Original article

Effect of plyometric training on sand versus grass on

muscle soreness and jumping and sprinting ability in
soccer players
F M Impellizzeri,1 E Rampinini,1 C Castagna,2 F Martino,3 S Fiorini,3 U Wisloff4,5
1

Human Performance
Laboratory, Mapei Sport
Research Center, Castellanza,
Varese, Italy; 2 School of Sport
and Exercise Sciences, Faculty
of Medicine and Surgery,
University of Rome Tor Vergata,
Rome, Italy; 3 Facolta` di
Medicina e Chirurgia, Corso di
Laurea Specialistica in Scienze e
Tecnica dello Sport, Universita`
degli Studi di Firenze, Firenze,
Italia; 4 Department of
Circulation and Medical Imaging,
Norwegian University of Science
and Technology, Faculty of
Medicine, Trondheim, Norway;
5
Department of Cardiology, St.
Olavs Hospital, Trondheim,
Norway
Correspondence to:
Franco M Impellizzeri,
Neuromuscular Research
Laboratory, Schulthess Clinic,
Lengghalde 2, 8008 Zurich,
Switzerland; franco.
impellizzeri@kws.ch
Accepted 14 May 2007
Published Online First
25 May 2007

ABSTRACT
Objective: The lower impact on the musculoskeletal
system induced by plyometric exercise on sand compared
to a firm surface might be useful to reduce the stress of
intensified training periods or during rehabilitation from
injury. The aim of this study was to compare the effects
of plyometric training on sand versus a grass surface on
muscle soreness, vertical jump height and sprinting ability.
Design: Parallel two-group, randomised, longitudinal
(pretest2post-test) study.
Methods: After random allocation, 18 soccer players
completed 4 weeks of plyometric training on grass (grass
group) and 19 players on sand (sand group). Before and
after plyometric training, 10 m and 20 m sprint time,
squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), and
eccentric utilization ratio (CMJ/SJ) were determined.
Muscle soreness was measured using a Likert scale.
Results: No training surface 6 time interactions were
found for sprint time (p.0.87), whereas a trend was
found for SJ (p = 0.08), with both groups showing similar
improvements (p,0.001). On the other hand, the grass
group improved their CMJ (p = 0.033) and CMJ/SJ
(p = 0.005) significantly (p,0.001) more than players in
the sand group. In contrast, players in the sand group
experienced less muscle soreness than those in the grass
group (p,0.001).
Conclusions: Plyometric training on sand improved both
jumping and sprinting ability and induced less muscle
soreness. A grass surface seems to be superior in
enhancing CMJ performance while the sand surface
showed a greater improvement in SJ. Therefore,
plyometric training on different surfaces may be
associated with different training-induced effects on some
neuromuscular factors related to the efficiency of the
stretch-shortening cycle.

Soccer is a high-intensity, intermittent activity

during which players are required to repeatedly
perform striding, turning, sprinting and jumping,
which place considerable demands on the neuromuscular system.1 2 Therefore, the ability of the
lower limb muscles to produce power is an
important fitness component for soccer players.3
Plyometric training has been shown to be an
effective method for the improvement of both
sprinting and jumping ability46 and it has also been
reported to improve running economy,7 joint
stability and reduce the severity of knee injuries.8 9
For these reasons, soccer training commonly
includes this form of muscular power training.
Plyometric training typically consists of stretchshortening cycle exercises characterized by multijoint actions, rapid eccentric phases and explosive
42

concentric muscular contractions potentiated by

the stretch reflex.6 The rapid eccentric muscle
actions induce muscle damage and, consequently,
muscular soreness and a transient decrease in
strength.10 11 Plyometric training is commonly
performed on firm surfaces (eg grass and wood),
but a more recent study has shown that drop
jumps on sand induce less muscle damage when
compared to a firm surface.12 Indeed, Miyama and
Nosaka12 found a greater reduction in maximal
isometric force following 100 consecutive drop
jumps on a firm compared to sand surface, while
muscle soreness and creatine kinase concentration
were lower on sand. However, jumping on sand
causes a lower reuse of elastic energy and energy
loss due to feet slipping during the concentric
action.12 13 This might induce different training
effects compared to training on a firm surface. On
the other hand, the lower stress on the musculoskeletal system may decrease the risk of injuries
and the overall physical strain of training sessions.14 This may be particularly helpful during the
preseason training period where a high incidence of
overuse injuries has frequently been reported in
soccer players.15 16 This could be a consequence of
factors such as hard surface17 18 and the high
training load.19 Furthermore, the lower impact on
the musculoskeletal system induced by plyometric
training on sand might be useful during rehabilitation programmes. According to Mihama and
Nosaka,12 less muscle soreness and muscle damage
does not necessarily imply that plyometric training
on sand is preferable to that on grass. Indeed,
possible differences in the training effects induced
by sand or firm surfaces should be taken into
account. However, to the best of our knowledge,
no studies have examined the effect of plyometric
training completed on different surfaces.
Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare
the effects of plyometric training on muscle
soreness, vertical jump height and sprinting ability
when performed on either a sand or grass surface.

METHODS
Study design and randomisation
A parallel two-group, randomised, longitudinal
(pretest2post-test) design was used. After baseline
measurements, subjects were randomly allocated
to two intervention groups: plyometric training on
sand (sand group) and plyometric training on grass
(grass group). Balanced restricted randomization
was obtained using blocks (block sizes of 4 and 6)
with allocation ratio of one-to-one.20 As the
independent variable was training surface, no

Br J Sports Med 2008;42:4246. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2007.038497

Original article
control group was used. Baseline measurements were completed
1 week before the commencement of the training period, while
postintervention measurements were carried out 4 weeks after
the end of the experimental training period. This tapering
duration (4 weeks) was necessary and corresponded to the
recovery period needed to maximize and highlight the traininginduced changes after 4 weeks of high-intensity plyometric
training.21 Furthermore, in the current study we adopted the
training programme used by Luebbers et al.21 to ensure
improvement in jumping ability, with the slight modification
that set 6 repetitions instead of set 6 distance was used.

avoid an influence of the upper limbs on jump performance.

Players performed the SJ starting from a standing position,
bending the knees to 90u, stopping for 3 s, and then jumping as
high as possible trying to avoid any knee or trunk countermovement. CMJs were performed starting from a standing
position after which players were asked to jump as high as
possible with a rapid, preparatory downward eccentric action.
Jump height was estimated from flight time calculated as the
time between take-off and subsequent landing.22 The eccentric
utilization ratio was calculated as CMJ/SJ.23 The best result for
each jump type was used for the analysis.

Participants

Sprinting tests

Forty-four amateur soccer players (mean (SD) body mass 74 kg

(7), height 178 cm (7) and age 25 years (4)) were involved in the
study. Written informed consent was obtained after verbal and
written explanation of the experimental procedures. The study
was approved by an independent institutional review board
according to the guidelines and recommendations for European
ethics committees. All subjects were familiarized with all
testing procedures prior to the commencement of the study
and had already had experience of plyometric training.

The 10 m and 20 m sprint tests were performed 30 min after

the jump test session and following a further warm-up
consisting of low-intensity running and striding. Two trials of
each test, with a full recovery between sprints, were completed.
Sprint time was recorded with two telemetric photocells
(Microgate, Bolzano, Italy) placed at the start and at the finish
lines of the two sprint distances. The best sprint time for each
distance was used for the analysis.

Muscle soreness
Plyometric training programme
As the preseason training period lasted 4 weeks, we employed a
4-week plyometric training programme similar to that used by
Luebbers et al.21 that has been shown to be effective in
enhancing lower limb muscular anaerobic power (table 1).
Training was completed on a grass pitch or on a 0.2 m-deep dry
sand surface. The characteristics of the sand (ie grain diameter)
resulted in a harder sand surface compared to beach sand. The
plyometric training sessions were completed 3 times a week in
addition to the usual training consisting of generic and specific
aerobic interval training and technical-tactical training.
Participants were asked to exert a maximal intensity during
all the training sessions. Recovery time between repetitions and
sets were 1530 s and 12 min, respectively. During the 4-week
recovery period corresponding to the start of the competitive
season, soccer players trained three times a week and competed
once a week in an official match, but no plyometric exercises or
sprint training were completed.

Training outcomes
Jump tests
Soccer players completed the jump test sessions after a 15 min
warm-up consisting of low-intensity running, striding and selfadministered submaximal jumps performed as practice and
specific additional warm-up. All jumps were performed on a
photocell mat (Optojump, Microgate, Bolzano, Italy) in a
random order with at least five trials of each type of jump test:
squat jump (SJ) and countermovement jump (CMJ). All vertical
jumps were completed keeping the hands on the iliac crest to
Table 1 Four-week plyometric training programme* modified from
Luebbers et al21
Number of sets (number of repetitions)
Exercise

Week 1

Week 2

Week 3

Week 4

Vertical jumping
Bounding
Broad jumping
Drop jump

15 (10)
3 (10)
5 (8)
3 (5)

20 (10)
4 (10)
5 (10)
5 (9)

25
5
7
6

25
5
8
6

(10)
(10)
(10)
(15)

*See text for details.

Br J Sports Med 2008;42:4246. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2007.038497

(10)
(10)
(10)
(15)

Muscle soreness was assessed each day of the training period

and before the post-test testing session using an Italian version
of the 7-point Likert scale of muscle soreness24(table 2). A mean
value for the training period for each training group was
calculated.

Statistical analysis
Data are presented as mean (SD). We tested the null hypothesis
of no difference between groups in all baseline measures using
multiple unpaired Student t tests. A two-way mixed analysis of
variance (ANOVA) was used on each continuous dependent
variable. The independent variables included one between
subjects factor, plyometric training surface, with two levels
(grass and sand), and one within subject factor, time, with two
levels (pretest and post-test). We used these ANOVAs to test
the null hypothesis of no different change over time between
the grass and the sand group (plyometric training surface 6time
interaction) and no different change over time in response to
plyometric training intervention. When a significant F value
was found, Bonferronis post hoc test was applied. Effect sizes
(g2) were also calculated, and values of 0.01, 0.06 and above 0.15
were considered small, medium and large, respectively.25 The
level of statistical significance was set at p,0.05.

RESULTS
Thirty-seven players completed the study. No differences were
found between groups in baseline values. No significant
interactions were found for the 10 m sprint time and 20 m
sprint time, while significant interactions were found for CMJ
Table 2

Likert scale of muscle soreness from Vickers24

Value Description
0
1
2
3
4
5
6

A
A
A
A
A
A
A

complete absence of soreness

light pain felt only when touched/a vague ache
moderate pain felt only when touched/a slight persistent pain
light pain when walking up or down stairs
light pain when walking on a flat surface/painful
moderate pain, stiffness or weakness when walking/very painful
severe pain that limits my ability to move

43

Original article
Table 3 Effect of 4 weeks of plyometric training on a grass versus sand surface on sprint and vertical jump performance
Grass group

10 m sprint (s)
20 m sprint (s)
SJ (cm)
CMJ (cm)
CMJ/SJ

Effect size (g2)

Sand group

Pretest
(mean (SD))

Post-test
(mean (SD))

Pretest
(mean (SD))

Post-test
(mean (SD))

Interaction

Value

Descriptor

1.89 (0.08)
3.23 (0.08)
34.0 (3.2)
37.8 (3.6)
1.11 (0.02)

1.82 (0.07)
3.14 (0.09)
35.8 (3.3)
43.3 (5.9){
1.21 (0.03)

1.88 (0.09)
3.19 (0.15)
34.3 (4.5)
37.2 (3.6)
1.09 (0.02)

1.80 (0.11)*
3.11 (0.11)*
37.8 (4.0)*
39.6 (5.5){
1.05 (0.03)*

p = 0.88
p = 0.87
p = 0.08
p = 0.03
p = 0.005

0.001
0.001
0.085
0.124
0.206

Small
Small
Medium
Medium
Large

*p,0.001, significant main effect for time.

{p,0.01, significant difference from pretest (post hoc analysis after ANOVA).
{p,0.001, significant difference from pretest (post hoc analysis after ANOVA).
CMJ, countermovement jump; CMJ/SJ, eccentric utilization ratio; DJ, drop jump; SJ, squat jump.

and eccentric utilization ratio (table 3). The interaction for SJ

was close to significance (p = 0.08; medium effect size). Indeed,
SJ improved by 3.4 cm in the sand group (90% CI 1.2 to 5.6 cm),
while in the grass group it increased by 1.8 cm (90% CI 0 to
3.6 cm). The main effect for time was significant for the 10 m
sprint time, which decreased from pretest (1.88 s (SD 0.09)) to
post-test (1.81 s (SD 0.09)) by 0.07 s (90% CI 20.10 to 20.04 s).
Similarly, the main effect for time was significant for the 20 m
sprint time, which decreased from pretest (3.21 s (SD 0.12)) to
post-test (3.12 s (SD 0.10)) by 0.09 s (90% CI 20.13 to 20.05 s).
Post hoc analysis for CMJ showed an increase of 5.5 cm (90% CI
2.3 to 8.2 cm) in the grass group and 2.4 cm (90% CI 20.27 to
5.0 cm) in the sand group. The main effect for time was
significant for SJ height, which increased from 34.2 cm (SD 3.9)
to 36.8 cm (SD 3.8) during the intervention period (2.6 cm: 90%
CI 1.3 to 4.0 cm).
The changes in muscle soreness during the training period
were similar between groups. Indeed, no significant plyometric
training surface 6 time interaction was found for muscle
soreness as measured by the Likert scale during the 4-week
training period (p = 0.28; g2 = 0.03), while the main effect for
time was significant (p,0.0001; g2 = 0.48). However, the
average value calculated for the whole training period of the
sand group was lower than that of the grass group (ie significant
between-subjects effect, p,0.001) (fig 1). This indicates that the
muscle soreness experienced by the sand group was systematically lower than that of the grass group. Muscle soreness
values corresponding to the day of the post-training testing

session were similar between groups (0.4 (SD 0.6) for the sand
group vs 0.6 (SD 0.5) for the grass group).

DISCUSSION
The main findings in the present study were that plyometric
training performed on sand gives a similar improvement in
sprint performance, a different training response on jumping
abilities, but induced less muscle soreness than when performed
on grass. These data suggest different training-induced effects
on neuromuscular factors related to the stretch-shortening cycle
dependent upon the surface on which the training is performed.
Plyometric training is commonly performed on firm surfaces
to create high stretch loads that will store elastic energy,
increase the precontraction activation state and greatly activate
the stretch-reflex to produce explosive concentric muscle
contractions.6 These characteristics have been suggested to
induce neuromuscular adaptations leading to improvement in
performances requiring the stretch-shortening cycle such as
jumping and sprinting.4 6 26 However, this training modality
places considerable demands on the leg muscles, Achilles and
patellar tendons, and muscle2tendon unit.12 27 These factors, in
addition to the fatigue caused by increased training load during
the preseason training period, may increase the injury risk.19 28 29
On the other hand, the use of a softer surface may be useful in
the rehabilitation phase or during intensified training periods to
reduce the stress on the musculoskeletal system and hence the
risk of injuries or re-injuries. The results of the present study
showed that during the 4-week training period, the sand group

Figure 1 Mean weekly values of muscle

soreness during the training period for
grass and sand group, and box-whisker
plot representing the mean values for the
whole training period of the two groups
(black squares indicate the 5th and 95th
percentiles). *p,0.001, significant main
effect for time; {p,0.001, significant
between-subjects effect.

44

Br J Sports Med 2008;42:4246. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2007.038497

Original article
experienced less muscle soreness. Indeed, using the 7-point
Likert scale, the mean value of muscle soreness of the sand
group was 0.6 lower than the grass group, with individual
maximal values reached in the first week of training of 5 for the
sand group and 6 for the grass group. This result confirms the
finding of Miyama and Nosaka12 who showed that plyometric
training on sand induced less muscle soreness than jumping on a
firm surface. Muscle soreness decreased during the training
period for both groups indicating a repeated bout effect despite
the fact that the exercise intensity was increased each week.
Although we did not measure other indirect indices of muscle
damage, it is likely that the lower muscle soreness was related to
less muscle damage and hence less stress on the musculoskeletal
system as shown by Mihama and Nosaka.12
A significant effect of training surface was found in some
jump characteristics related to the efficiency of the stretchshortening cycle. During SJ, no prestretch actions are involved
and therefore this type of jump test is commonly considered a
measure of pure concentric strength.23 30 Although both groups
increased their SJ performance, a trend for greater improvement
in the sand group was found. This may suggest that jumping on
sand required a more intense concentric push-off phase,
probably to compensate for the degradation of elastic energy
potentiation caused by sand absorption and the difficulty of the
ankle to push along the vertical axis.13 On the other hand,
performance in CMJ is enhanced by the effects of prestretch
augmentation.31 32 The grass group showed a greater improvement in CMJ than the sand group. Similarly, the eccentric
utilization ratio (CMJ/SJ) increased in the grass group only. As
this index has been suggested to provide information on slow
stretch-shortening cycle performance,23 this finding seems to
indicate a greater effectiveness of plyometric training on grass
on performances requiring slow stretch-shortening cycle
actions. It has previously been reported that vertical jump
heights during SJ and CMJ are lower on sand than on a firm
surface.12 13 33 The lower jump height on sand has been
associated with a lower reuse of the stored elastic energy as
well as energy loss due to feet slipping during the push-off
phase.12 13 34 These characteristics may potentially reduce the
mechanical load on the musculoskeletal system and hence the
training effect on the efficiency of the muscle2tendon
complex.35 However, the other performances requiring fast
stretch-shortening cycle actions increased similarly in both
groups. Indeed, no surface effects were found for sprint
performance. The positive effects of plyometric training on
sprint ability has already been reported.4 However, as in the
present investigation no control group was included, we cannot
exclude that the sprint improvements found after plyometric
training were determined by other physical training exercises
used during the study period (eg generic and specific aerobic
interval training and technical and tactical training).
Nevertheless, the two plyometric training surfaces did not
affect the improvement in sprint performance for distances
typical of soccer.2 The improvement in sprint performance
found in this study may be very useful for soccer players
because it would correspond to an advantage during sprintduels that may allow players to reach the ball before the
opponent.1 However, future studies using biomechanical
analyses are needed to investigate more fully the underlying
mechanisms behind the effect of plyometric training surface on
jumping ability.
Overall, the results of this study suggest that plyometric
training on sand may be incorporated into soccer training when
a reduction of stress on the musculoskeletal system is desired,

Br J Sports Med 2008;42:4246. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2007.038497

What is already known on this topic

c

Plyometric training on sand induces less muscle soreness and

damage compared with a firm surface.
No previous studies have investigated the effect of plyometric
training on jumping and sprinting ability performed on sand
compared to grass.

What this study adds

c

Both sand and grass surfaces resulted in positive changes in

sprinting and jumping ability.
Plyometric training on sand produced less muscle soreness
than that on grass during the whole training period.
A grass surface was superior in enhancing CMJ performance
while a sand surface tended to induce greater improvement in
SJ.

for example, during a period of intensified training or during

sport rehabilitation (eg before the inclusion of plyometric
exercises on firm surfaces36). Indeed, no effects of plyometric
training surface were found in performances requiring fast
stretch-shortening cycle actions such as sprinting ability.
However, a grass surface seems to be superior in enhancing
CMJ performance while a sand surface appears to induce greater
improvement in SJ. Therefore, the results of the present study
suggest that plyometric training on different surfaces may be
associated with different training-induced effects on neuromuscular factors related to the efficiency of the stretch-shortening
cycle. This must be taken into account when using plyometric
training on sand in athletes. Although the preliminary results of
the present study suggest that plyometric training on sand may
be potentially useful and effective for soccer players, the
biomechanical characteristics of jumping on sand may increase
the risk of overuse injuries to the low back.13 37 38 Therefore,
future studies should also investigate the safety of prolonged
plyometric training on sand.
Acknowledgements: We are grateful to the soccer players who participated in the
study. We thank Fabio Barducci and Duccio Ferrari Bravo for their valuable support.
The authors would also like to thank David Bishop and Nicola Maffiuletti for their expert
assistance.
Competing interests: None declared.

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