Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 39 (1992) 139-149

139

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam - - Printed in The Netherlands

Unsteady actuator disc model for horizontal axis

wind turbines
Jens N. S~rensen and Asger Myken
Department of Fluid Mechanics, Building 404, Technical University of Denmark,
DK-2800 Lyngby, Denmark

Summary
A non-linear and unsteady actuator disc model for horizontal axis wind turbines is presented.
The model consists of a finite-differencesolution of the axisymmetric Euler equations in a vorticity-streamfunction formulation. We here show some results, steady as well as unsteady, for an
actuator disc with a prescribed elliptic load distribution and for the 20 m radius Nibe turbine.
Generally, the results are found to be in good agreement with measurements.

1. Introduction
Traditionally performance calculations of wind turbines are based on either
blade-element momentum theory or vortex models. However, in recent years
generalized actuator models have become popular. The reason for this is probably that, although being cheap to run on a computer the blade-element theory
is based on assumptions that have never been justified. Especially in off-design
conditions the blade-element model is in poor agreement with measurements.
Vortex theories, on the other hand, represent the physics adequately but are
expensive to employ and suffers often from convergence problems when free
wakes are considered. As a supplement to the blade-element and vortex theories the actuator disc model describes the flow field adequately without being
too expensive to utilize on a computer.
Since the concept of the actuator disc first was formulated by Froude [ 1] it
has been closely related to the one-dimensional momentum theory and much
confusion about its applicability in describing complex flow fields still exists.
Although the actuator disc concept is a main ingredient in the blade-element
theory, as formulated for example by Glauert [2 ], it shall be emphasized that
the actuator is a physical model that enables one to put discontinuities into
the governing flow equations. In the case of a rotor the actuator disc is defined
as a permeable surface normal to the freestream velocity on which an evenly
distribution of blade forces acts upon the flow. In its general form the flow field
0167-6105/92/$05.00 1992 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved.

140

is determined by the unsteady, axisymmetric Euler or Navier-Stokes equations, which means that no physical restrictions have to be imposed on the
kinematics of the flow.
The first non-linear actuator disc model for heavily loaded propellers was
formulated by Wu [3 ]. Although no actual calculations were carried out, this
work demonstrated the opportunities for employing the actuator disc on complicated configurations as e.g. ducted propellers and propellers with finite hubs.
Later improvements, especially on the numerical treatment of the equations
are due to e.g. Greenberg [4], Schmidt and Sparenberg [5], and Lee and
Greenberg [6].
In the application of the actuator concept for wind turbine aerodynamics,
the first non-linear model was suggested by Madsen [ 7 ]. He developed an actuator cylinder model to describe the flow field about a vertical axis wind turbine, the Voight-Schneider or Gyro mill. This model has later been adapted to
treat horizontal axis wind turbines. A thorough review of actuator disc models
for rotors in general and wind turbines in particular has recently been given
by van Kuik [8 ].
The method proposed here is an actuator disc model based on a finite-difference solution of the unsteady, axisymmetric Euler equations. The kinematics of the flow is described by transport equations for vorticity co and swirl
velocity w, and a Poisson equation for the stream function . The influence of
the rotor or, ihe flow field is taken into account by replacing the blades by
volume forces which are treated as source terms in the equations. Since the
interaction between the blade forces and the flow field is mutual, it is necessary
to seek the solution iteratively. This is done by a time-stepping procedure which
at every instant assures a time-true solution. The volume forces are estimated
from measured, two-dimensional airfoildata.
As opposed to most other actuator disc models, the present model is "threedimensional" in the sence that transport equations for both m o m e n t u m and
moment of m o m m t u m are taken into accotmt. Furthermore, as the model is
based on direct time-true simulation, it is capable of handling rotors working
in unsteady conditions. Thus, for example dynamic inflow and/or unsteady
pitching operations can be directlysimulated.
2. Formulation of the model
Assuming axial symmetry and inviscid, incompressible flow conditions, in
terms of cylindrical coordinates (x,r,0) with corresponding velocity vector
(u,v,w) the Euler equation may be written as follows:
Continuity:

~(ur) t O(vr)
Ox

~r =

O,
(1)

141

x-momentum:

0u+ Ou

1 Op.l[~

Ou

at Uax+V~= pox p'

(2)

r-momentum:

av
Ov av w 2
~+U~x+t~r- r =

1 0p i L
p Or p'

(3)

~-momentum:
~w
Ow
aw vw ft
ot + u ~ x + V--~r "t --r -- p'

(4)

where p denotes the pressure, p the air density, t the time variable and ?= (f~,fr,ft)
is the volume force acting on the rotor decomposed in x-, r- and 0-directions,
respectively.
Preferring a formulation in vorticity and streamfunction we introduce the
following definitions:
Vorticity:
Ov i~u

(5)

c=~x- ,~r'
stream:function:

o~,_

o~_

Ox - rv'

Or - - ru.

(6)

Taking the curl of the momentum equations and introducing the definitions
(5) and (6), we get two momentum equations for transport of vorticity and
swirl velocity and a Poisson equation for the streamfunction,
ox

.i 0 ~ - ~ x \ V j j = \

(Ow O(uw) O(vw)+2~)=~

--~4

Ox

t-

Or

Ox2 r Or~C-O-~ =r~"

0x--~-rJp'

(7)

(8)

(9)

The resulting system of governing equations are now given by Eqs. (6)-(9).
The advantage of the present formulation is that the three transport equations
for the velocities now are replaced by two transport equations for co and w, and
that the pressure is eliminated from the equations. Furthermore, by introducing the streamfunction ~, everywhere in the flow domain the continuity is

142

automatically satisfied. The equations are here put in the so-called conservative formulation which assures energy to be preserved.
For fundamental investigations, the field of volume forces may be specified
a priori and the kinematical properties calculated. Applied on actual rotor configurations, however, the force field and the kinematics are coupled and has to
be determined iteratively.
To close ~he system of governing equations calculation domain, and boundary - and initial - conditions have to be determined. At time t = 0 we let the
flow field be given by a parallel flow where u - Uo-- constant and v = w-- 0. The
calculation domain is defined by an inflow and an outflow plane, and an axis
of :,ymmetry and a lateral boundary. For numerical efficiency it is important
to reduce the calculation domain as much as possible without disturbing the
flow too much. Generally speaking, only the symmetry condition is of natural
origin whereas the other boundaries are implemented only to limit the calculation domain.
The boundary conditions employed in the present work are as follows:
Inflow:
~V

u=Uo,-~x=O,

CO=O, w=O.

(10)

Outflow:
0v

o--;=o,

0CO

0u

0w

o-7=-CO, o =o.

(11)

Lateral boundary:

ufUo , O(rv)
0---7-=0, COl0, w=0.

(12)

Symmetry axis:
0U

~r=0,

v=0,

COl0,

w=0.

(13)

From these formulas boundary conditions for the streamfunction are readily
derived. It may be noted that the radial velocity is allowed to vary along the
~ateral boundary, thus this boundary condition is more general and less restrictive than assuming it to be a streamline.
With the rotor located at X--Xd and limited by re [0,ra] the volume forces
are distributed as

f-" (fx,fr,ft) J(X=Xd,r~rd),

where J denotes the Dirac function.

(14)

143

3. Numerical technique

From a mathematical point of view the momentum equations are hyperbolic

and the Poisson equation elliptic. These properties have to be reflected in the
numerical solution procedure. We here employ a finite-difference technique
combined with the alternating-direction-implicit (ADI) method of Peaceman
and Rachford [9] which is second-order accurate in time and unconditionally
stable.
The solution of the definition equations (6) and the Poisson equation (9)
is accomplished by employing second-order accurate central-difference discretization. At each time step Eq. (9) needs to be fully satisfied and it therefore
represents the most time-consuming part of the computation. To speed up the
convergence rate the relaxation technique of Wachpress [ 10] is utilized. For
the cases calculated up to now, this technique assured convergence within 8
iterations per time-step.
Owing to the hyperbolicity of the momentum equations, first order accurate
upwinding formulas are employed. Thus, exemplified by the t o - equation, the
convective terms are discretized as follows:
x-derivative:
~(uto) ~[(uto)i.y-(uto)i_lj]/Ax,
Ox - [ [ ( u t o ) i + , j - (uto)i.j]/Ax,

foruij>~O,
for Ui,j <0,

(15)

r-derivative:

8(vto)

~[ (vto)i.~--(vto)i.~_~l/Ar,

~)r = ( [ ( v t o ) i j + l - (vto)ijl/Ar,

forvi.~>~0,
for vi~ <0.

(16)

The overall solution procedure is accomplished by iteration between the kinematic variables and the volume forces. This procedure can be summarized

as follows:
- T h e transport equations for to and w, Eqs. (7) and (8), are solved at time

t - t n by ADI algorithm.
- The Poisson equation for ~,, Eq. (9), is solved iteratively until the desired
accuracy is obtained.
- The velocity field is updated by solution of the definition equations (6).
- W i t h the flow field determined at t - t ~, the resulting volume forces are
determined.
- A new solution at time t f t ~+' is obtained by continuing the solution
procedure.
4. Results and discussion

Here we will show some results obtained by the developed model. In order
to study the model's ability in describing the aerodynamics of heavily loaded

144

rotors and rotors working in unsteady conditions, the focus will mainly be on
basic flow cases with prescribed loading.

4. I. Rotor with prescribed loading

To compare the present model with the simple momentum theory, it is convenient to introduce some general definitions. The thrust T, defined as the
total axial pressure force acting on the disc, may be defined as

T-- yFxdA,

(17)

Ad

where Fx denotes the axial surface force (Fx = ff, dx) and Ad is the area of the
actuator disc. The corresponding power converted to or from the flow is determined by

P= f Fxu dA.

(18)

t/

Ad

In the case of a wind turbine the stream surface passing through the actuator
disc has a cross-sectional area, Ao, at the inflow boundary which is smaller than
A~, the area at outflow downstream the disc. According to the law of conservation of mass, we get

Ao Uo = f u dA f y u dA.
Ad

(19)

A~

From the kinematics thrust and power may aiso be obtained as

T-pU~Ad- f pu 2 dA,

(20)

A~
P~ pUZAd- I pu3dA,

(21)

Aoo

where the contribution of the pressure on the boundary of the stream surface
has been ignored (see Glauert [2 ] ). The axial flow induction factor, a, is given
as
Ud

Ao

a = 1 - V o o = 1 --Ad ,

(22)

where Ud denotes the average axial velocity passing through the actuator disc.
Finally, the thrust coefficient CT and the power coefficient Ce are defined as
T
Cr=PU~Ad,

P
C p = !~pUoAd
a

(23)

1,t5

From one-dimensional momentum theory, we recall the classical results

CTf4a(1--a),

Cp=4a(1-a) 2,

(24)

from which the well-known Betz limit states that the maximum power that
can be extracted from the wind is given by C p ~ = 16/27 at a = 1/3.
Eq. (24) was derived by assuming a constant normal load on the actuator
surface. By inspection of Eqs. (7) and (8) it is readily seen that this case does
not produce any swirl velocity, i.e. w = 0. Furthermore, as the volume force in
Eq. (7) is given as the derivative of the normal load, a vortex singularity occurs
on the edge of the actuator disc. At time t = 0 this concentrated vortex starts
to drive the flow, after which a distribution of vortices is convected downstream the disc. Because of the difficulties in introducing a singular volume
force in the equations, it was decided to employ an equivalent elliptic distribution of volume forces

dT

Fx-- -pUo

23[ (r)] 1/2

1- -R

CT,

(25)

where R denotes the radius of the rotor and CTis defined by Eq. (23).
By adjusting CTand calculating the resulting average axial velocity at the
plane of the actuator, it is possible to compare the present model with the onedimensional momentum theory. This is shown in Fig. I where the power coefficient is shown as function of the axial induction factor. The two curves show
the same trends, but the present model always give Cp-values less than those
obtained by the momentum theory. Thus, compared with the theoretical maximum value of 0.59, we calculate a maximum val~e of 0.53. The difference in
the two curves may be explained by the different load distributions.
In the calculations, a domain ofxe [0,6R ] and re [0,2R ] was employed, with
0
tO,

o
d

o.
d~
/
!

__

M0mentum-the0ry
Present

0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
_~,~.o~'.... '~:~E ................................................

0.60

Fig. 1. Power coefficient versus flow induction factor.

146

120 nodepoints in the x-direction and 40 in the r-direction. The actuator disc
was located at x = 2R. As shown in Fig. i solutions were obtained for a-values
up to a = 0.40. When increasing further the load, it became impossible to obtain
convergence. This is attributed to the limits of the calculation domain, as the
expansion of the wake here exceeds the lateral boundary. This is illustrated in
Fig. 2 where the resulting streamlines for a = 0.35 and a = 0.40 are shown. The
lower figure, corresponding to a = 0.40, has yet not converged, and it is to be
expected that only an increase in the calculation domain will make a converged
solution possible. In future studies, the influence of the size of the calculation
domain on the solution will be investigated further.
To study the model's ability of calculating unsteady flows, a calculation with
momentary shift of thrust coefficient, from CT--O.1 to CT--0.3, was carried
out. In Fig. 3, the resulting flow induction factor is shown as function of time.
.__----

_~_~. j~--~_..~-~_-~-

Fig. 2. Streamlines; upper: a = 0.35, lower: a = 0.40.

0,10

0.08

0.06
0
0.04

0.02

'~oo,o'o...... ~o'o'o...... ~o'.ob...... ~do',oo

Time (sec)

Fig. 3. Change of blade load; axial flow induction factor versus time.

147

We here see that immediately after changing the load, the induction factor
increases dramatically, after which it only slowly converges towards its final
state.
4.2. Calculation of Nibe 20 m radi~ rotor
To test the model on a practical rotor configuration, calculations were compared with measurements of the 20 m. radius Nibe rotor [11]. In Fig. 4 the
measured Cp-curve is compared with results from the present model and the

0.50

0.40

/ /

"

"

0.30

"

\
\
\

0.20

* Measured data
~
Pre.~ent
- - Blade-element

0.10

0.00

.........

0.00

~ .........

2.00

, .........

, .........

4,00

6.00

,,,,,,,,,,,

8.00

.........

~ .........

theory
~,,~

.....

~1

I0.00 12.00 14.00 16.00

Tipraiio

Fig. 4. Comparison of measured and calculated power coefi~cient for Nibe-B rotor.
5 0 ,~

0 L

to

t6

2o

40

$5

qo

50

60

55

lo

(,5

Fig. 5. Measured flapwise bending moment time (reproduced from [ 12 ] ).

f
u

o.,

~,

,o.oo

i,

o.oo

.~.,

,,

,.

~ T I

|',~

3o.oo

vnnllll

.oo

Time (sec)

Fig. 6. Calculated power coefficient time.

u,

i ,

so.oo

uu

w,

u W v

,,

60.o0

u n

70.oo

148
blade-element theory. Calculations were here carried out for tip-ratios, A= ~R/
Uo, ranging from 4.0 to 9.5. For higher k-values, owing to the limits of the
calculation domain, converged solutions were not obtainable. However, for the
cases calculated, the present model is everywhere in better agreement with
experiments than the blade-element theory, which always predicts values higher
than measured.
Measurements performed on the Nibe-B wind turbine have demonstrated
the effect of pitch angle changes [ 12 ]. If the pitch angle is decreased, for example, the angle of attack increases and more thrust is produced. This results
further in an increase of the induced velocities. The induced velocities, however, are created by the vorticity in the wake, which only slowly are convected
downstream. Therefore transient unsteady effects will occur. In the Nibe-experiment a square variation of the blade pitch angle was applied and the response on the flapwise moment was analysed. This is shown in Fig. 5 where
the averaged flapwise moment is shown as function of time.
To test the developed actuator model, a similar experiment was carried out
numerically. We here changed the pitch angle with a square function of length
35 s, corresponding to the period employed in the Nibe-experiment. The outcome is shown in Fig. 6 where the response of the power coefficient is shown
as function of time. Comparing the two figures the qualitatively behaviour of
the time-responses are seen to be in very good agreement. Thus, it is believed
that the developed model in particular will be a valuable tool for analysing
unsteady effects.

References
1 R.E. Froude, On the part played in propulsion by differences of fluidpressure, Trans. Inst.
Naval Architects 30 (1889) 390.
2 H. Glauert, Airplane propellers,in: Durand, W.F., Aerodynamic Theory (Dover, New York,
1963).
3 T.Y. Wu, Flow through a heavily loaded act:~Pterdisc,Scbiffstechnik 9 (1962) 134.
4 M.D. Greenberg, Non-linear actuator disc theory, Z. Flugwissensch. 20 (3) (1972) 90.
5 G.H. Schmidt and J.A. Sparenborg, On the edge singularitysolution of an actuator disc with
large constant normal load,J. Ship Res. 21 (2) (1977) 125.
6 J.H.W. Lee and M.D. Greenberg, Line momentum source in shallow inviscid fluid,J. Fluid
Mech. 145 (1984) 287.
7 H.A. Madsen, The actuator cylinder a flow model for vertical axis wind turbines, Aalborg
University Centre (1982), Denmark.
8 G.A.M. van Kuik, On the limitationsof Froude's actuator disc concept, Technische UniversiteitEindhoven (1991).
9 D.W. Peaceman and H.H. Rachford, The numerical solution of parabolic and ellipticdifferential equations, J. Soc. Ind. Appl. Math. 3 (1955) 28.
10 E.L. Wachspress, Iterativesolutionsof ellipticsystems (Prentice-Hall,Englewood Cliffs,NJ,

1966}.

149
11 Nibe maleprogram, Energiministeriets of Elvmrkernes Vindkraftprogram (1987), DEFU,
Lundtoftevej 100, DK-2800, Lyngby.
12 S. Oye, Unsteady wake effects caused by pitch-angle changes, 1st. Syrup. on the Aerodynamics of Wind Turbines (1986).