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Abstract
The development of multidetector CT (MDCT) has revolutionized CT angiography (CTA).
Not only are new techniques now in the remit of CTA, but all the studies previously
performed on single slice or helical CT can now be done with better resolution. The
advantage of MDCT relevant to CTA is the ability to acquire high resolution, near isotropic
data sets in a shorter acquisition time. Also important is the ability to achieve a longer
scanning range in the arterial phase, which has seen the introduction of CTA of the peripheral
arterial system. Image processing techniques have also progressed rapidly, with simplification
of a previously cumbersome process. The high spatial resolution and relatively non-invasive
nature make MDCT angiography a strong and serious competitor to established vascular
imaging techniques. The implication is that traditional diagnostic pathways for evaluation of
the vascular system have changed.
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The development of multidetector CT (MDCT) scanners has been one of the most important
technological advances in CT technology. There has been an exponential increase in the use
of MDCT angiography (MDCTA) [13]. The cause of this is multifactorial. We do not need
to sacrifice high spatial resolution in the z-axis to achieve longer scan length or coverage.
More importantly, this is achieved at a faster acquisition rate. Cumbersome data editing and
processing tools from the past have now been replaced with dedicated workstations and
software that are efficient, quick and clinically orientated [46]. This has resulted in
examinations such as CT imaging of peripheral vessels, which was not possible even with
helical CT, now being in the remit of most MDCT scanners [7]. Examinations such as studies
of the aorta that were already being performed can now be done with superior resolution [8].
The development and increasing use of MDCTA will result in changes in workflow patterns
in diagnostic and interventional radiology units as well as in surgical departments.
However, with the development of MDCT technology, the radiologist is faced with a
bewildering array of image acquisition and reconstruction options. Image quality is critically
Scan protocols
This is perhaps the most undervalued and overlooked part of the examination. As with all
radiology examinations, a detailed, completed request form is absolutely essential. Making
sure the area of interest is covered and that the primary diagnostic question is answered are
important to prevent a non-diagnostic test. The necessity of pre-contrast scans or delayed
scans should be decided beforehand. Having established scanning protocols also ensures
reproducibility and a smooth workflow.
Two basic types of protocol are used: (1) high resolution for carotids and visceral vascular
beds; and (2) high speed for aorta and peripheral work.
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Pre-contrast scans
These are not essential for all CTA examinations, but they are still useful in acute conditions
to detect the presence of haemorrhage or mural haematoma. Other benefits include deciding
the field of coverage and deciding an appropriate site to place the cursor for contrast bolus
tracking. The majority of the required information is usually available from a low dose scan,
thus limiting radiation exposure. Another useful technique is to use a diagnostic quality
topogram, which we use for stent-graft monitoring. This gives a good overview and helps in
evaluating the presence of mechanical kinks.
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As the name implies, this technique renders the entire volume of data rather than just
surfaces, and so potentially conveys more information than a surface model [16]. A volume
data set is analysed interactively using various display algorithms to select and weight voxels
to achieve a display that highlights tissues and relationships of interest. Transfer functions are
used to map properties such as opacity, brightness, colour and windowing to the voxels in the
volume of interest, with all voxels in the volume potentially contributing to the final image.
In real-time, the displayed image can be cut and rotated, and transfer functions can be altered.
It follows that this needs more powerful processing computers. VR techniques sum the
contributions of each voxel along a line from the viewer's eye through the data set. This is
done repeatedly to determine each pixel value in the displayed image.
VR algorithms are capable of revealing internal structures that would normally be hidden
when using traditional surface rendering techniques. One of the biggest advantages of VR is
perspective or depth information.
Clinical applications
Aorta
CTA has been used to evaluate the aorta since the days of conventional and helical CT. The
advantage of MDCT is that the whole aorta can be imaged in the true arterial phase with high
spatial resolution [17, 18]. Compared with catheter angiography, CTA is superior in
demonstrating mural thrombus, perianeurysmal blood and co-existent non-vascular
abdominal disease. It represents a single test that is capable of providing all the information
needed for evaluation, treatment planning and follow-up of aortic aneurysms [19] (Figure
2; Table4). Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) (3D contrast-enhanced MRA) has a
few limitations because it depicts only the lumen and for evaluation of mural thrombus and
the vessel wall additional sequences are needed. However, post processing of MRA data sets
is easier as only the arterial lumen has high signal and editing of bone and calcium is not an
issue.
While CTA is perhaps the commonest test to evaluate clinically suspected thoracic aortic
dissection, other modalities such as transoesophageal echocardiography, MRA and catheter
angiography have a significant role. A few disadvantages of CTA in this clinical scenario
have been documented [20]. These include occasional failures to opacify the false lumen, and
poor demonstration of the complications of Type A dissections such as aortic valvular and
coronary involvement. However, the advantages of speed and easy access make MDCTA the
investigation of choice in traumatic injury [21].
Post-EVAR monitoring
The Society of Interventional Radiology (SIR) has stated that CT is the gold standard test for
monitoring aortic aneurysms treated by EVAR (Table5). The scan technique is modified by
the inclusion of a delayed phase to exclude an endoleak [22, 23].
The significance of an endoleak is that it represents systemic pressures in the native sac and
therefore a failure of the stent-graft (Figure3). The term endotension is used when
aneurysmal sac enlargement is demonstrated in the absence of an endoleak.
Renal CTA
The indications for renal CTA include evaluation of hypertensive patients for renovascular
disease, evaluation of potential renal donors, vascular mapping in tumours and selected
pelviureteric junction obstructions [25, 26]. Other uses have included assessment following
transplant and assessment for renal artery aneurysms or embolism.
CTA is used not as a screening tool in all hypertensive patients but is used in selected patients
suspected of having renovascular disease. A venous phase can be added in some cases such as
renal donor evaluation. In selected cases, a delayed topogram or scan gives anatomical detail
of the pelvicalyceal system and ureters. MRA studies have the ability of time resolved
studies, which may provide some beneficial information.
Mesenteric CTA
MDCTA is a relatively non-invasive tool for the visualization of normal vascular anatomy
and its variants as well as pathological conditions of the mesenteric vessels [26]. The added
advantage is that abdominal organ imaging can be performed in the same study. Depending
on the individual clinical scenario, the study may have to be modified to answer specific
questions.
It is used in the evaluation of visceral vascular beds such as the liver before and after surgery
[27] (Figure8). It is also extremely useful in the evaluation of both acute and chronic
mesenteric ischaemia [2830]. An important advantage for endovascular treatment is that it
highlights stenotic or tortuous vessels that may necessitate a change in access, e.g. brachial
artery access (Figure9). Its exact role in the evaluation of gastrointestinal tract bleeding is
being evaluated and should be used selectively in specific scenarios.
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Paediatric patients
It is especially important to protocol these scans carefully, making sure that the test is
definitely indicated. Faster MDCT scanners such as 16-slice MDCT units have tremendous
potential advantages in the paediatric patient. Scans times of approximately 5s per study of
the chest or abdomen often eliminate the need for sedation owing to minimal need for patient
cooperation. It goes without saying that we must always be aware of radiation dose in these
special patients and must minimize dose whilst maximizing the information available from a
CT scan.
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In reality, this service already exists in one form or another in most radiology departments.
The introduction of MDCT will enhance the need for formalizing this service. In the author's
department this was achieved by:
(1) Review of existing needs and provisions.
(a) An active stent-grafting programme, including selection and monitoring of patients.
(b) Emergency cases such as aortic dissection or rupture.
(c) Evaluation of living related renal donors.
(d) Diagnostic angiographic work, including peripheral and visceral work.
(2) Discussions with referring physicians and surgeons regarding need.
(3) Active involvement of the team of radiographers. In our case this involved additional
training for some as well as a change in work patterns.
(4) Setting up protocols.
(5) Audit and feedback.
In departments with a significant vascular case load, such as the author's department, there
are definite advantages in having a dedicated vascular CT list.
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The future
At the moment there is a dearth of published randomized controlled trial data to evaluate the
role of MDCTA in various clinical scenarios. However, this is being addressed in various
ongoing trials. Small-vessel inflammatory disease also needs further evaluation [31]. In
addition, there is promise in the implications of coronary CT data in which the behaviour of
atherosclerotic plaques was predicted. If we are able to predict which of the atherosclerotic
plaques are more likely to rupture, those patients could be subjected to preventive treatment
or aggressive monitoring. If these data are extended and applied in the aorta and peripheral
vasculature after validation, a new phase in the role of MDCTA would begin.
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Summary
MDCTA is now an established diagnostic test in the evaluation of many vascular diseases. To
ensure consistent high quality studies, careful selection of parameters and scanning technique
is essential. MDCTA provides excellent anatomical detail and this has resulted in a change in
the way vascular imaging is acquired non-invasively, resulting in effective triaging of patients
into various treatment groups.
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Figure 1.
Examples of post-processing techniques in a patient with ileofemoral disease. (a) Maximum
intensity projection, (b) volume rendering and (c) curved planar reconstruction, useful in
heavily calcified vessels.
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Figure 2.
Volume rendering image of a patient with a right-sided aneurysmal descending thoracic aorta,
aberrant left subclavian artery with an aneurysm at its origin (Komerall's diverticulum)
causing an impression on the oesophagus, direct origin of the right common carotid from the
aortic arch. A multidetector CT angiogram was the only test needed for complete evaluation.
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Figure 3.
Endoleak seen in a patient following surgical repair. Spontaneous resolution noted
subsequently.
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Figure 4.
(a) Thrombus seen within the stent-graft following endovascular aneurysm repair. (b) This
extended to cause thrombotic occlusion of one iliac limb, subsequently recovered by
thrombolysis and secondary stenting.
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Figure 5.
(a) Maximum intensity projection image showing bilateral common iliac stenosis in a patient
with bilateral claudication. (b) Digital subtraction angiography image during iliac stenting
demonstrates similar disease.
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Figure 6.
Post-graft sepsis. Multidetector CT angiography demonstrates occluded graft and developing
perigraft collection.
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Figure 7.
Aneurysm of the common femoral artery. Multidetector CT angiography demonstrates the
relationship to the branches, helping treatment planning.
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Figure 8.
(a) Psuedoaneurysm from a branch of the right hepatic artery (following percutaneous biliary
drainage) demonstrated on multidetector CT angiography. (b) Digital subtraction angiography
image during coil embolisation of pseudoaneurysm.
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Figure 9.
(a) Volume rendering image of two splenic artery aneurysms in a tortuous splenic artery
identified on multidetector CT angiography. (b) Digital subtraction angiography image from a
selective splenic angiogram during endovascular treatment. The tortuous artery would have
needed multiple projections to demonstrate the aneurysms.
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Table 1.
Indications for multidetector CT angiography
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Table 2.
CT angiography (CTA) in comparison with other vascular imaging modalities
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Table 3.
Practical concepts in multidetector CT angiography post processing
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Table 4.
Evaluation of aortic aneurysm for potential endovascular aneurysm repair (EVAR)
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Table 5.
Multidetector CT angiography evaluation of endovascular aneurysm repair
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Table 6.
Strategies to reduce radiation doses during multidetector CT angiography
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(All protocols designed for GE LightspeedPlus and should be modified appropriately for
other models and manufacturers.)
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Protocol 1.
Evaluation of abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) and endovascular aneurysm repair (EVAR)
monitoring
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Protocol 2.
Evaluation of acute aortic conditions (dissection/haematoma)
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Protocol 3.
Evaluation of peripheral arterial disease
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Protocol 4.
Evaluation of renal vasculature
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Protocol 5.
Mesenteric multidetector CT angiography