Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chair of innovative Brand Management, University of Bremen, Hochschulring 4, 28359 Bremen, Germany
Faculty of Behavioural Sciences, Marketing Communication and Consumer Psychology, University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, the Netherlands
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 1 September 2014
Received in revised form 1 December 2014
Accepted 1 January 2015
Available online 13 August 2015
Keywords:
Luxury brands
Attitude functions
Identity development process
Purchase intention
Age
a b s t r a c t
The main purpose of this study is to understand the consumption of luxury brands in different age groups.
Attitude functions (social-adjustive, value-expressive, hedonic, utilitarian) explain luxury brand consumption
among three age groups. A total of 297 respondents between the age of 16 and 59 participated in a survey.
Using structural equation modeling, this study shows that the hedonic and utilitarian attitude functions are
relevant across all age groups, while the impact of the social functions greatly differs among the target groups.
Whereas the social-adjustive function strongly enhances luxury brand purchase behavior of late adolescents
(1625 years), value-expressiveness only impacts the luxury consumption of young adults (2639 years). The
social functions do not determine the acquisition of luxury brands by middle-aged adults (4059 years).
2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Young consumers are the fastest-growing segment of luxury brand
purchases. These consumers have increased their spending on luxury
goods outpacing any other demographic group (Halpert, 2012). According to a study by Roland Berger Strategy Consultants (2012), young
consumers are developing an increasingly positive attitude toward
luxury consumption. Still, more mature consumers are currently of the
greatest economic relevance in the luxury segment. According to Bain
& Co, middle-aged luxury consumers are the highest spenders (each
consumer spends an average of 1600 a year on luxury items), while
older luxury consumers make up more than 50% of luxury sales
(Roberts, 2014). To sum up, not only the established target groups of
middle-aged and older consumers but also young consumers have become a relevant target group for luxury brand managers. Consequently,
understanding the motivations of consumers' engagement in luxury
consumption in different age groups is crucial for both management
and academic research.
According to the Identity Development Process, age is an important factor that inuences personal motivations (Diehl & Hay, 2011;
Corresponding author. Tel.: +49 421 218 66583; fax: +49 421 218 66573.
E-mail addresses: mschade@uni-bremen.de (M. Schade), s.hegner@utwente.nl
(S. Hegner), fhorstmann@uni-bremen.de (F. Horstmann), limsekr@uni-bremen.de
(N. Brinkmann).
1
Tel.: +31 53 489 2730; fax: +31 53 489 4259.
2
Tel.: +49 421 218 66580; fax: +49 421 218 66573.
3
Tel.: +49 421 218 66572; fax: +49 421 218 66573.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.08.003
0148-2963/ 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
315
1963; Sheldon & Kasser, 2001). Kapes and Strickler (1975) as well as
Rokeach (1972) come to the conclusion that only minor differences regarding the relevance of needs for middle-aged (4059 years) and older
adults (60 years and older) exist. As minor differences between these
two age groups might appear, the authors exclude older adults from
their sample and focus on the difference between late adolescents,
young adults, and middle-aged adults. Consequently, the present
study considers individuals with a minimum age of 16, as younger people mostly dispose a considerable low income, and therefore have limited possibilities to acquire luxury brands. Thus, this study investigates
the following life span periods: late adolescence, young adulthood,
and middle-aged adulthood. The focus is on the most relevant personal
differences among the considered three age groups.
In late adolescence (1625 years), humans search for their identity
and show mostly a weak sense of their own identity (Belk, 1988;
Erikson, 1963). Thus, individuals in their late adolescence primarily
strive for approval of their peer group. They feel pressured to conform
to the opinion and behavior of their social group in order to avoid an
outsider position (so-called peer pressure; Gil, Kwon, Good, &
Johnson, 2012; Wooten, 2006). Because of their weak sense of own
identity, late adolescents do not have the need to communicate their
own identity to others, if this identity is not in line with the peer group.
Contrary to late adolescents, young adults (2639 years) show a
stronger sense of their own identity and their behavior focuses less on
peer group acceptance (Erikson, 1963; Waterman, 1982). Due to the increased sense of identity, individuals in the young adulthood feel the
need to present their own identity to others and particularly to their reference or aspiration group (Erikson, 1963). Further, this age group
shows a relatively high willingness to take risks (Lambert-Pandraud &
Laurent, 2010; Lesser & Kunkel, 1991). Based on the Identity Development Process, young adults have especially the need to express their
own identity (Erikson, 1963). This assumption is in line with other theorists who state that young adults have a strong desire to demonstrate
personal achievement (Buhler, 1968; Kuhlen, 1964; Lesser & Kunkel,
1991). In this context, Stevenson (1977) uses the term active mastery
to describe these individuals' motivations to demonstrate their identity
and personal achievement.
Contrary, middle-aged adults (4059 years) are in most cases aware
and consolidated in their own identity (Erikson, 1963; Sheldon &
Kasser, 2001). Furthermore, Buhler (1968) argues that middle-aged
adults begin to accept their self-limitations by adopting a more passive perspective about their environment (Lesser & Kunkel, 1991).
As a consequence, these individuals are less concerned with identity
and the need to present their identity to others is less pronounced
(Erikson, 1963). Sheldon and Kasser (2001) empirically conrmed
this assumption by showing that the need for presenting the own
identity is on a lower level among middle-aged adults in comparison
to younger age groups.
Values and needs change during life span. Value orientations are
conceptions of the desirable (Kluckhorn, 1951). Parks and Guay
(2009) dene values as learned beliefs that serve as guiding principles about how individuals ought to behave (p. 676). Following
Gutman (1982), personal values determine the importance of
human needs. For example, if security is a personal value, as a consequence the need for group membership is of high importance. In
addition to values and needs, attitudes and motivations play an important role in determining consumer behavior. Attitudes and motivations distinguish from values and needs in the following way;
while attitudes and motivations specically relate to a given object,
person, behavior, or situation, values and needs are more ingrained,
more stable, and more general (England & Lee, 1974; Parks & Guay,
2009). Consequently, values and needs are inuencing object-related attitudes and motivations. In line with previous research, this
study analyzes motivations for luxury brand consumption based on
the Functional Theories of Attitudes (e.g. Bian & Forsythe, 2012;
Wilcox et al., 2009). The authors draw hypotheses based on the
316
changing value structures during lifetime by combining those general ndings with research on attitude functions to the specic context
of luxury consumption.
2.2. Functional theories of attitudes
The proposition in the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) that attitudes guide or inuence behavior applies to luxury brand consumption
(Ajzen, 1991). Fishbein and Ajzen (1975, p. 6)) dene attitude as a
learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to a given object. Similarly, the Functional Theories of Attitudes consider attitudes as an important variable in
order to explain consumer behavior and classies attitudes according
to the psychological functions that they serve (Grewal et al., 2004;
Katz, 1960; Shavitt, 1990; Smith et al., 1956; Wang, 2009; Wilcox
et al., 2009). While the TPB provides a framework for the relationship
between attitudes and behavior, the Functional Theories of Attitudes
enrich the model by differentiating several facets of attitudes (Wang,
2009). Therefore, our study applies the Functional Theories of Attitudes as conceptual framework in order to analyze different facets of
attitude as relevant underlying constructs that inuence consumer
behavior.
Social attitude functions (Shavitt, 1990) differ from more personally orientated functions like hedonic and utilitarian (Shavitt, 1990).
Social attitude functions are directly linked to personal identity and
play an important role in social interaction and self-expression.
Through those functions individuals express central values, establish their identity, and gain social approval (Katz, 1960; Shavitt,
1989; Smith et al., 1956). The social functions can be further distinguished in two dimensions: social-adjustive and value-expressive
(Grewal et al., 2004; Katz, 1960; Shavitt, 1989; Wilcox et al., 2009).
Literature links the social-adjustive function to the compliance
with peer pressure, while the value-expressive function is closely
related to the expression of one's own identity to a reference or aspiration group (Grewal et al., 2004; Katz, 1960; Shavitt, 1989; Wilcox
et al., 2009).
2.2.1. Social-adjustive function
The social-adjustive function is dened as a tendency to purchase
and use brands to gain approval in social situations and to maintain
relationships (Bian & Forsythe, 2012; Wilcox et al., 2009). This function is particularly relevant for consumers striving to meet the expectation of a peer group and gaining approval in social settings
(Grewal et al., 2004; Wilcox et al., 2009). According to Bearden,
Netemeyer, and Teel (1989,p. 474), the social-adjustive function is
essential for individuals with a tendency to conform to expectations
of others. Consumers with such a tendency are striving to purchase
the right brands which are accepted by their peer group. In Western societies, luxury brands are often the right brands and are
therefore used as a status symbol (Vigneron & Johnson, 2004;
Wilcox et al., 2009). Following the Identity Development Process
especially late adolescents (1625 years) experience the need to
align with their peer group (Belk, 1988; Erikson, 1963; Wooten,
2006), including purchasing the right brands their peers consume
(Gil et al., 2012). Consequently, the social-adjustive function is of
high predictive value for explaining luxury brand purchase behavior
of late adolescents. In contrast to this presumption, young adults
(2639 years) as well as middle-aged adults (4059 years) have a
stronger sense of their own identity and therefore place less emphasis on the expectations of peer groups (2011; Erikson, 1963; Sheldon
& Kasser, 2001).
H1. The relation between the social-adjustive function and luxury
brand purchase intention is stronger for late adolescents (1625
years) than a) for young adults (2639 years) and b) middle-aged
adults (4059 years).
concerned with how a brand performs a desired product- or servicerelated function (e.g. durability) (Voss et al., 2003). In the eld of luxury
consumption, it is assumed that luxury brands offer greater quality and
performance than non-luxury brands (Wiedmann et al., 2009). Shukla
and Purani (2012) show in an empirical study that the utilitarian function strongly inuences the purchase intention of luxury brands in
Western societies. Following the Identity Development Process, no
indication exists that the utilitarian function is more or less relevant
for different age groups. Therefore, the authors propose:
3. Method
3.1. Sample and procedure
To determine product categories capturing the luxury brand domain, the authors conducted exploratory interviews with marketing researchers (n = 3) and luxury brand managers (n = 5). We provided our
denition of luxury brands (Hudders, 2012) to the experts. Based on
this denition, the experts stated product categories for luxury consumption, which are frequently purchased and consumers are familiar
with and have experience in. In addition, the experts mentioned prototypical luxury brands belonging to these categories (e.g. Hermes, Chanel, Fendi as typical luxury brands in the category clothes; Patek
Philippe, Rolex, and Breitling as typical luxury brands in the category
watches; Bugatti, Ferrari, Lamborghini as typical luxury brands in the
category cars). This list was provided to the respondents of the main
study for two reasons: (1) in order to communicate our understanding
of luxury brands to the participants and (2) to exclude participants who
have no luxury consumption experience in any of the categories.
In August and September 2013, a total of 576 respondents (main
study) participated in an online panel from a large pan-European market research agency. The sample of participants was actual luxury
brand consumers. After deleting cases with more than 10% missing
values, we had an effective sample size of 297 people. Of these,
20.3% were late adolescents (1625 years, n = 90), 35.3% were
young adults (2639 years, n = 105), and 34.4% middle-aged adults
(4059 years, n = 102) with a mean age of 34.1. The sample is well
balanced in terms of gender across the age groups and closely
Social-adjustive
function of attitudes
317
Age
Value-expressive
function of attitudes
Luxury brand purchase
intention
Hedonic
function of attitudes
Utilitarian
function of attitudes
318
Table 1
Reliability and convergent validity.
Variables
Item
t-statistics CR
loading
Social-adjustive function
SA1: It is important for my friends to know the
.62
11.71
luxury brands I possess.
SA2: Luxury brands are a symbol of social status. .67
12.95
SA3: Luxury brands help me in tting into
.74
15.29
important social situations.
SA4: I like to be seen with my luxury brands.
.85
34.74
SA5: The luxury brand that a person owns, tells me .31
2.97
a lot about that person.a
SA6: My luxury brand indicates to others the
.73
14.70
kind of person I am.
Value-expressive function
VE1: Luxury brands reect the kind of person I
.83
27.20
see myself to be.
VE2: Luxury brands ascertain my self-identity.
.80
23.25
VE3: Luxury brands make me feel good about
.80
28.07
myself.
VE4: Luxury brands are an instrument of my
.84
36.00
self-expression.
VE5: Luxury brands play a critical role in dening .76
17.55
my self-concept
VE6: Luxury brands help me to establish the kind .84
26.38
of person I see myself to be.
Hedonic function
Luxury brands offer the following characteristics to me
HD1: not fun / fun
.85
44.64
HD2: dull / exciting
.86
45.30
HD3: not delightful / delightful
.85
37.82
HD4: not thrilling / thrilling
.86
44.29
HD5: enjoyable / unenjoyable
.70
15.44
Utilitarian function
Luxury brands offer the following characteristics to me
UT1: effective / ineffective
.74
17.84
UT2: helpful / unhelpful
.76
18.86
UT3: functional / not functional
.66
11.09
UT4: necessary / unnecessary
.64
11.46
UT5: practical / impractical
.72
15.73
Purchase intention
How likely is it that you purchase a luxury brand within the next 2
months?
PI1: unlikely / likely
.94
66.44
PI2: no chance / certain
.93
77.82
PI3: improbable / probable
.95
109.84
AVE
.85 .53
.92 .66
.92 .68
in the measure range from .62.95, and exceed the threshold. At the
construct level, Hair et al. (2006) recommend to regard composite reliability instead of Cronbach's alpha. Additionally, average variance extracted measures the amount of variance captured by the construct in
relation to the amount of variance attributable to measurement error
(Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Together, these measures represent a good indication of the convergent validity of the constructs. The average variance extracted (AVE) is adequate for all the factors (N.50) (Fornell &
Larcker, 1981). Additionally, composite reliabilities (CR) are all higher
than .60 (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988) and therefore exceed the threshold. The
measures fulll the FornellLarcker criterion as all squares of parameter
estimates between factors are less than their average variance extracted
estimates. For adequate discriminant validity, the diagonal elements in
Table 2 should be greater than the off-diagonal elements (Fornell &
Larcker, 1981). Comparing all correlation coefcients with square
roots of AVEs in Table 2, the results suggest evidence of discriminant validity. Additionally, all constructs positively relate to each other.
Bivariate correlations between each of the variables are measured
(see Table 3). The results show that all correlations are signicant
(p b .01). Bollen and Lennox (1991) recommend high or moderate correlations of effect indicators within a latent variable. In the presented
study, most of the correlations of the effect indicators within a latent
variable show a high correlation (exceeds .4). No correlation of these indicators within a latent variable is under the level of .2 (low correlation).
4.2. Structural model and multi-group analysis
.83 .50
.96 .88
Table 2
Discriminant validity: inter-construct correlations.
Construct
Social-adjustive
Value-expressive
Hedonic
Utilitarian
Purchase intention
Social-adjustive
Value-expressive
Hedonic
Utilitarian
Purchase intention
.73
.69
.42
.42
.31
.81
.44
.42
.34
.82
.58
.39
.71
.38
.94
All correlations are signicant at p b 0.01. Bold data indicates the square roots of AVE.
319
Table 3
Correlation matrix of all variables.
PI1
PI2
PI3
VE1
VE2
VE3
VE4
VE5
VE6
UT1
UT2
UT3
UT4
UT5
HED1
HED2
HED3
HED4
HED5
SA1
SA2
SA3
SA4
SA5
PI1
PI2
PI3
VE1
VE2
VE3
VE4
VE5
VE6
UT1
UT2
UT3
UT4
UT5
HED1
.79
1
.86
.80
1
.23
.24
.25
1
.18
.18
.21
.65
1
.34
.36
.37
.52
.51
1
.28
.25
.30
.68
.63
.57
.21
.16
.21
.58
.56
.51
.55
.22
.15
.23
.70
.65
.58
.62
.61
.25
.24
.24
.17
.24
.9
.17
.19
.24
.29
.30
.33
.13
.15
.33
.24
.19
.26
.39
.19
.18
.21
.29
.19
.30
.21
.20
.31
.42
.38
.29
.24
.24
.27
.19
.34
.27
.28
.30
.27
.44
.24
.22
.26
.23
.18
.24
.28
.20
.20
.20
.56
.33
.46
.25
1
.27
.39
.30
.23
.22
.38
.23
.21
.24
.36
.43
.27
.25
.40
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
HED2
.27
.38
.29
.26
.27
.40
.23
.19
.29
.30
.37
.25
.26
.30
.67
1
HED3
HED4
.30
.36
.30
.36
.36
.53
.34
.27
.35
.40
.37
.32
.34
.41
.62
.66
1
.28
.32
.29
.28
.28
.49
.26
.20
.33
.32
.49
.30
.30
.39
.66
.71
.70
1
HED5
SA1
SA2
SA3
SA4
SA5
.21
.26
.26
.19
.12
.33
.18
.13
.16
.30
.36
.38
.12
.36
.54
.48
.50
.48
1
.18
.10
.22
.25
.37
.33
.32
.34
.28
.07
.18
.12
.17
.11
.08
.10
.18
.09
.05
1
.13
.18
.17
.31
.28
.35
.33
.37
.31
.19
.28
.29
.22
.16
.25
.26
.29
.30
.21
.25
1
.15
.14
.21
.40
.31
.42
.33
.38
.40
.21
.26
.14
.23
.09
.21
.16
.31
.26
.21
.42
.40
1
.30
.29
.33
.50
.50
.61
.46
.48
.49
.28
.30
.27
.31
.22
.34
.38
.49
.43
.25
.40
.45
.53
1
.21
.15
.22
.52
.46
.41
.53
.46
.49
.17
.23
.26
.22
.22
.20
.18
.27
.23
.15
.33
.47
.44
.47
1
5. Discussion
According to life span research, individuals' motivations change
through their lifetime. Previous research on luxury brand consumption
neglected this phenomenon. Based on the ndings of this study, the results conrm that the relevance of attitude functions for luxury brand
purchase differs among age groups. This research is the rst study empirically proving a moderation effect of age in the context of luxury
brand consumption.
Furthermore, the aim of this study is the identication of differences
and commonalities of the relevance of attitude functions on luxury consumption in different age groups. While the utilitarian attitude function
shows a high relevance for all age groups, the hedonic function seems to
be particularly of inuence on purchase intention for late adolescents
(1625 years) and middle-aged adults (4059 years). In contrast to
this nding, social-adjustive function is only signicant for late adolescents and the value-expressive function only signicant for young
adults.
The social-adjustive function seems to be exclusively relevant for
late adolescents supporting the theoretical assumption that peer pressure is particularly shaping the behavior of this target group. Contrary,
for young adults, a negative though not statistically signicant effect of
this function on purchase intention is evident. The strong focus on identity expression of young adults indicates a need for distinction from
their peer group. For middle-aged adults, complying to peer pressure
is of no inuence on luxury consumption. No indication that socialadjustiveness has any relevance for middle-aged consumers occurs,
while it seems of great importance for late adolescents. The small
Table 4
Summary of the standardized parameter estimates, t-statistics, and p-values of the structural model for the overall sample as well as the three age groups.
Late adolescents
Young adults
Middle-aged adults
320
Table 5
Comparative results of the multi-group analysis represented by p-values.
.01
.02
.22
.49
.14
.09
.41
.24
.01
.01
.20
.29
sample size might have an inuence on the fact that this study shows no
signicant differences between late adolescents and middle-aged adults
concerning the inuence of social-adjustiveness. Future research needs
to explore this effect in greater detail.
The value-expressive function is only of inuence for young adults.
This nding conrms the underlying theory of the Identity Development Process showing that in a period of experiencing a stronger consciousness of one's own self-identity, individuals have especially the
need to express themselves.
Bian and Forsythe's (2012) study shows only a marginally signicant
effect for a combined social function in the late adolescent group. As the
ndings of this study demonstrate, a separation of the social-adjustive
and value-expressive function is advisable. While the social-adjustive
function inuences luxury brand purchase intention in late adolescents,
young adults reject peer pressure, and therefore the only social function
that shows signicance is value-expressiveness in this group.
The study of Dubois and Laurent (1994) claims a strong inuence of
the hedonic function on luxury consumption across target groups. The
ndings only partially support this claim as the impact does not hold
true in the young adult group. Given the fact that identity expression
dominates the luxury consumption behavior in this target group, the
hedonic function becomes less relevant.
Grewal et al. (2004) stated that the utilitarian function plays a less
prominent role for luxuries. In contrast to this, Tynan et al. (2010)
come to the conclusion that a high standard of quality is essential for
all luxury goods. Based on the results of our study the utilitarian function shows a high relevance across all three age groups. A possible explanation can be found drawing on Herzberg's (1959) motivation
hygiene theory. Adopting this theory, quality can be perceived as a
hygiene factor for luxury brands (Brun & Castelli, 2013); therefore, consumers expect an outstanding quality. In case those high expectations
stay unfullled, consumers might be dissatised and refrain from
(re)purchasing the brand. Concluding, quality seems necessary but not
sufcient. Thus, quality might not in itself drive luxury purchase behavior, brand positioning should always be complemented by social and
hedonic aspects.
To conclude, the personal attitude functions (hedonic and utilitarian) are in principle relevant across all age groups, while the impact of
the social functions greatly differ among the target groups. Whereas
the social-adjustive function strongly enhances luxury brand purchase
behavior of late adolescents, value-expressiveness only impacts the luxury consumption of young adults. Social functions do not determine the
acquisition of luxury brands for middle-aged adults. Based on the results, luxury brands are identity supporting brands for late adolescents and young adults; however, these social functions do not show
any relevance for middle-aged adults.
6. Practical implications
The ndings suggest that managers need to develop an age group
specic competitive marketing strategy concerning the positioning of
luxury brands, particularly focusing on age group specic adjustments
of the social functions.
As the results show, brand positioning should always be a specic
combination of utilitarian, social, and hedonic aspects to address the different age groups. As mentioned above, the utilitarian function (quality)
might act as a hygiene factor for luxury brands, thus in order to reach a
competitive advantage, a brand should additionally be positioned on
the hedonic and/or social functions. Especially to address late adolescents and young adults, the social function could provide a decisive
competitive advantage. To position a luxury brand particularly the social functions offer versatile options for designing brand communication
along the brand personality (e.g. elegant, sportive, or trendy).
This study provides evidence that luxury shopping motives of late
adolescents are highly inuenced by the social-adjustive function.
Luxury brand manufacturers can use this nding to leverage their
brands by popularizing their trademark through the use of testimonials,
idols, or role models to reach the opinion leaders of this target group.
Carrying the well-known Monogram canvas bags by famous celebrities
like Rihanna, Kim Kardashian, and Lady Gaga from the French manufacturer, Louis Vuitton has strengthened its positive image to attract late
adolescents all over the world.
Young adults communicate their self-identities to others by using
brands serving the value-expressive function. For luxury companies,
understanding the identity of this target group and communicating
the corresponding characteristics are essential. Concerning the socialadjustive and the value-expressive function, highlighted signatures
like logos, brand names, or predominant designs that identify luxury
brands deliver consumers' desire to satisfy these social needs.
For middle-aged adults, only hedonic and utilitarian aspects of the
brand are important for purchasing luxury goods. The desire to express
their self-identity or their expectations of how others will react to their
purchase decisions does not direct their luxury brand consumption.
Luxury brand managers face the challenge to address this target group
with a hedonic and utilitarian function which is part of the product
characteristics. Patek Philippe targets this age group by offering watches
with outstanding longevity (utilitarian) and unique design (hedonic).
Besides focusing on one age group in luxury brand positioning, managers face the opportunity to include sub-brands incorporating a specific target group in their brand portfolio. For example, the Polo Ralph
Lauren Corporation has become one of the most famous luxury brands
in the world by launching age group specic brands. By establishing
the Polo Ralph Lauren line with the polo player as explicit logo, they
were able to serve the social aspirations of their young consumers.
Introducing the purple and black label for more mature consumers in
1996 with the focus on quality and hedonic aspects, Polo Ralph Lauren
made a deliberate decision not to use a visible brand logo.
7. Limitations and further research
The goal of our study was the identication of underlying motives
for luxury brand consumption among age groups. Our ndings show
that the impact of the social functions greatly differs among the groups.
It is conceivable that age not only moderates motives for luxury
consumption but also the actual perception of what luxury constitutes.
In literature various facets of the luxury concept are discussed, e.g.
conspicuousness, uniqueness, craftsmanship, scarcity, ancestral heritage, long history (Dubois, Laurent, & Czellar, 2001; Kapferer, 1998;
Vigneron & Johnson, 1999). For instance, the perception of conspicuousness as a constituting facet of the concept of luxury might change over
the life span. As identity development research suggests, elderly individuals begin to accept their self-limitations by adopting a more
321
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