum temperature for piglets in the creeping pen is between 27 C and 32 C. The
temperature requirement of newborn pigs are, however, between 32 C and 37 C.
Cold will lower the resistance of piglets against disease. Piglets kept at 21 C are five
times more prone to serious bouts of diarrhoea than those kept at 35 C. Cold
piglets need more feed than warm piglets, but eat less.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

22

5.4.2

The farrowing crate


The farrowing crate is made of steel pipes or round steel rods. The measurements are
extremely important to ensure that the sow is comfortable. The crate has to be
designed in such a way to allow enough free space behind her for easy farrowing,
and to prevent the piglets from being overlaid. Enough walking space for the piglets
should be allowed behind the sow. The construction of the crate is vertical from the
top (about 950 mm above floor level) to a height of 400 mm above the floor. This
part of the crate is between 450 mm and 500 mm wide. After this, the crate widens to
700 mm or 850 mm at a height of 200 mm or 250 mm above the floor. The narrow
part at the top prevents the sow from falling when she lies down, and gives the
piglets a chance to get out of the way when she lies down. The wide part at the
bottom of the crate ensures that the sow lies down comfortably and that the piglets
have easy access to her nipples. The length of the crate is about 2 500 mm and
includes the feeding trough in the front part. If the crate is fitted with vertical
partitions, the partitions at the front should be 80 mm from the floor to keep the
sows head from getting stuck. Partitions further to the back must be 150 mm to
200 mm above the floor. The distance between the partitions at the front of the crate
can be 200 mm to 250 mm, and at the back 270 mm and 320 mm. A plan for a
typical farrowing crate is given in Figure 5.6.

5.4.3

The creeping area


A creeping pen of 600 mm by 600 mm with bedding must be provided for the piglets.
Wood shavings are preferred for the bedding, but if hay is used, care should be taken
that it is not set alight by the heater. A roof over the creeping pen is essential to
prevent draughts and to keep the heat inside. A vertical overhang along the roof of
the creeping pen improves the recycling of warm air. The optimum temperature in
the creeping pen is 27 C to 32 C. It is important to provide heat for at least the first
five days after birth. After that, the piglets will be able to produce enough body heat
for the creeping area, except during very cold weather conditions.
In order to keep piglets healthy and alive, they should be kept warm. To ensure that
the sow has enough milk for her litter, she has to be kept cool. Every possible effort
should be made to obtain an average of 10,5 live born piglets per litter.

23

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

Figure 5.6: Plan for a typical farrowing crate

Temperature fluctuations of more than 5 C in the creeping area must be avoided. A


light in the creeping area provides heat, attracts the litter and helps in this way that
the piglets are not squashed to death by the sow. Gas heaters are often used,
especially where electricity is not available. Infrared lamps are very economical as
far as the consumption of electricity is concerned, because only the sow and piglets
are heated. However, the floor remains cold.
Electricity of around 300 W to 500 W is required for every creeping pen. Underfloor
heating may also be installed in the creeping area. The advantage of underfloor

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

24

heating is that the floor surface is also heated, meaning that the piglets are heated
from underneath. With the use of infrared lamps or heaters, the floor often remains
cold. The disadvantage of underfloor heating is that it takes a while to get warm,
especially when cold weather unexpectedly sets in. A heating method, which is
increasingly becoming popular, is the use of heated rubber mats in the creeping area.
The efficiency of these mats is very high, while the electricity consumption remains
low compared to other heating methods.
It is preferable not to place the creeping pen too close to the sow, because the heat
may cause her discomfort and stress. If the creeping pen is indeed placed close to the
sow, sufficient insulation should be provided between the pens. Generally, the
creeping pen is positioned in front of the sow away from her nipples. An additional
heating lamp behind the sow will reduce the mortality of the newborn pigs. The
piglets must be able to easily find the heated creeping area after birth.
5.4.4

Water supply
A drinking nipple with a diameter of 12 mm is placed at a height of 500 mm to
600 mm (if the nipple is at an angle of 90 with the vertical),or a height of 600 mm to
700 mm (for a nipple at an angle of 45), above or next to the sows feeding trough.
The lactating sow needs about 18 to 23 litres of water per day at an average flow rate
of two litres/min. The piglets get a drinking nipple or water trough in the dunging
area. The drinking water requirements of piglets are in the region of 0,70 to
1,0 litres/day. A nipple with a 6 mm diameter should be used for the piglets. If the
nipple forms an angle of 90 with the vertical, it should be installed at a height of
100 mm, and if the angle is 45, at a height of 150 mm. To limit the mortality of
piglets due to dehydration, the drinking nipple can be set up to continuously drip
somewhat.

5.4.5

Feed supply
It is preferable to equip the litter with a creep feeder. A small, simple self-feeder
100 mm high, 150 mm wide and 250 mm long, which is filled twice or three times a
day, is sufficient to prevent the feed from becoming stale and mouldy. The feeder can
also be equipped with hooks and hooked over the dividing wall between adjoining
pens to prevent the piglets from shoving it around. The self-feeder is placed
approximately halfway between the creeping pen and the slatted floor, against the
dividing wall. Milk powder strewn on the floor will encourage the piglets to eat.
The sow gets a concrete trough 460 mm to 600 mm long, 150 mm to 200 mm high
and 300 mm to 500 mm wide at the front of the farrowing crate. As mentioned
before, the drinking nipple is often placed above the feeding trough.

5.5

Weaners and weaner housing


For many years, it was customary in South Africa to wean pigs at the age of 35 days
(five weeks). Worldwide, and locally, the tendency to wean pigs at an earlier age, for
instance at the age of three weeks, is becoming more and more popular. This section
focuses on housing for pigs weaned at 35 days, with two litters grouped together, allin-all-out pens, housing for early-weaned pigs and flat deck housing.

25

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

5.5.1

Housing for weaning at 35 days, with two litters combined


When the method of weaning at 35 days is followed, and two litters, that is about
20 piglets, are put together, a pen 8,0 m in size (0,3 m to 0,5 m per pig) will be
required. The pen walls are about 600 mm high. The piglets remain in these pens
until they are 70 days old (ten weeks), whereafter they are moved to grower pens.
A total of about 14 weaner pens are required for a 100-sow unit, taking into account
that each sow weans on average 2,3 litters per year, and that each litter contains an
average of ten piglets. The pens are housed in one building, in two rows of seven
pens each, with a centre feeding passage 1,0 m to 1,6 m wide (Figures 5.7 to 5.9). If a
portion of the slatted floor is placed over a flushing channel, it simplifies the cleaning
of the pens, while also increasing the hygiene. Communication between pigs in
adjoining pens takes place through communication railings. The railing is placed in
the dunging area and is made of steel rods, 10 mm in diameter, spaced 75 mm
vertically and 600 mm high.
To supply the piglets with about one to three litres of drinking water per day, a
drinking nipple of 6 mm in diameter is placed 250 mm to 400 mm above floor level
at an angle of 90, or 300 mm to 450 mm above floor level at an angle of 45, against
the communication railing. This will ensure that urine and manure from the piglets
land on the slatted floor.
To keep the cost of materials as low as possible and to create cleaner conditions, the
two rows of pens can be placed back-to-back. The walking and feeding passages are
then combined with the outer walls of the building with two manure channels against
each other in the middle of the building. However, this layout means that the building
will be wider.
For the supply of feed, a movable self-feeder can be used to adjust the size of the
pen, as the piglets grow bigger. However, automatic feeding becomes more difficult
with the use of the movable self-feeder. If a feeding trough is used to supply feed to
the piglets, the required length for the trough is 150 mm to 170 mm per pig, the
height is 100 mm and the width 150 mm. Gates are not provided, because weaners
can be picked out of the pen by hand. Provision has to be made for bedding in the lie
area, and also for a removable screen, because piglets require proper regulation of
environmental conditions up to the age of ten weeks, with temperature needs of
between 17 C and 25 C. Draughts should be avoided. Each pen is cleaned when the
pigs are removed, but true effective sterilising is not possible because the pens are in
the same building.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

26

Figure 5.7A: Weaner house 1

Figure 5.7B: Cross-section of weaner house 1

Figure 5.8A: Weaner house 2

27

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

Figure 5.8B: Cross-section of weaner house 2

Figure 5.9A: Weaner house 3 Nest type

Figure 5.9B: Cross-section of nest type weaner house

5.5.2

All-in-all-out pens
These pens are designed in such a way to accommodate all the litters of the sows that
give birth in the same week in an enclosed section of the building when they are
being weaned. The piglets then remain in this part of the building until they are
transferred to a grower unit. All piglets enter the unit during the same week and leave
the unit during the same week. That part of the building, which has been occupied by
the group, can then be disinfected properly.
Institute for Agricultural Engineering

28

In a 100-sow unit, not more than five sows should farrow per week. The building is
then designed in such a way that each section contains six weaner pens. Each litter
occupies a pen, while the weakest piglets from the five litters are grouped in the sixth
pen. After the piglets have been weaned at five weeks, they remain in this part of the
building for another five weeks, until they are ten weeks old All piglets are moved to
the grower pens at five weeks. A week is allowed for sterilising and cleaning that
part of the building. If a pen is occupied for five weeks and cleaned for one week, a
building with six sets of pens, each containing six pens, therefore altogether 36 pens,
is required.
5.5.3

Housing for early weaning


When piglets are weaned at the age of three weeks (21 days), the regulation of
temperature and ventilation is even more important than when they are weaned at
five or six weeks. The temperature requirements of piglets weaned at three weeks are
between 25 C and 29 C. In order to obtain optimum temperatures of this kind, it
will be necessary to regulate the temperature of the building, or else make provision
by installing a heated creeping area.
Management plays an important role in achieving success and knowledge of housing
and feeding methods is vital. The all-in-all-out system should be applied and there
has to be enough pens to allow a cleaning period of seven days (one week). The
piglets are housed here for 21 days and are therefore six weeks old when they are
transferred to another type of housing. The piglet should weigh about 12 kg at this
stage, while its temperature requirements may still be as high as 23 C. The kind of
heating, and especially the kind of floor used, are important issues.
Not more than 24 piglets, at 0,25 m per pig, should be kept in one pen. It is
important to remember that a pipe diameter of 20 mm will allow enough water
pressure to share water points between pens, thus saving the cost of one pipe length.
A self-feeder is optional, but a floor-feeding trough is better because it allows the
caretaker to see the piglets more often.
Research on piglets that have been weaned at 21 days has shown the following:

5.5.4

Early weaning (21 days) means that sows spend 61 days less to wean five litters,
which means that she can have 2,54 litters per year instead of 2,34, as is the case
with sows that wean their litters at 35 days.
Creeper feed intake per piglet weaned at 21 days up to the age of eight weeks is
14,1 kg compared to 10,7 kg per piglet weaned at 35 days.
Sows that wean at 21 days show an increase in weight of 66,4 kg over five
cycles, compared to an increase of 52,3 kg in sows that wean at 35 days.
Groups of pigs that wean early produce 20% more piglets aged eight weeks.

Flat deck housing


In larger units where piglets remain in the same pen system until they are nine to ten
weeks old, flat deck housing is preferable. The pens are also often used for piglets
that are weaned at three weeks.

29

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

If the litters are separated, 14 pens will be required for a 100-sow unit, and if they are
kept together, 20 pens will be required. The pens consist of a pre-fabricated steel
frame with a trellis fence 600 mm high. A floor area of 0,2 m to 0,4 m is allowed
per piglet with a weight of up to 35 kg. The floor should be covered with high quality
plastic, woven mesh or perforated steel plate. However, the surface of the area near
the feeding trough has to be solid. Care should be taken to ensure that metal slatted
floors do not rust easily. The partitions between the pens should be of a kind that will
allow the piglets to communicate with one another while drinking and dunging on the
perforated part of the floor. The pen is installed over a flushing channel to help with
cleaning and the removal of manure.
Because the decks are on top of the floor, special care should be taken to ensure that
there are no draughts from underneath. Roof insulation is essential and roof and side
ventilation must be regulated. Temperature regulation for decks is not difficult. The
temperature should be kept between 17 C and 25 C.
If possible, and for better results, piglets from the same litter should be kept together
(about ten piglets). The mixing of different litters may cause stress, which in turn
could cause a drop of as much as 13% in the growth rate.
Flat deck housing allows for better control, easier management and treatment of the
piglets and inhibits the spreading of disease. An all-in-all-out system is maintained to
enable the disinfection and cleaning of pens. A disadvantage of the system is that the
pens are rather expensive. The high cost of replacing worn pens is the major reason
why this system is seldom used in new units.
5.6

Grower and finishing pens


Pigs are normally moved from the weaner to the grower pens. The piglet should
weigh about 30 kg at this stage and should have temperature requirements ranging
between 12 C and 18 C.
Depending on the stage at which the pig is marketed, it will remain in the grower
house until it reaches a weight of between 60 kg and 110 kg. Nowadays, ad lib
feeding is commonly used for grower purposes. This also is the only difference
between the grower and finishing houses. In the latter kind, feed intake is limited.
This does not only save on the consumption of feed, but by regulating the growth of
the pig at this stage, better grading and market prices can be ensured.
It has been scientifically proven that pen sizes based on floor space per pig have an
influence on the growth potential of pigs. Although small differences do occur, the
average norm is about 0,8 m per 45 kg; 0,95 m for up to 90 kg and 1,0 m to 1,3 m
for up to 110 kg live body weight.
While planning the grower and finishing houses the design should take into
consideration that about two thirds of the waste generated by the production unit will
come from these two buildings. For the handling of manure inside the building, the
use of slatted floors over a manure channel is recommended. Wide concrete slats of
between 100 mm and 120 mm, spaced 20 mm apart, are commonly used. The outside
of a 12 mm water pipe may be used to determine the size of the spaces. High quality

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

30

plastic slats may also be used.


Where two litters of more or less 20 piglets are grouped together from the weaning
stage, the group is transferred to the grower pen in its entirety. If the norm for a 100sow unit applies, as mentioned before, about 20 grower pens are required, each
designed to house 20 pigs with a live body weight of between 30 kg and 65 kg. These
pens are housed in the same building. After this, each group of 20 pigs is separated
into two groups. After the gilts have been taken out of the group, the remaining eight
or ten pigs go to the finishing pens where they are kept until they are marketed.
Double the number of pens is required for the finishing house. These should be
housed in two identical buildings. The pens may be grouped together intensively,
completely inside a building, or semi-intensively, with open sides and covered by a
roof. The latter method requires less material but factors such as the location,
ambient temperatures and the breeders preferences should be considered. For more
cost saving, manure can be removed by means of a shallow flushing channel instead
of slatted floors (refer to paragraph 8.3.5).
The layout inside the building consists of two rows of pens with a feeding passage in
the middle (see Figures 5.10 to 5.14). The alternative is to build two rows of pens
back-to-back with a feeding passage on the outside of each row of pens. The layout
for grower and finishing pens, as well as the dimensions, is identical. The only
difference is the feeding method used and the number of pigs housed in a pen. A selffeeder is used for growers, while finishers use a feeding trough allowing 300 mm per
pig, with a height of 150 mm to 200 mm and a width of 300 mm. The self-feeder has
to be installed properly to prevent spilling of feed. Rationed and ad lib feeding
requires different feeding trough dimensions per pig. The recommended dimensions
are as shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Recommended trough dimensions

35

Trough space
Rationing
(mm)
200

Trough space
Ad lib feeding
(mm)
50

60

240

60

90

280

70

120

300

75

Pig weight
(kg)

Growers and finishers require about five to ten litres of drinking water per day at a
flow rate of 600 ml to 750 ml per minute. Drinking nipples at an angle of 90 with
the vertical are installed above the slatted section at a height of 450 mm to 550 mm
for growers and at 550 mm to 650 mm for finishing pigs. For a nipple at an angle of
45, the required height is 550 mm to 650 mm for growers and 650 mm to 750 mm
for finishers.
In pens with a feeding passage in the middle, it is essential to ensure that the gates on
either sides of the passage are not directly opposite one another. If the gates are
directly opposite one another, the pigs will communicate across the passage and soil
the whole pen.

31

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

In most regions, housing which is open at the front can be used for finishers, because
they are now able to resist low temperatures for some time without any detrimental
effects. However, controlling the ventilation in the building is very important. A pig
with a body weight of 54 kg produces 80 W sensible heat. Therefore, 100 pigs with
the same weight will produce 8 kW heat. Sufficient ventilation must be available to
remove the body heat and to replace the old air with fresh air. With proper
ventilation control, it is possible to regulate the temperature inside the building if the
temperature outside is lower than the temperature required by the pigs. Furthermore,
ventilation prevents the build-up of harmful gases, as well as breathing problems.
Roof insulation is recommended to prevent radiation heat from the roof. Asbestos
roofs do not insulate as effectively as is commonly believed. Asbestos tends to
become black after a while which causes the roof to absorb heat which is then
radiated into the building. White paint on blackened asbestos roofs will lower the
temperature inside the building.

Figure 5.10A: Grower house 1

Figure 5.10B: Cross-section of grower house 1

Figure 5.11A: Grower house 2

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

32

Figure 5.11B: Cross-section of grower house 2

Figure 5.12A: Grower house 3

Figure 5.12B: Cross-section of grower house 3

Figure 5.13A: Finishing house 1

33

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

Figure 5.13B: Cross-section of finishing houses

Figure 5.14A: Finishing house 2

Figure 5.14B: Cross-section of finishing houses

The handling of waste in grower and finishing houses is the same. Two methods are
used, namely the clean flushing system and dry manure handling system.

The flushing system


A single or double row of slatted floors over a flushing channel is often used. In
housing with a feeding passage in the middle, the flushing channel is usually
placed parallel to the outside wall, while a trellis partition is installed across the
width of one flushing channel, usually one metre wide, between adjoining pens.
The purpose of these partitions is to enable pigs to communicate with others next
door. The partition consists of iron rods 12 mm in diameter, spaced 75 mm
vertically, with a height the same as that of the wall, which is between 1,0 m and
1,2 m.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

34

Pens that are built back-to-back, with two feeding passages along the outer walls,
have slatted floors in the middle of the building on either side of the border
between the pens. Partitions between the pens are installed at the joint dividing
wall, also by means of trellises. Channels without any gradients underneath the
slatted floors are flushed clean by means of a syphon-flushing tank. All floors are
built with a slope of 1:50 in the direction of the slatted floors.

Dry manure handling


The handling of dry manure is only possible with pens that adjoin the long side of
the building and have a central feeding passage in the middle. Pens are built with
a slope of 1:50 towards the side of the outer wall. A gap is left in the outer wall
through which the manure is transported outside. A concrete channel is built
along each long side of the building and manure and urine are scraped out of the
pens into the channels. The latter are in turn scraped after the pens have been
cleaned every day.
The pens can be cleaned by means of a high pressure water-hose, provided there
is enough pressure, and the channels flushed with clean water. In these pens,
drinking nipples are fixed to the outer wall of the pen. Trellis partitions of one
metre wide can be installed against the back wall between adjoining pens for
communication purposes.

35

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

CHAPTER 6
6.

CALCULATING THE HOUSING REQUIREMENTS FOR A PRODUCTION


UNIT OF 100 SOWS IN A GIVEN MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

6.1

Introduction
Before calculating the housing requirements for a certain production unit, the
following questions have to be answered:

What size should the unit be?


Are weaners, porkers, baconers or slaughter animals produced?
What is the desired efficiency level, for instance, the age at which animals are to
be marketed or the productivity level of sows?
Which management system will be used?

An optimum management system will be assumed in determining the housing


requirements and certain other assumptions are made, as given below. The following
housing requirements are also based on these grounds. With each type of housing the
management system and calculation method are discussed briefly.
6.1.1

Assumptions

Size of the unit: 100 productive sows, excluding gilts.


Weaning is at 35 days.
Sows produce 2,3 litters per year.
Ten live piglets are born per litter.
The mortality rate among piglets from birth to marketing is 10%.
At the age of approximately 120 days, 20% of the piglets weighing between
60 kg to 70 kg live body weight will be marketed as porkers.
At the age of approximately 180 days, 80% of the pigs with a live body weight of
between 90 kg and 100 kg will be marketed as baconers.
Select eight gilts per month aged 100 days, that is 96 gilts per year.
At the age of 160 days, a final selection of the best four gilts from each group of
eight will be made.
Sows give birth at an average rate of four to six piglets per week.
If gilts are bought, they should be acquired at a rate of five per week over
22 weeks.
The ratio between boars and sows should be 1:20.
PLEASE NOTE:

6.2

If any of these assumptions are changed, the housing requirements will change
accordingly.

Facilities for working boars

Seven single boar pens are needed. Five are for working boars and two for young
boars (Figures 5.1 and 5.2).

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

36

Management system
The boar remains in his pen. The sow is brought to him for servicing, or the gate
between the adjoining boar and sow pens is opened. The boar is only allowed into
the passage when he has to identify a sow on heat.

6.3

Facilities for weaning sows

Management system
After the sow has weaned her litter, she is kept in a single sow pen near the pen
of the boar that has to service her, for at least 35 days, or in a group pen designed
for weaning sows.

Pen occupation period


At 2,3 litters per sow per year, it means that a sow occupies a single sow pen for
35 2,3 = 81 days per year.

Needed
One sow pen is therefore sufficient for:
365 81 = 4,51 sows
100 sows therefore need:
100 4,51 = 22,2 pens, approximately 22 pens

Recommendations
Rather make provision for 25 single sow pens (Figures 5.1 and 5.2), that is five
sow pens per working boar pen, or alternatively, 30 single sow pens, six per boar
pen.

6.4

Facilities for pregnant sows

Management system
After the sow has weaned her litter, she is kept in a single sow pen near the boar
pen for at least 35 days. After this, the pregnant sow is moved to the facilities for
pregnant sows. The pregnant sows are therefore kept here from 28 days into
their pregnancy until seven days before farrowing.

Pen occupation period


A sow occupies a standing place in the building for pregnant sows for:
114 28 7 = 79 days after each litter that she weans
That is, a sow occupies a standing place for:
79 2,3 = 181,7 days per year

37

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

Needed
One standing place is sufficient for:
365 182 = 2,01 sows per year
That is, for 100 sows:
100 2,01 = 49,8 or 50 standing places are required

Refer to Figures 5.3A and 5.3B regarding the physical layout of the pens.
6.5

Facilities for gilts

Management system
Eight gilts aged 100 days should be selected each month. At 160 days, the best
four gilts are finally selected from the group and the rest are marketed. From the
age of 180 days, the gilts are brought into contact with a working boar, but they
are not serviced until the age of 211 days (100 kg). Gilts are housed in groups of
four at the age of 100 days.

Pen occupation period


A. Period from age 100 to 160 days:
Select eight gilts per month = 96 gilts per year
Pen occupation period:
160 100 = 60 days
Number of groups per pen per year
365 60 = 6,1 or 6 groups
B. Period from age 160 to 250 days:
Select four from each group of eight gilts per year, that is 4 12 = 48 gilts
Pen occupation period:
250 160 = 90 days
Number of groups per year
365 90 = 4,1 or 4 groups

Needed
A. Number of groups per year = 48 4 = 12 groups
Number of pens required = 24 6 = 4 pens
PLEASE NOTE:

From the age of 100 to 160 days, the gilts are kept in finishing pens. That
is to say, provision has to be made for four additional finishing pens.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

38

B. Number of groups per year = 48 4 = 12 groups


Number of pens required = 12 4 = 3 pens

PLEASE NOTE:

6.6

From the age of 160 days, the gilts are kept in the servicing house.
Provision has to be made for two to three gilt pens, each of which can
house four gilts, plus two pens, each of which can house a young boar in
the servicing house.

Housing is done in one building as shown in Figures 5.1 and 5.2.

Facilities for farrowing

Management system
The sow has to be cleaned and disinfected in an area for this purpose a week
before she is to farrow. She is then placed in the farrowing crate. The sow and her
litter remain in the crate until the piglets are 35 days old, after which the litter is
moved to the weaner pens and the sow to the servicing facilities. The crate is then
thoroughly cleaned and disinfected during a rest period of four days.

Pen occupation period


Before farrowing
Sow and litter
Cleaning and sanitizing
Total

=
=
=
=

Needed
Make provision for 100 2,3
One crate is sufficient for 365 46
Therefore, 230 litters need 230 7,9
PLEASE NOTE:

6.7

7 days
35 days
4 days
46 days

=
=
=

230 litters per year


7,9 litters per day
29,1 crates

Provide 30 farrowing crates in total.

Figures 5.4A and 5.4B and Figures 5.5A and 5.5B show a plan for farrowing
pens.

Facilities for weaned piglets from the age of 35 days to 70 days

Management system
On weaning day, the piglets are put in groups of 20 according to live body weight
and moved to the weaner pens where they remain until they are 70 days old. At
70 days, the piglets are transferred to the grower pens. However, all weak piglets
are regrouped and kept in the weaner pens until they weigh approximately 20 kg.
After a pen has been vacated, a rest period of seven days is allowed for cleaning
and sterilizing the pen before the next group of piglets is let in.

39

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

Pen occupation period


For the age group of 35 days to 70 days
Cleaning and sterilizing
Total

=
=
=

35 days
7 days
42 days

Needed
Number of sows
Number of litters/sow/year
Total number of litters
Number of piglets/litter
Total number of piglets
Minus 10% deaths
Number of piglets weaned
Number of groups of 20

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

100
2,3
230
10
2 300
230
2 070
2 070 20
103,5 or 104 groups

Number of groups of 20 per pen per year:


365 42 = 8,7 groups per year
Number of weaning pens required:
103,5 8,7 = 11,2 pens
PLEASE NOTE:

Make provision for 14 weaner pens because weak piglets are kept in weaner
pens for longer than 35 days.

Feeding system
Ad lib, creeper pellets are supplied in a self-feeder (which does not spill).

6.8

Refer to Figures 5.7A and 5.7B, Figures 5.8A and 5.8B and Figures 5.9A and
5.9B for general weaner housing.

Facilities for growers

Management system
Piglets are moved from the weaner to the grower pens at age 70 days. Groups are
not mixed again at this stage. Only the small and weak piglets are removed from
each group and kept in the weaner pens for a longer period.

Alternative
Producers are free to group the piglets at 70 days according to live body weight in
two sub-groups and to house them in groups of 10.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

40

Pen occupation period


For the period from 70 days to 120 days old
Cleaning and sterilizing
Total

=
=
=

50 days
7 days
57 days

Needed
Facilities to house 20 piglets per group, that is:
2 070 20 = 103,5 or 104 groups
Number of groups per pen per year is:
365 57 = 6,4 groups
Number of grower pens needed:
104 6,4 = 16,3 pens
PLEASE NOTE:

Make provision for 18 instead of 16,3 grower pens.

Alternative
If the piglets are put in groups of 10, then 36 grower pens will be needed.

Feeding system
Ad lib, growth meal is provided in self-feeders up to the age of 20 days. Spilling
should be limited to the absolute minimum.

6.9

Refer to Figures 5.10A and 5.10B, Figures 5.11A and 5.11B and Figures 5.12A
and 5.12B for general information on grower housing.

Facilities for finishers

Management system
Piglets are kept in their relevant groups of 20 up to the age of 120 days. After
they have been weighed at the age of 120 days, the piglets are put in groups of
10 according to their weight and moved to finishing pens. If the little boars are
not castrated, the groups should not be made up according to weight, but
according to sex. The groups of finishers will therefore consist of eight to ten per
group, depending on the percentage of pigs that is marketed at the growth stage
of 45 kg.

Needed
Facilities to house 104 2 = 208 groups of eight to ten piglets each per year.
Number of groups per finishing pen per year:
365 67 = 5,4 groups per pen

41

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

Number of finishing pens required:


208 5,4 = 38,5 pens
PLEASE NOTE:

Make provision for 42 finishing pens plus the four pens needed for gilts as
discussed, therefore a total of 46 finishing pens.

Feeding system
From the age of 120 days up to the age of marketing, limited feed is given in
troughs.

6.10

Figures 5.13A and 5.13B and Figures 5.14A and 5.14B show plans for general
finisher housing.

Additional needs
Besides the needs mentioned above, provision also has to be made for the following:

6.11

Storing space for hay, bags, fodder, feed mixing, etc.


Office and other facilities
Workshop
A foot dip or washing area where the pigs can be scrubbed and disinfected and
where their feet can be treated.
Washing and toilet facilities for workers.

Special equipment

Drinking water nipples: 12 mm nipples for large pigs, 178 per 100-sow unit
6 mm nipples for piglets, 44 per 100-sow unit

Farrowing crates: 30 per 100-sow unit

Shallow feeding bowls for piglets from the age of seven days to 35 days in the
farrowing area, that is 30 per 100-sow unit.
Measurements:

Depth 60 mm
Length 300 mm
Width 150 mm

Self-feeders for weaner pens: 14 per 100-sow unit


PLEASE NOTE:

Self-feeders serve as dividing wall between the sleep area and the feeding
passage.

Covers over sleeping area for weaner pens: 14 per 100-sow unit

Self-feeders for grower pens: 18 per 100-sow unit

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

42

Reliable scales: For finishers one scale


For growers one scale

High-pressure pump for water hose: One pump

Infrared heaters: 30 per 100-sow unit

Feed trolleys: 6 trolleys

Garden hose: 1 per building

Foot dip for visitors at entrance to the unit

PLEASE NOTE:

Effective production and management not only depend on optimal housing, but
also on a breeding policy scientifically planned in advance, and the keeping of
an effective record system.

Table 6.1: Housing requirements for a 100-sow unit if some of the production
assumptions mentioned are changed
Standard

Alternative 1
(Change 1)

Alternative 2
(Change 2)

Needs as calculated in
the preceding
discussion.

Litters are housed


separately until they are
marketed.

Sows have only two


litters per year and 20%
of the young die before
weaning. Piglets divided
into groups of 20.

Boar pens

Sow pens

24

24

20*

Gilt pens

Standing places
for pregnant sows

50

50

56*

Farrowing crates

30

30

26*

Follow-up pens

14

28*

10*

Grower pens

18

36*

14*

Finishing pens

42

46*

32*

Type of pen

*Deviations from the norm

43

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

CHAPTER 7
7.

HEALTH ASPECTS IN INTENSIVE PIG PRODUCTION UNITS

7.1

General
Diseases in pigs can be divided into two categories:

Specific infections and/or contagious diseases brought into the unit, or already
present in a latent form.
Secondary health problems, which develop or are promoted by environmental
factors, and therefore more dependent on management and housing.

The following factors are important in any intensive pig production unit.
7.1.1

Quarantine facilities
This is necessary for the housing of animals brought into the unit from outside.
Simple pens some distance from the main unit are usually adequate. They have a
variety of functions, namely:

Isolation and observation


Adapting to climate
Preventative health management, such as immunisation, medication, de-worming
and treatment against scab.
Controlled exposure to organisms present in the herd.

A period of four to six weeks in quarantine is usually sufficient.


7.1.2

Security fencing and visitors


Nobody should be able or allowed to enter and walk around a pig production unit at
will. Facilities should be of such a nature that visitors are compelled to first announce
themselves at a clearly designated office where they may be provided with protective
clothing and water boots. The risk of spreading disease will be limited, or hopefully
eliminated, in this way.

7.1.3

Transport
It is preferable that no delivery vehicle should drive around inside the security fence.
Provision has to be made, for instance in the case of feed deliveries, to deposit
deliveries in storage tanks which are placed on the border of the fence.
If vehicles have to enter the area, it is important to provide a dip-tank filled with
disinfectant to drive through. Shoes also have to be disinfected.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

44

7.1.4

Storage facilities
This applies to especially feed and bedding. Tanks or silos for the storage of feed
should be scrutinized to ensure that both the cover and the joints are watertight.
Damp feed with resulting mouldiness can cause great stock losses. Facilities for
storing bedding are essential, as damp or soiled bedding can cause health problems.

7.1.5

Water supply
Depending on the source and the extent of the contamination of the water, provisions
for the purification of water have to be made, especially for the farrowing and weaner
houses. It may sometimes also be necessary to use water for dosing individual groups
in specific buildings as treatment against certain diseases.

7.1.6

Insulation
Maintaining optimal temperatures is always important, especially in the farrowing,
weaning and servicing areas. Roof insulation has to be considered for this purpose.

7.1.7

Subdividing of buildings and health


This is specifically important in the case of breathing ailments, a problem which
tends to increase as the size of the unit increases. On principle, the all-in-all-out
system should be considered for the farrowing stage, and for four to six weeks
thereafter. Please consult a veterinary advisor in this regard.

7.1.8

Drainage and health


It is advisable to drain all pens individually, that is to ensure that the flow-off of one
pen does not flow into another pen.

7.1.9

Foot dip
This should be built at a convenient spot close to the servicing and dry sow buildings.
A place to wash and dip the sows before they are transferred to the farrowing house
should also be provided.

7.1.10 Cooling
Fridge facilities are essential for storing vaccines and medicines, as well as material
for laboratory research.
7.1.11 Destroying dead animals
The carcasses should preferably be buried. They should not be dumped on the dungheap where they are exposed to flies which in turn will spread disease (refer to
paragraph 8.4).

45

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

7.1.12 Herd immunity


Pens should be made available for young breeding animals where they can be
grouped together for an immunisation programme before they mate. This initiation is
becoming increasingly more important, especially with the current trend to house a
large percentage of the breeding herd individually.
7.1.13 Conclusion
To conclude, the breeder should remember that control of the environment has
become more critical in modern housing, and that serious stock losses can occur if
control of the climate is inadequate. The positioning of doors and windows in
relation to the time of day, the temperature and prevailing wind and climatic
conditions for the time of year, are aspects that should be considered.
In older type housing, the animals could choose where they wanted to lie, something
which has become impossible in modern housing designs.
The foregoing information has shown that pig housing is an intricate subject, which
necessitates close liaison with available consulting services, such as agricultural
engineers, animal experts and veterinarians.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

46

CHAPTER 8
8.

THE HANDLING OF WASTE IN INTENSIVE PIG PRODUCTION UNITS


When a factory complex is built, a strategy is always devised to handle its waste or
by-products in such a way that it can be put to use, or to treat it in such a way that it
does not become a nuisance. The same principle should apply when planning and
building a pig production unit, because the removal of manure forms an integral part
of the activities in such a unit. Steps should be taken to combat problems associated
with waste products. At the same time, the national and provincial health regulations
have to be obeyed, while useful applications of the waste material should be
investigated.

8.1

The value of waste


The amount of waste produced by a 100-sow production unit has the same pollution
potential as a town with 2 800 inhabitants. A 100-sow unit which markets say 20
piglets per sow per year, will produce about 1 710 tons of undiluted waste per year.
Add to this, the above-mentioned waste of washing water, and the total annual waste
production of a 100-sow unit could exceed 6 000 tons.
The undiluted daily excrement as percentage of the pigs body weight is on average
7,2%. Therefore, a pig which weighs 60 kg will produce on average 4,3 kg undiluted
manure per day. It is difficult to determine the real net value of the waste, because it
differs from region to region. It also depends on the demand for waste products and
the availability of nearby farmlands where its nutritional value for plants can be put
to proper use. To illustrate its value, it can be mentioned that the net annual income
from manure produced by a 100-sow unit, with due consideration to losses during
application and whether it is applied correctly, is the same as the income derived
from the sale of 100 baconers. Table 8.1 shows the approximate amounts of manure
and liquid manure produced by pigs during the various production stages.

8.2

Positioning of new units


The following considerations are important, regardless of which method is used, to
handle manure:

47

The prevailing wind direction in relation to residences.


The proximity of water sources that can be polluted by the flow-off from the unit.
The availability of a suitable site for erecting a manure handling system.
The gradient of the site, which should be flat enough for a building, but steep
enough to ensure proper drainage.
The availability of sufficient water encourages proper cleaning.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

Table 8.1: Expected amount of dung and urine, as well as the total amount of
liquid manure produced per pig during the various production stages
Production stage

Pregnant sow
Lactating sow weaning at 5-6 weeks
Piglets
4 kg to 11 kg (3-4 weeks)
11 kg to 22 kg (6-9 weeks)
Growers
22 kg to 57 kg (9-16 weeks)
57 kg to 91 kg (16-22 weeks)
Average for growers (22 kg to 91 kg)
Dry feeding
Wet feeding

8.3

Methods for handling waste

8.3.1

Handling of solid manure

Manure and urine


per pig per day
(litre)

Total storage space


needed for liquid
manure per pig per day
(litre)

11,5
20,5

16,1
28,7

1,1
2,3

1,5
3,5

3,4 to 5,1
7,4 to 9,1

4,8 to 7,4
10,4 to 12,7

7,0
12,0

9,8
16,8

The handling of solid manure, that is to say manure and bedding, requires a lot of
labour. The following are usually needed:

Solid concrete floors inside the building where bedding can be placed. The floor
should have enough of a slope (1:50 to 1:100) to allow the drainage of urine to
one side of the building. An opening is usually provided in the outer walls of the
buildings to allow urine and spilled drinking water to drain into a canal parallel to
the long side of the building.
There should be a large enough concrete floor outside the building where the
mixture of manure and bedding can be scattered for long-term storage or
composting. Provision should also be made to catch the drainage in a storage tank
from where it can be applied directly to farmlands.
Front-end loaders or other machinery to transport, mix and turn the manure.
Different types of scrapers pulled by a chain or cable, or mounted to a tractor.

Storage of the manure should be done without causing a nuisance. There should also
be possibilities for partial or full treatment while the manure is being stored.
The solid manure, which is usually mixed with some bedding, can be stacked in
wind-rows. It should be constructed and positioned to allow water to drain from the
wind-row, without collecting effluent water. Treatment of solid manure, which is
being stored for long periods, is essential to avoid the nuisance of stench and flies.
The cheapest method to treat manure is by means of composting. This is a process
through which the organic material is converted to a stable humus by aerobic
bacteria. Aerobic bacteria need oxygen to survive, and oxygen has to be provided in
the form of air, or else anaerobic wasting will take place, resulting in bad smells and
the development of harmful gases. The most common method to aerate the material
is to regularly turn the wind-row, or to blow air mechanically through the wind-row
by means of a centrifugal fan.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

48

8.3.2

Handling of liquid manure


Liquid manure is a combination of all the excreta of the pigs and the water coming
form leaking drinking nipples, flushing water for floors and water used for flushing
other areas. The handling of liquid manure is preferred for one or more of the
following reasons:

It is less labour intensive than the handling of solid manure.


No bedding material is needed.
Flies do not breed in liquid manure.
Slatted floors limit direct contact between animals and their manure, and in this
way, contact with pathogens is limited.
Wasted manure water from lagoons can be recycled for cleaning purposes. In this
way, fresh water can be saved.
Aerated and odourless liquid manure with a low viscosity can be recycled as
flushing water, thus also saving water.

Liquid manure can be handled by:

Deep storage channels under slatted floors, which are seldom emptied.
Shallow channels under slatted floors, which are regularly flushed clean.
Open channels, which are flushed clean regularly.
Wide concrete alleys, which are regularly flushed clean.

Auxiliary facilities include the following:

8.3.3

Flushing tanks of different designs


Pumps, agitators and pipes
Equipment for separating solids
A lagoon to accumulate liquid manure before application to farmlands

Slatted floors
The development of slatted floors, whether covering part of the pen or the whole pen,
has made the handling of liquid manure possible. Slatted floors leave the pens dry
and relatively clean and require less labour.
Concrete slats are the most common and durable kind, but they also are the heaviest,
demanding sturdy support. The recommended spacing between concrete slats for all
buildings in a piggery, excluding the farrowing pens, is 20 mm for slats with a width
of between 75 mm and 100 mm. Wooden slats disintegrate, bend and are chewed by
the pigs, leading to uneven spacing between the slats. These are not recommended.
Round metal rods, alternated with flat rods, are preferred for using in farrowing
houses. Spacings of 10 mm are recommended. This is to prevent the feet of piglets
from slipping through the rods and getting stuck. High quality plastic slats may also
be used. They come in separate slabs, which are fitted into each other, making
replacement easier. Examples of the kinds of slats most often used in piggeries are
shown in Figure 8.1.

49

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

Figure 8.1: Examples of slats

Slatted floors with collecting channels underneath are very expensive. When
selecting a floor plan, the habits of the animals have to be taken into consideration to
avoid contact between the animal and his manure. This can be done as follows:

Feeding places have to be far away from the manure accumulation areas to
prevent contamination of the feed.
Drinking places must be put over the slatted area because animals tend to urinate
while they drink.
The partitions that enable animals in adjoining pens to communicate have to be
placed over the slatted area because pigs defecate and urinate while
communicating.

Pigs such as growers and finishers are usually messy, but dry sows are not. In the
case of growers and finishers, which also by far produce most of the manure in a
piggery, it is recommended to cover the total floor area, or at least two thirds of the
floor, with slats (refer to Figures 5.10 to 5.14). For gilt, dry sow, boar and weaner
pens, a slatted area over a one-meter wide channel will be sufficient. Expanded metal
floors are not recommended because they may damage the feet and nipples of the
animals. Untreated aluminium bars are also not recommended because of possible
corrosion damage.
8.3.4

Deep channel storage systems


The deep manure channel (about 1,0 m deep) underneath slatted floors serves as a
storage tank with a storage capacity of between one and three months. The channel is

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

50

first filled with water up to a depth of about 70 mm to prevent flies from breeding in
the initially semi-solid manure. Manure from the slatted floors, plus the urine and
spilled drinking water fill the channel. The manure slurry should not be allowed to
get deeper than 200 mm underneath the slats. The manure and slurry volume can be
assumed to be about 1,5 m to 2,0 m per month per sow unit, that is 10 pigs of 60 kg
each.
To make proper use of the deep channel storage volume, unnecessary dilution of the
slurry, by for instance leaking drinking nipples, should be avoided. A serious
disadvantage of the system is that solids tend to build up on the bottom of the
channel. This leads to the build-up of toxic gases and gases with an unpleasant odour,
which may have a negative influence on the performance of the animals. When large
volumes of slurry are moved, for instance, when manure is being dumped, toxic and
suffocating gases may be released. These include sulphuretted hydrogen (H2S),
methane (CH4) and carbon monoxide (CO), caused by the anaerobic decomposing of
organic material. A sudden release of a large volume of toxic gases can even cause
the animals to die. For this reason, buildings have to be ventilated properly,
especially when the deep channel is being emptied. It has become obvious from
experience that the deep channel storage system is not recommended for Southern
Africa.
8.3.5

Shallow channel and open channel manure removal systems


Shallow channel and open channel systems are very common in piggeries. The
shallow channel system, with flushing underneath the slatted floor, is recommended
for all buildings. There is no build-up of toxic gases or gases with an unpleasant
odour, because the diluted slurry, which is created in this way, can be flushed to a
tank outside the building. The width of the manure channel is usually standardised on
between 800 mm and 1 200 mm to correspond with the standard width of concrete
slats.
The main disadvantage of flushing open channels and shallow channels is that they
require large amounts of water. The amount of fresh water used can, however, be
drastically cut by re-using the slurry, or by using aerated manure with a low flood
resistance as flushing medium.
Channel dividers are needed on wide channels to prevent the flushing water from
flowing around solid manure, especially at the bottom end of the building where flow
rates decrease in any case. Channels with a width of up to 1,0 m do not need dividers,
but one or more dividers are necessary for channels of 1,0 m to 3,0 m wide (see
Figure 8.2).

51

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

Figure 8.2: Channel divider underneath slats

Experience has shown that when a slope of one to two percent is used together with a
smooth channel floor, the channel should not be less than 40 m long. This will ensure
that the flushing water moves fast enough to clean effectively. The length of the
building can, however, be doubled by using a centrally situated cross-channel for
receiving the flushing water from the bottom of each building.

Figure 8.3: Building of 80 m long with under-slats flushing


and drainage to a central cross-channel

When a slope of one to two percent is used, a channel floor with built-in cross-lips,
as shown in Figure 8.4, will maintain a liquid level, which will prevent manure from
getting stuck to the concrete. Local experience has taught that channels of up to 80 m
long can be flushed effectively if they have built-in cross-lips (see Figure 8.4).

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

52

Figure 8.4: Channel floor with built-in cross-lips, which maintain a


liquid level, thereby preventing the manure from sticking to the floor

If the building has a horizontal channel with no slope, a cross-lip of 150 mm across
the discharge end of the flat channel floor will at all times maintain a corresponding
water level in the channel. This water will prevent manure from sticking to the dry
concrete floor between flushings (see Figure 8.5). A low water level can also be
obtained by installing a weir at the discharge end. Good results can be obtained by
building 300 mm deep channels absolutely level without any cross-lips over a
distance of 35 m. Construction of these channels is also much easier.
A possible alternative is to use the open channel system in grower and finisher
buildings. A potential problem is the spreading of disease and the transmission of
antibiotics. The open channel system allows animals direct contact with the flushing
water and is therefore not recommended for working sows and working sow units.
When the animals lie in the open channel while it is being flushed, their skins get
wet, offering a cheap and simple way of evaporation cooling. In this way, the
summer performance of animals can be improved.

Figure 8.5: Horizontal channel with cross-lips


over the discharge ends

Open concrete channels of one meter wide, 50 mm to 100 mm deep, with a slope of
one to two percent on the long side of the building, drain towards a cross channel
alongside the building and from there to a lagoon (see Figure 8.6).

53

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

Figure 8.6: Open gutter for grower and finisher buildings

8.3.6

Flush systems
Flush systems for manure removal are classified as:

Flush tanks with a sluice gate or valve discharge


Tipping tanks
Siphon tanks, above the ground or at ground level
High volume pumps
Continuous operating systems

The flushing tank with sluice gate or valve discharge is the most popular system
because it is simple and easy to conduct. Details about flush tank designs are shown
in Figures 8.7, 8.8 and 8.9.

Figure 8.7: Flush tank with sluice gate

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

54

Figure 8.8: Flush tank with automated valve

Figure 8.9: Manually operated flush tank


with float-control inlet

The advantages of a flush tank are as follows:

55

Building costs are low because the tank can be placed at ground level against one
wall joined to the end wall of the building.
A simple and inexpensive sluice gate may be used.
The tank may be filled by means of an inexpensive low-powered pump.
To prevent the tank from accidentally overflowing, a floater-control inlet may be
installed as illustrated in Figure 8.9.
Because of the large flushing volume, usually about 3,0 m per flushing, only one
flushing per day or one every two days will be necessary.
Institute for Agricultural Engineering

The disadvantages of a flush tank with a sluice gate discharge are that:

Although greasing will help, it is difficult to prevent the sluice gate from leaking
when it is in use.
Steel sluice gates with mechanical linkage are subject to corrosion.
Manual labour is required to open the sluice gate for flushing.

A possible disadvantage of the flush tank with pipe discharge is that if the diameter
of the pipe is too small, the discharge will be too slow to remove solid manure from
the channel floor, especially at the bottom end of long buildings. This disadvantage
can be overcome by means of built-in cross-lips, which will maintain a minimum
liquid level in the channel (see Figure 8.4).
Tipping tanks are mainly used for small volume flushings, as at farrowing houses.
Experience has shown that large tipping tanks are expensive to build and service. A
typical tipping tank is shown in Figure 8.10.

Figure 8.10: Tipping tank

The advantages of tipping tanks are that:

The basin can be filled by means of an inexpensive low-power pump or tap.


An automatic flushing action

The disadvantages are that:

The size is almost limited to a content volume of 380 to 570 litres because more
expensive bearings and axles are required to handle large volumes.
Strenuous labour conditions are required for regular maintenance of bearings and

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

56

8.4

tanks.
Corrosion of metal construction materials can occur.
It is impractical for long buildings due to the small volume discharge; the
maximum recommended building length is 24 m.
Open tank construction does not allow for a controlled release of flushing water in
order to limit the flushing time to ten seconds.

Disposal of disease-infected carcasses


In the case of animals, which died because of notifiable diseases or is thought to have
died because of one, the untouched carcasses must be disposed of by means of
burning or incineration. If none of these are possible the relevant carcasses must be
disposed of by burying them at least 1,8 m deep (in caustic lime, if possible),
especially in case of large animals and rabid animals, or animals thought to have
been infected by rabies. The carcasses of small animals or the remains of burnt or
incinerated carcasses must be buried at least 1,2 m deep.
Where manure is handled in solid form, another method is allowed, namely, to
dispose carcasses suspected to have been contaminated in hot straw or manure heaps.
The carcass decomposes quickly, within two to three days, because of the heat and
bacterial activity. A danger to this method of carcass destruction is that pathogens
can be spread by flies and other insects.

8.5

Structures and equipment for the handling of manure

8.5.1

Anaerobic storage lagoons


The purpose of a biologically active anaerobic lagoon is to serve as an odourless
long-term reservoir for liquid manure. A lagoon system allows for great flexibility
regarding timing for application to fields to relieve moisture stress in crops. The need
for plant nutrients can be satisfied partially, depending on the time of application.
Great savings can be made on repeated transport of liquid manure and applications to
farmlands, because a lagoon only needs to be emptied once or twice per year,
provided it has been designed and managed properly. Furthermore, lagoon water can
be recirculated as flushing medium in handling systems for liquid manure, thereby
saving on the use of fresh water.
Biologically active lagoons work better during summer than in winter. If the water
temperature of a lagoon falls below 10 C to 13 C, the anaerobic conversion of
organic material into methane gas and carbon dioxide will not take place on a
practical scale.
It is not possible, however, for a biologically active anaerobic single or double
lagoon, even during summer, to achieve the degree of purification to produce lagoon
effluent clean enough to allow direct delivery into a public water body. In order to
prevent pollution to streams, lagoons cannot be allowed to overflow, unless there is a
protective stretch of grass of at least 100 m wide.
Problems experienced with improperly designed and mismanaged lagoons include
bad odours, rapid slurry forming and the build-up of heavy metals in the lagoon

57

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

sludge.
8.5.1.1 Single or double lagoons
A second lagoon, smaller than the primary anaerobic lagoon, is generally
recommended for intensive pig units which recirculate the lagoon liquid for channel
flushing where pigs have direct access to flushing water. It is believed that the second
lagoon will provide a certain degree of protection against disease-carrying organisms
carried over from the first lagoon.
A second lagoon has the following advantages:

When the primary lagoon is desludged from time to time, liquid manure inflow
may continue into the second lagoon.
Lagoon liquid from the secondary lagoon may be used to irrigate pastures, since
toxic copper will concentrate in the slurry of the primary lagoon.

A secondary lagoon does not have to be of specific size, since the occurrence of bad
odours will depend on the size of the primary lagoon.
8.5.1.2 Design considerations for anaerobic lagoons
Location
For the sake of convenience, the lagoon has to be adjacent to the piggery, or as close
to it as is practically possible. It is also done to keep the cost of channels and pipes
conveying the liquid manure to the lagoons as low as possible. Lagoons have to be at
least 300 m from residential areas at a place where prevailing winds will carry bad
odours away from houses.
Soil and foundation
Lagoons should be located on soils of low permeability, which seal quickly.
Retention time
Normal liquid manure and flushing water storage capacity should be enough for at
least 90 days. In dry regions with high evaporation rates, the retention time may be
longer than 200 days.
A lagoon has to be at least 2,0 m deep, but preferably even deeper. The lagoon can be
deeper than 6,0 m to keep the surface area as small as possible in order to minimize
bad odours, to keep evaporation losses and salt build-up as low as possible, to
encourage mixing due to rising gases, to reduce land area requirements and to
minimize temperature variations during winter time. A minimum of 0,6 m freeboard
above the design water surface should be provided for.
Lagoon volume, odour and nitrogen losses
Anaerobic lagoons function well over a wide range of input loads up to a given

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

58

lagoon volume. Volume, rather than surface area, is the basis for anaerobic lagoon
design. The possibility of bad odours and sludge build-up decreases as the lagoon
capacity increases, but nitrogen losses will then increase. The criteria for the size of a
lagoon, for reasons of minimizing bad odours and for reasons of conserving nitrogen,
are therefore not compatible. If odour control is the main aim, for instance near
residential areas, the lagoon volume per unit of body weight should be as large as
possible. If nitrogen conservation is the main aim, the lagoon volume should be
small.
Criteria for the size of an anaerobic single lagoon without removal of solids prior to
loading are shown in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2: Sizing criteria for anaerobic single lagoons
Lagoon volume m per kg body mass

Volume

N conservation

Average

Control of bad odours

0,06

0,12

0,19

Local experience has taught that a volume of 0,07 m/kg body mass will be sufficient
for single lagoons in piggeries without creating undue problems with bad odours,
provided bedding is left out of it. With this value as guideline for South Africa, the
recommended lagoon volume for a 100-sow unit = 1 000 standard pigs of 60 kg each
= 60 000 kg body mass
= 4 200 m or more.
Sludge build-up
Cellulose matter, such as straw, sawdust or woodchips, is not degraded by anaerobic
bacteria as rapidly as fat, proteins or soluble carbohydrates. Bedding material and
undigested cellulose may result in rapid sludge build-up, especially in overloaded
lagoons. The expected lifespan (in years) of unseparated manure as inflow until the
lagoon is half-filled with slurry is shown in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3: Expected lifespan of lagoon (in years)

Year

Small, N conservation

Average

Large, odour control

6,1

12,2

12,9

The removal of bedding and undigested cellulose from the lagoon inflow by means
of screening or sedimentation is essential. It ensures a long, useful lagoon lifespan
and prevents overloading of the available lagoon volume, which may result in bad
odours.
Embankment
The minimum top width should be 1,5 m. The side slope on the dry side of the
embankment should not be steeper than 2:1. The side slope of the wet side above the

59

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

design water level should be constructed in such a way as to meet the requirements
for soil stability. Expert advice should be obtained. The top of the embankment after
compacting should be at least 600 mm higher than the maximum design water level.
Where overflow is allowed, an overflow with a minimum capacity of one and a half
times the maximum daily inflow rate, 300 mm above the maximum design level, may
be installed to protect the wall against overflowing due to rain showers or when the
overflow regulation system is not working. When the wall has reached the desired
height, it should be covered with topsoil, planted with grass and fenced off.
Inlet and outlet
The inlet and outlet of double lagoon systems should be located at opposite sides to
prevent short-circuiting and under-utilisation of lagoon volumes by active bacteria.
The inlet pipe of a lagoon should preferably discharge below the water surface level.
The inlet, outlet and general construction of a lagoon system are illustrated in
Figure 8.11.

Figure 8.11: Double lagoon system

Buried PVC or polyethylene piping may be used to convey manure to the lagoon
because it will not be affected by the highly corrosive nature of manure. PVC or
polyethylene pipes are also most suitable for recycling lagoon water. Pipes of
160 mm in diameter must be buried 300 mm to 600 mm underground to prevent
damage and deterioration.
Institute for Agricultural Engineering

60

Pipes connecting two lagoons (double lagoon system) should be at least 100 mm in
diameter. A disadvantage of pipes is that they can easily become blocked. For this
reason, open concrete channels are often rather used to convey manure and water to
the lagoon. The measurements of the channels depend on the volume of liquid
manure that has to be conveyed. A disadvantage of open channels, which are not
properly managed, is that canal flow can be impeded due to grass and weed growth
over the sides of the channel.
Various configurations can be used to prevent floating solids from ending up in the
second lagoon. Three of these are illustrated in Figures 8.12, 8.13 and 8.14. The inlet
shown in Figure 8.12 should be about 300 mm below the outlet. The cleaning process
can then easily be conducted from the outlet point at the second lagoon. The structure
in Figure 8.13 uses a T-piece to prevent solids from entering. The bottom part of the
T should be 300 mm beneath the water surface and the T-piece should be within
1,0 m from the wall for cleaning purposes. The third type consists of an impregnated
timber baffle, nailed to an impregnated pole, which has been driven into the bank.
The pipe slope of the latter two types should be about 1:1 00.

Figure 8.12: Lagoon overflow pipe with reversed slope

Figure 8.13: Overflow pipe with T-inlet baffle

61

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

Figure 8.14: Overflow pipe with timber inlet baffle

Salinity
A large lagoon surface increases the evaporation rate and consequently also the salt
content. When lagoon water is recycled to flush out the manure, the salt accumulates
faster. A moderate increase in salinity stimulates biological activity. By allowing the
salt concentration to increase beyond an electric conductivity value of between
800 mS/m and 1 000 mS/m (or between 8 mmhos/cm and 10 mmhos/cm), the
bacterial activity decreases, bad odours get worse and rapid slurry accumulation is
encouraged. In this way, the lifespan of the lagoon is shortened. The relation between
biological activity and salt content in an anaerobic lagoon is shown in Figure 8.15.

Figure 8.15: Relation between gas production


and electric conductivity

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

62

Start-up and operation


A new lagoon has to be filled with water at least halfway to its design volume before
manure is added. The water may be obtained from nearby pools, streams or tanks.
Liquid manure should be added slowly at first and increased over a period of two to
four months until the loading rate level for which it has been designed has been
reached. It is preferable to start in warm weather rather than at the beginning of a
cold season.
Anaerobic lagoons should be filled with manure at least once a day. Intermittent
addition of manure with longer intervals can cause as bad an odour as when the pool
is completely overloaded.
In areas where evaporation is high, the inflow should contain sufficient diluting water
to maintain an electric conductivity of below 1 000 mS/m (or 10 mmhos/cm).
Hydraulic flushing systems, which use fresh water usually, supply ample dilution.
Where lagoon supernatant is recirculated to flush out the manure, dilution water must
be added. The amount can be determined by measuring the conductivity.
Electric pumping systems should be adequately earthed to prevent electrostatic
charges, which contribute to the build-up of salt deposits in pipes and pumps. This
again lowers the pump efficiency, especially when the salt content of the lagoon has
reached a critical level.
The pH of an anaerobic lagoon should be maintained between 6,8 and 7,8. Because
the first phase of the anaerobic decomposition is acid forming, the pH can be reduced
below 6,5 when the lagoon is overloaded or when the action of the methane forming
bacteria is slowed down by disinfectants or antibiotics, causing bad odours. If the pH
should drop below 6,8 hydrated lime should be added to the surface of the lagoon at a
rate of 1,0 kg per 200 m per day until a pH level of 7 has been reached.
A lagoon has to be pumped or emptied in such a way as to retain half of its volume
(volume and not depth). Lagoons should never be pumped dry because a certain
amount of bacteria should remain to degrade incoming manure. In dry climates,
lagoons have to be partially refilled with fresh water after having been emptied to
decrease the concentration of total inorganic dissolved solids.
Removal of sludge
Sludge has to be removed when the displacement effect of the slurry has reduced the
liquid volume to below the required level for a stable bacterial population. Sludge
build-up which takes up about half of the total lagoon volume, is possibly the
maximum level allowed before bad odours occur.
The solid content of lagoon sludge usually varies between four and 10%, which
represents a semi-liquid consistency. Concentrations of more than 20% in solid parts
are, however, possible in well-compacted sludge.

63

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

A feasible method to remove sludge is to empty the lagoon first and to then dredge it
clean by means of a dragline. If the lagoon bottom is solid, a tractor with a front-end
loader or scraper blade may be used. This method is quite expensive.
A more practical method is to partially empty the lagoon, to agitate the sludge, and
then to pump the slurry mixture in a liquid manure spreader.
A third alternative is to agitate the whole of the lagoon contents, without emptying it
first, and to then pump the diluted sludge mixture through a large-bore sprinkler
irrigation system onto the farm-land. A long-shaft propeller agitator or a liquid
manure chopper agitator may be suitable.
Phosphorus, copper and zinc are concentrated in lagoon sludge. The sludge layer
contains:

20% to 40% of the nitrogen


60% to 80% of the phosphorus
10% to 30% of the potassium
60% to 80% of the copper
70% to 90% of the zinc of the total lagoon constituents

When the dredged-out sludge is applied to farmlands, the high copper and zinc
contents should be kept in mind. The direct distribution of metal rich sludge on
pastures should be avoided to prevent sensitive animals such as sheep or calves from
contracting copper poisoning. A soil and irrigation expert should be consulted.
8.5.2

Manure storage tanks and agitators


An alternative method of storing manure is the use of a concrete manure tank
(Figure 8.16). Depending on the specific situation, a single or double manure tank
system or a manure tank together with a lagoon may be used. In any case, the manure
tank will serve as a reservoir for liquid manure coming from the pigpens. The volume
of the tank is calculated according to the duration the liquid manure is to be stored
(usually no longer than seven days).
If a small number of pigs (up to 750 at an average weight of 90 kg each) are kept, a
single or double manure tank system may be used. In cases where liquid manure is
not going to be used for irrigation, but simply pumped over the soil or into a liquid
manure tanker, a single manure tank with agitator will be sufficient. If irrigation is to
be applied, however, most of the solid parts will first have to be separated from the
water. The site layout and type of separator (paragraph 8.5.3) will confirm whether
liquid manure can be conveyed straight from the unit over the manure separator into
the manure tank, or whether it should first flow into a storage tank with an agitator
before it is pumped over the manure separator to the second tank. Alternatively,
liquid manure, separated or unseparated, can be collected into a manure tank and then
pumped to a lagoon.
The function of the agitator or agitators (depending on the measurements of the tank)
is to bring the water and solid parts into suspension before these are being pumped. It
is essential to prevent the manure tank from silting up and/or the pump from not
Institute for Agricultural Engineering

64

operating effectively. Depending on the volume of the manure tank and the diameter
of the area covered by the agitator, it may be necessary to use two agitators with a
communal propeller motor. An old differentiating shaft or right-angled propelling
may be used for operating the agitators. A three-phased 2,0 kW to 3,0 kW electrical
motor operates the agitator by means of V-belts and universal joints.

Figure 8.16: Single manure storage tank and agitator

65

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

As mentioned before, the volume of the manure tank depends directly on the period
the manure and liquid manure have to be stored before being pumped out. The
maximum depth required for proper functioning of the tank and agitators is 3,0 m
However, a freeboard depth of at least 500 mm has to be allowed. The sidewalls and
bottom of the tank should be at least 230 mm thick and constructed of reinforced
concrete or a double brick wall in order to ensure sturdiness and stability. All metal
parts of the agitators should be painted with paint that will protect the steel against
corrosion.
Liquid manure can be carried to the manure tank by means of underground pipelines
or open concrete channels. Make use of submersible pumps, centrifugal pumps with
open or half-open impellers, which are suitable to pump separated or unseparated
liquid manure effectively.
8.5.3

Structures and equipment for separating solid manure


For practical reasons, it is strongly recommended that bedding and undigested
cellulose are removed from pig excreta prior to storing liquid manure in a lagoon, or
prior to applying it to farmlands by sprinkler.
Non-mechanical structures such as small settling ponds, or barriers across a natural
depression made of railway sleepers or straight wooden beams or bales of hay, can be
used effectively and require almost no maintenance. Where sleeper or beam
constructions are erected, it is advisable to leave gaps of about 25 mm through which
liquid can seep. Examples of sleeper walls across a man-made settling basin and
across a natural depression are shown in Figure 8.17.
Mechanical equipment that does not require much supervision and maintenance
includes the static horizontal bar or wedge-wire screens, certain types of vibrating
screens and the rotatory brush screen. The solid parts that are removed are usually
dry enough to be handled by scrapers. Collected solids may be processed further by
composting.
The static horizontal bar, or wedge-wire screen, has the advantage that it has no
moving parts and that variations in flow rate do not seriously affect the performance.
Though the initial costs are high, it is inexpensive to operate. It is one of the most
popular devices for screening liquid pig manure (Figure 8.18).
Screen openings of between 0,5 mm to 1,0 mm are usually the best for handling pig
slurry. A loading rate of about 12,5 l/s or 750 l/min per metre of screen width is
recommended. A manual or automatic pump is used to load the screen.
Vibrating screens (Figure 8.19) are available as circular or rectangular models made
of woven fabric or stainless steel mesh. Mesh sizes can be ordered to suit different
types of slurry. Power is supplied by one or two three-phased vibrator motors with a
total rating of 0,25 kW to 0,4 W.
As in the case of static inclined bar screens, vibrating screens are relatively simple to
install and operate. However, the maintenance cost on some of the models may be
high.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

66

Figure 8.17: Sleeper wall across man-made settling pond

Figure 8.18: Static horizontal bar or wedge-wire screen

Both the static and the vibrating screens are best suited for diluted slurry. With thick
slurry, both screens tend to become overloaded, with the result that less slurry flows
through and that solids are wet. Thick slurry can still be diluted.

67

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

Figure 8.19: Example of a vibrating screen

A problem often encountered with wedge-wire and vibrating screens is the build-up
of bacterial slime, which causes the openings between the wires to become blocked.
A successful method to combat the problem is to wash the screens with a chlorinefree slimicide. The process takes about ten minutes. Chlorine attacks stainless steel,
especially on welding seams.
A third and popular type of mechanical manure separator is the roller brush
separator. It is a circular drum consisting of a steel screen with openings of between
0,5 mm and 0,1 mm, mounted at an angle and slowly rotated by an electric motor.
Liquid manure and solids flow from the unit over the separator. The water falls
through the screen openings, while the solids slowly move out as the drum rotates.
8.5.4

Pumps for handling liquid manure


Pumps for handling manure slurry are classified as follows:

8.5.5

Pumps suitable mainly for low viscosity manure slurry and


lagoon supernatant:
Open vane and semi-enclosed surface mounted impeller pumps
Submersible centrifugal pumps
Pumps suitable mainly for high viscosity semi-liquid
manure:
Helical scroll and stator pumps
Auger pumps

Manure spreaders and sprinklers and the use and application of manure
There is a difference between solid manure spreaders and distribution equipment for
liquid manure. Solid manure spreaders with rear delivery or side delivery offer a
practical method to distribute solid manure evenly over farmlands. The disadvantage
of this type of spreader is that it requires high labour costs. Soil compaction by
wheels, as well as traction problems on wet soil, is a common occurrence.
Institute for Agricultural Engineering

68

Liquid manure slurry is handled with tank spreaders. The liquid manure can be
applied by:

Ejection over a deflection plate


Sideways ejection, which is suitable for sloping terrain
Slurry injectors which are drawn behind the tanker

All liquid manure tankers have the same disadvantages than the solid manure
spreaders.
The most common method to distribute diluted slurry is by means of a pipeline and
big gun sprinklers. Where solid manure has been separated, ordinary irrigation
sprinklers can be used. Pipes can either be laid on the surface or buried.
Animal manure can be applied and utilized in the following ways:

69

Farmland application manure as a source of essential plant nutrients and


organic material
Composting of excreted solids and manure
Incorporation into animal feed rations
Utilisation in aquaculture
Production of biogas

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

CHAPTER 9
9.

TRANSPORTATION OF PIGS
Large sums of money are lost every year due to bruising and especially deaths during
the loading, unloading and transportation of pigs. It is therefore essential that pigs
reach their destination as healthily and as speedily as possible, and with the least
amount of stress. To achieve this goal, it is important to be informed about the
various aspects, which may influence the loading, unloading and transportation of
pigs.

9.1

Animal behaviour
Because of a pigs wide visual field and poor observation of depth of field, it is
extremely sensitive to changes in the brightness of light. For this reason, contrasts
between light and darkness, such as shadows at loading and unloading facilities,
should be avoided.
Loading ramps should be positioned north/south to prevent pigs from looking into
the sun while they are loaded. This also implies that loading should be done early or
late in the day.
Curved loading ramp passages with solid walls are more effective than straight ones.
The reason for this is that pigs only notice the vehicle after they have advanced far
onto the loading ramp.

9.2

Stress
Some pigs are genetically predisposed to stress, which poses one of the biggest
problems in the transportation of pigs. Pigs that show signs of stress during
transportation should be allowed to rest, otherwise they may die. Symptoms of stress
are suddenly lying down, panting, trembling and red blotches on the skin. However,
some pigs have genetically engineered low stress levels.
Exhaust fumes of diesel vehicles have a detrimental effect on pigs.
Stress due to high ambient temperatures is one of the main causes of death during
transportation. Pigs should not be transported if the ambient temperature is higher
than 26,5 C. If it cannot be avoided, the pigs should be cooled by means of a
sprinkler system. The graph below (Figure 9.1) illustrates the combined influence of
temperature and humidity on porcine stress.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

70

Figure 9.1: Influence of temperature and humidity on porcine stress

It is obvious that pigs should under no circumstance be transported when the


combined influence of temperature and humidity registers a reading in the region of
dangerous or emergency. Furthermore, the truck should be well ventilated on hot
days. Stopping should be limited to the absolute minimum. Any vehicle can break
down, however, and it is therefore important to make provision for shade. A roll of
shade cloth kept on the vehicle at all times will save a lot of money in the long run.
9.3

Loading facilities
Pigs should be loaded in such a way as to prevent injuries.
Use a ramp not steeper than 25 (slope of 1:2,2) and as near as possible to the level of
the truck to enable the pigs to safely step up and down. Steps of 100 mm 300 mm
work better than a relatively steep ramp.
The rails on the ramp must be high and strong enough to prevent a pig from breaking
through. There should also be no gaps between the rails of the ramp and those of the
vehicle.

9.4

Floor construction of the vehicle


A floor area of between 0,2 m and 0,3 m should be allowed for porkers, and
between 0,3 m and 0,4 m for baconers.
The floor should be solid, impenetrable and slip-free, while allowing for proper
drainage. The use of grids on the floor reduces the number of deaths, but increases
the number that will lie down. In other words, the possibility of bruising increases
because those that lie down can be trampled.
The use of diagonal partitions will reduce the number of deaths during transportation.
It has the advantage that the recommended floor area per pig is still allowed, even
when the vehicle is not carrying a full load.
With the use of double-deck vehicles the height between the decks should be at least
0,75 to 1,0 m. Proper ventilation and escape outlets for all gases should be provided.

71

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

The rails or panels should not cause bruising, injuries or fractures. The height of the
rails must prevent pigs from falling or jumping out. A height of about 1,0 m is
recommended for rails.
Pigs kept in confinement are not used to exercise and should not be chased up the
loading ramp, because it will increase their heartbeat. Pigs are then inclined to lie
down to allow the heart rate to return to safe levels.
Never throw water on a pig that has collapsed. It may experience shock and die.
Rather wet the area around the pig and allow it to cool through evaporation.
Also never use an electric prod on pigs. The shock will increase the heartbeat, which
may give the pig a heart attack and cause him to die.
The driver of the vehicle should be trained to handle the pigs with care. He should be
able to drive properly, to pull away smoothly and to slowly drive around corners.
Pigs seldom fight during transportation. In any case, pigs that are familiar with one
another should be kept together at the abattoir. This will minimise down-gradings
due to injuries caused by fighting. Prime cuts are always the first to be bruised during
fights.
Be patient and use common sense when transporting pigs.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

72

CHAPTER 10
10.

PROPOSED LAYOUT OF BUILDINGS FOR A 100-SOW PRODUCTION


UNIT

10.1

General considerations
The layout of piggeries should be planned in such a way that it facilitates the
supervision and management of the various breeding and growth stages. The
proposed layout (Figure 10.1) includes the most important basic principles. Though
these can be adapted to the specific needs of individual breeding farms, it is advisable
to stick to them as closely as possible.
The following should be kept in mind:

10.2

In most regions in South Africa, a north-facing building is advisable for


maximum utilisation of air and heat. A north-facing position will also facilitate
natural ventilation a practical consideration in our warm climate. Buildings with
flat roofs should be positioned with the low side of the roof towards the north. If
it is not possible, a deviation of 45 towards the east or west of due north will
nonetheless ensure good natural ventilation. The situation could be different in
other areas due to prevailing wind directions.
The site should be well-drained with slopes of between 2,0% and 4,0%.
The prevailing winds should be studied for purposes of controlling bad odours.
Care should especially be taken to ensure that the smell does not become a
nuisance to neighbouring houses and properties. Waste treatment installations
should be at least 100 m to 300 m away from neighbouring properties.
The layout of buildings should be such that it allows for a logical flow of pigs
during all the different growth and breeding stages. The positioning of facilities
on the other hand should also accommodate these requirements.
Sufficient clean water is essential.
Reliable electricity supply, especially to the farrowing pens, is essential. If the
electricity supply is not reliable, alternative methods to heat the creeper pens
should be investigated.
The easy movement of pigs between buildings and pens should be possible.
The distribution of feed should be simple and efficient.

Disease control
Because of the management importance of disease control, the layout of the piggery
should be designed with this in mind. Visiting pig breeders, sales representatives and
delivery vehicles, which move from one piggery to the next, pose the greatest danger
in the spreading of disease. To eliminate infection through these sources, the
following precautions can be built into the layout:

73

The piggery should be surrounded by a security fence. Admission should only be


possible through the office of the manager or through the main gate, which is
always locked.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

10.3

Feed is delivered from outside into the feed silo, which is built into the fence, or
into feed tanks, which are filled from outside by means of an air-pressure or an
auger pump.
Pigs are moved into or out of the piggery by means of a loading ramp opposite
the finishing building. Vehicles should load and unload from outside the security
fence. A sterilising foot dip should possibly be placed in the passage prior to the
loading ramp to allow incoming animals to first walk through the bath on their
way to the quarantine quarters or housing facilities.
Visitors should park outside the fence near the office. They should enter the
reception area through a separate entrance from where they can communicate
with the manager over a counter. A bathroom with wash, shower and toilet
facilities should lead from the reception area. Visitors should be supplied with
sterilised overalls, boots and headgear. A sterilising foot dip should be installed at
the back door of the bathroom. The back door should be locked to limit visitors to
the reception area until they are allowed into the unit.

Layout of buildings
The layout of buildings should be such to allow for a logical flow from the top to the
bottom of the piggery unit. While there is a continuous flow of sows between the dry
sow quarters, the service quarters and the farrowing quarters, the buildings are placed
downhill in this order. The following two buildings, that are the weaner and grower
pens, are placed on the same terrace close to each other. From the grower building a
separate fenced passage leads to a point between the finishing buildings lower down.

10.4

Supervision
The office should be situated directly opposite the buildings where the service and
farrowing pens are because they require the most supervision. Most of the buildings,
as well as the feed and herding passages, should be visible from the office.

10.5

Feed and herding passages


The fenced passages, which run along the ends of the buildings, can be used to
distribute feed to all the buildings, or to herd the pigs from one building to the next,
as necessary. Gates that are long enough to close off the passage are installed where
needed. The gates are left open against the passage wall when they are not in use.

10.6

Choice of building
The building plans provide for alternative types of buildings for weaners and
growers. Small changes to the size and arrangement of the layout are inevitable,
depending on the choice of building plans, but the sequence of the buildings should
not be changed.

10.7

Distance between buildings


Because the buildings depend on natural ventilation, the distance between the
buildings should be made larger. The distances can also give added protection in the
case of fire. With proper planning of the gardens in the open areas, the usually boring

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

74

surroundings can be made attractive.


10.8

Workshop/machinery parking
A workshop can be placed in the bottom corner of the unit where there is enough
space to park and turn machinery.

10.9

Manure handling and storage system


It is suggested that these facilities are put outside the unit. All down-flow channels
and pipes work with gravity and lead to the waste handling system. An entrance gate
for operators should be provided in the fence close-by.

10.10

Future expansion
Provision for future expansions is imperative, even if the possibilities seem remote.
Provision has been made for an additional 100-sow unit in the plan layout
(Figure 10.1). The road for tractors and trailers around the 100-sow unit is necessary
to eliminate problems with turning. The road is adapted as indicated for the second
unit. Further expansion can be done either on the other side of the second unit or on
the other side of the road opposite the side fence of the office, or even above the
existing unit.

75

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

Figure 10.1: Proposed building layout for a 100-sow unit

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

76

APPENDIX A
NO-FINES CONCRETE FLOORS
No-fines concrete is concrete composed of only coarse aggregate, cement and water. No-fine
aggregate or sand is used. Furthermore, the cement and water mixture is sufficient to coat the
stone particles, so that they stick together at the points of contact. The spaces that are created
between the stones are then equally distributed. To differentiate between no-fines and normal
concrete, the latter is called dense concrete.
No-fines concrete is much lighter than dense concrete (about 1 500 kg/m compared to
2 400 kg/m for normal concrete with stone and sand) and much weaker. Even so, it is strong
enough for all types of floors, except those that are subject to heavy concentrated loads, or
reinforced suspended floors.
Another advantage of no-fines concrete is that it is easy to mix and lay. Because it forms a
coarse surface, the top surface adheres strongly. Because this type of floor dries quickly, a
suitable covering can be laid within a few days of the end of the damp-curing period.
Finally, no-fines concrete floors are economica1. Not only is the cement content low, but the
foundations also do not need the usual layer of coarse granular material or damp-proofing
membranes.
Proportions
One bag of cement to 0,3 m of stone is recommended for all types of floors. This mixture
only requires 3,3 bags of cement per cubic metre no-fines concrete.
Mixing water
The quantity of water needed for the mixing process is critical and should be managed
carefully. Just enough water should be used with the cement to form a paste or slurry of such
consistency that it will coat the stones evenly. If it is too wet, the paste will run down into the
voids in the bottom layers of stone, thus not only defeating the object, but also weakening
those parts of the no-fines concrete from which the paste has run down. With the right
amount of water, the paste will not run down, but will be stymied where the stones touch. The
layer of paste between the stones then dries up and gives the concrete its strength.
Usually about 20 litres of water is needed per bag of cement, but slightly more will be needed
if the stone is porous or rough-surfaced, or smaller than usual.
Stone
The stone should be clean, hard and durable. The stones should be of the same size, if
possible. The recommended size for floors is 20 mm stone.
Round or cubic stones are best and elongated, flat stones should be avoided.

77

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

The quantity of stone should be measured in a measuring box. Where possible, the right
amount of stone for one bag of cement should be used to avoid having to split bags of
cement.
Mixing
If mixing is done by machine, it is best to wet the stones first with half the water. Thereafter,
the cement and the rest of the water can be added and mixed until the stone is evenly covered
with the paste.
For manual mixing, it is suggested that the cement and water are first mixed in a separate
container. This mixture is then poured over the stone and the two mixed thoroughly on a nonporous mixing surface.
Placing
A layer of no-fines concrete of between 75 mm and 100 mm thick is required. It should be
laid in panels. Rakes are useful for levelling no-fines concrete. Heavy shovelling is not
necessary. It should only be compacted enough to bring the stone particles tightly together. A
light roller can be used in some places.
Toppings for no-fines concrete floors
The topping should be selected to satisfy all requirements. With most domestic and other
applications with light wear of the topping, a 20 mm topping of cement-sand mortar will be
adequate with a mixture of 130 litres sand on one bag of cement. In all other cases, a topping
of medium or strong concrete made with 9,5 mm stone should be provided, the thickness
being chosen to suit the duty, within a range of 40 mm to 50 mm thick.
Damp curing of no-fines concrete
Because no-fines concrete dries out very easily, special care should be taken to keep the
concrete wet, so that the cement has time to harden.
The topping should also be thoroughly damp-cured to develop resistance to wear. By damp
curing the topping, the no-fines concrete underneath is also damp-cured. At air temperatures
above 15 C, no-fines concrete and other toppings should be kept wet for at least five days.
At lower temperatures, longer periods are required.

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

78

APPENDIX B
MECHANICAL VENTILATION
Artificial ventilation can be obtained by means of extractor fans, which are installed in the
ridge of the roof. Fresh air is sucked in through controlled openings on the sides of the
buildings. Low airflow is thus created, which is beneficial for, among others, flat decks and
other types of weaner housing. Pre-heated air can be let in through the ceiling by means of
another system.
Another form of mechanical ventilation is by blowing fresh air into the building by means of
fans installed in the roof, while stale air is allowed to escape through controlled openings in
the sidewalls of the building. This type of system is also intended to bring about a slow
airflow rate. Once again, the air can be pre-heated to obtain temperature-controlled buildings,
especially for weaners.
Where buildings are ventilated entirely mechanically, it is essential to install a warning
system to inform the manager of power failures and other defects. A stand-by generator is of
the utmost importance. An alternative use of mechanical ventilation is to install it in
combination with natural ventilation to allow for switching from one system to another in
extreme weather and climate conditions. Table B1 gives guidelines for the ventilation rate for
different types of pigs.
Table B1: Guidelines for ventilation rates to establish fan capacity
Minimum ventilation
Winter
(m/s per sow)

Maximum ventilation
Winter
(m/s per sow)

Ventilation
Summer
(m/s per sow)

Sow and litter

0,0095

0,037

0,24

Growers
9-18 kg
18-45 kg
45-68 kg
68-96 kg

0,00095
0,0024
0,0033
0,0047

0,0071
0,0095
0,012
0,017

0,017
0,023
0,034
0,047

Gilts, sows and boars


91-114 kg
114-136 kg
136-227 kg

0,0047
0,0057
0,0071

0,017
0,019
0,021

0,057
0,085
0,12

Type of pig

79

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

Figure B1: Natural ventilation in a Suffolk type house


which demonstrates the stack effect

The following illustrations, Figures B2, B3 and B4 show the placing of fans and the
ventilation effect it causes.
Because of high building costs, buildings with natural ventilation are more economical in
terms of both fixed and running costs. If it is at all possible, natural ventilation should get
preference in buildings, provided that the principles as mentioned above are strictly adhered
to. Mechanical ventilation may, however, be used with good results, provided it is done with
discretion, and then only in exceptional cases, such as early weaner housing.

Figure B2: Mechanical ventilation (ridge extraction)

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

80

Figure B3: Mechanical ventilation (side extraction)

Figure B4: Mechanical ventilation (blowing in)

81

Institute for Agricultural Engineering

NAADS - July 2011

NAADS SECRETARIAT ADDRESS


National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS).
Plot 5, Kyadondo Road, Legacy Towers Block B,
Nakasero. Tel: 256-414/312-345440/
345065/345066/345060,
Fax:256-414-347843.
Email: info@naads.or.ug

12

Pig Husbandry

You might also like