Biomass as Low-Cost Adsorbents

for Removal of Heavy Metals

from Aqueous Solution: A Review
of Some Selected Biomass
Salihi Ibrahim Umar, Shamsul Rahman Mohamed Kutty,
Mohamed Hasnain Isa, Nasiru Aminu, Ezerie Henry
and Ahmad Fitri B. Abd Rahim

Abstract Low cost adsorbents have become a major area of consideration to many
researchers due to the expense nature of the available activated carbon. Although
commercial activated carbon is the most sufcient and efciently used carbon for
the removal of heavy metals ions coming from wastewater, it is faced with a lot of
setback such as; the higher the quality of the activated carbon the more expensive it
is, the regeneration of the used carbon tends to be very difcult especially in large
volume. Due to this different biomass from agricultural by-products have been
investigated to replace the commercial activated carbon and most of the ndings
have indicated a signicant removal in terms of heavy metals in synthetic aqueous
solution. This study have looked into and reviewed the various low cost adsorbents
that have been employed for the treatment of wastewater laden with heavy metals.
Keywords Biomass

Heavy metals
Adsorbents
Aqueous solution

1 Introduction
The occurrence of heavy metals in wastewater has drawn public attention due their
toxic impacts when discharge directly to the receiving environment and also to the
entire efciency of the biological treatment plants [1]. Also, the efciency of the
method employed in the treatment of heavy metals has become paramount
important because it allows to evaluate the amount of heavy metals discharged into
the bodies of water, this is particularly more sensitive in areas where recycling of
S.I. Umar (&)
S.R.M. Kutty
M.H. Isa
N. Aminu
E. Henry
A.F.B.A. Rahim
Civil Engineering Department, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS (UTP), Tronoh
Perak, Malaysia
e-mail: Salihi_g02656@utp.edu.my
Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2015
R. Hassan et al. (eds.), InCIEC 2014, DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-290-6_85

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the used water is mainly practiced. Due to this, the elimination of heavy metals
coming from industrial wastewater has become a matter of argument [2].
Heavy metals are found to be among the major environmental pollutants due to
the direct discharge of industrial wastewater into water bodies without given proper
treatment. To some extend these heavy metals nd their way into human bodies
through food, drinking water and air [3]. The nature and the type of heavy metals
present in a particular wastewater depends upon its source [4].
The increased in heavy metals in wastewater is mainly due to some activities
associated with human and the operating industries. Weakening of surface area
accumulation relating to metals nutrient debris, runoff via agricultural area as well
as rainfall associated with acidic rain coming from the ambiance, all attributes to the
buildup of chemical toxins in wastewater in a normal kind [5].
Various approaches had been formulated intended for the elimination of chemical
toxins coming from wastewater. Conventional techniques commonly applied for the
removal of heavy metals from wastewater include chemical and physical methods.
Chemical techniques include chemical precipitation, coagulation, oxidation,
advanced oxidation, ion exchange, adsorption, chemical neutralization, solvent
extraction and stabilization [6]. Physical techniques are sedimentation, screening,
aeration, ltration, floatation, degasication, adsorption, membrane separation and
equalization [7]. Biological treatment includes aerobic or anaerobic techniques.
On the other hand, these techniques possess substantial drawbacks, such as
partial metal elimination, generating huge amount of sludge, demands for costly
tools as well as tracking programs, excessive reagent or perhaps power demands
along with creation of harmful sludge which need removing. Innovative are
anticipated which may minimize heavy metal levels in ecosystem to an appropriate
degree with regards to economical expenses [8].
Adsorption process is an affective option for the removal of heavy metals from
wastewater. An economical and easily available adsorbent would make the
adsorption-based process an attractive alternative for the removal of heavy metals
from wastewaters [9].
In the presence situation a lot of biomass from agricultural by-products has been
examined and their performance as alternative adsorbent was found to be very
signicant and reliable. Our purpose with this particular effort has been in evaluating the scientic functionality connected with some few chosen inexpensive
adsorbents pertaining to the treatment of volatile organic compounds and focused
on current studies.

2 Low Cost Adsorbents for Heavy Metal Removal

2.1 Sugarcane Bagasse
Sugarcane bagasse is an agricultural by-product, which is a waste product from
sugarcane farming that is mainly obtained from the production of cane sugar after

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975

all the juice has been extracted from it. The waste is normally burnt in the elds or
dumped for disposal. Almost every ten loads of sugarcane smashed, the carbohydrates manufacturing plant generates almost three loads of waste bagasse [10].
The particular characteristics of sugarcane bagasse depends largely on some
parameters amid several others, such as the properties of the soil used as well as the
condition of the climate in which the sugarcane has been harvested [11]. But in
general sugarcane bagasse possesses a chemical composition that primarily matches
to the following: Cellulose (4550 %), total lignin (2025 %), mineral compound
(25 %), carbon (6065 %), moisture (7075 %), and ash (2530 %) [12]. Apart
from the qualities identied, the bio-adsorbent are usually discovered in substantial
volumes in a lower price. Sugarcane bagasse has presently been utilized as the
primary way to obtain the energy needed basically by ethanol and sugar mills and
also for producing electrical power to be marketed [11]. Nevertheless, typically the
main constraint with sugarcane bagasse usage is, it has excessive level of intricacy
due to the fact that its combined structure is associated with hemicellulose, celluloses, along with lignin within enormously and nonhomogeneous materials [13].
Various researches were conducted on the use of sugarcane bagasse as low cost
adsorbent in recent time with the hope of nding an efcient and cost effective
adsorbent that will replace the commercial activated carbon.
An exploration into the utilization of sugarcane bagasse pertaining to the
adsorption of methyl blue and Rhodamine was completed by [14]. The adsorption
ability of the prepared bagasse was examined in contrast to its distinct surface areas.
The result revealed that a modest increase in dye removal was achieved with an
increase in the surface area of the bagasse from 0.57 to 1.81 m2/g. Methyl blue
appeared to be signicantly less sensitive to surface area changes as compared to
Rhodamine. The isotherm model studies show that Rhodamine blue tted well into
Freundlich isotherm whereas methyl blue ts to Langmuir isotherm model.
Another study was conducted by Pehlivan et al. [15] for the removal of Arsenic
(V) form aqueous solution using bagasse treated with hydrated ferric oxide as an
adsorbent, in the study various adsorption parameters were investigated such as pH,
contact time, initial Arsenic concentration, adsorbent dosage and ionic strength. The
report shows that the adsorption capacity of sugarcane bagasse treated with
hydrated ferric oxide was 22.1 mg/g under the influence of adsorption parameters at
optimum conditions, the optimum pH was 4.0, contact time 3 h and at temperature
of 22 C. The study also reveals that 17 % desorption was achieved when 30 %
hydrochloric acid was used and 85 % with 1 M NaOH solution.
Gusmao et al. has investigated the use of modied sugarcane bagasse for the
adsorption of etherdiamine. The modication was done with succinic anhydride and
EDTA dianhydride so as to obtain SCB 2 and EB adsorbents respectively [16]. The
ndings reveal that the maximum adsorption capacities of the prepared adsorbents
for etherdiamine are 869.6 and 1203.5 mg/g for SCB 2 and EB respectively. The
equilibrium conditions were attained at 90 min time at a pH of 10.0. Kinetic study
shows that data tted well into pseudo-second-order model.

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In a recent study by Esfandiar et al. [17] on the removal of Mn (II) through a

comparative study using sugarcane bagasse and activated carbon as an adsorbent
employed the use of Box-Behnken design, effect of pH, adsorbent dosage and
initial metal concentration was considered in the study, the optimum adsorption
efciency was attained at pH of 4.5, 12 mg/l metal ion concentration with adsorbent
dosage of 15 g/l at 23 2 C. The increase in initial metal concentration reduced the
efciency of adsorption, maximum removal efciency was found to be 63 and 97 %
for sugarcane bagasse and activated carbon respectively but when sugarcane
bagasse was treated with HCl its removal efciency was enhanced up to 99 %.
Based on this sugarcane bagasse was found to possess the sorption capabilities to
adsorb heavy metals from aqueous solution and hence can be used as an alternative
adsorbent to a greater extend especially if it undergoes certain modications with
acidic treatment.

2.2 Rice Husk

Rice husk is an agricultural by product that is reported to possess the ability to
absorb heavy metals and basic dyes having 20 % silica as its content [18]. It has a
granular composition, together with a substantial physical durability, not soluble in
water, and it offers a chemical balance and in addition makes up about 20 % of the
entire grain. It is made up of 3 % raw protein, 20 % silica, 21 % lignin, 32 %
cellulose and 21 % hemicelluloses [19]. Additionally, it consist of many useful
classes which includes hydroxyl, carboxyl as well as amidogen, etc., and also
consist of ample floristic ber content, that represents a good characteristics of rice
husk becoming a feasible adsorbent product [20]. It has been employed as limepozzolana blinds, in addition it might become acceptable to some extend as an
alternative to Portland cement [21].
As per the discoveries with the Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia, nearly 408,000
loads of rice husk happens to be generated yearly within the nation [22]. Perhaps, it
will certainly not be nancially feasible to haul large quantity of rice husk from the
originating mill to a recycle location especially if such locations are sited in a far
distance away from the mill [23]. Rice husk that needed to be transported to a short
distance tends to be expensive and competitive especially when using an imported
diesel gas that can equally be enough to remove the debris to a far distance within the
nation. As a result, in the event that effective approach will be accessible, the actual
rice husk could be changed to a valuable sort of power in order to fulll the
mechanical and thermal energy demands of the rice mill and also the electric energy
requirement of the surrounding settlement [23]. Also, the grain husk may end up
being produced directly into a good triggered carbon to be utilized as adsorbent for the
elimination of heavy metals originating from industrial sectors. Numerous studies had
been completed on the particular usage of rice husk as adsorbent and also several
scientists include further search straight into the potentialities of this particular
affordable adsorbent pertaining to heavy metal elimination within current period.

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Microwave incinerated form of rice husk was used by Kutty et al. [24] for
copper removal in a continuous flow sludge activated system. The modied
adsorbent exhibit the ability to increase the concentration threshold of inhibitory
effect of heavy metals on microorganisms from 1.0 to 2.0 mg/L. The efciency of
the biological treatment has signicantly improved in terms of total chemical
oxygen demand, biochemical oxygen demand, copper removal and also improves
the growth of microbes in the activated sludge when 2000 mg/L of the adsorbent
was added to the aeration chamber of the bench scale biological reactor.
A new approach for activated carbon preparation was done by Li and Zhu [25]
The adsorbent was prepared through rice husk pyrolyzation with a combination of
carbon dioxide activation and then boiled in a sodium hydroxide solution. This
adsorbent has been employed intended for the particular elimination of methylene
blue coming from aqueous solution. The particular product was discovered to get a
higher surface area 899 m2/g, additionally; the treatment performance had been
considerably higher compared to Ninety nine Percent, which often may become in
contrast together with that relating to the actual commercial triggered carbon.
A study was conducted by Junaid et al. [26] for the removal of dyes present in a
solid waste of cotton that has been produced from sport industries in Pakistan,
employing rice husk as an adsorbent. Various adsorption parameters were examined
and optimum removal efciency was achieved at pH 3.0, contact time of 240 min,
adsorbent dosage 8.0 g, revolution speed of 300 rpm and dye solution of 200 mL
and there corresponding removal efciency of 91, 93, 92, 90 and 93 % respectively.
Gupta and Mote [27] has carried out a comparative study for the removal of
hexavalent chromium from aqueous solution using rice husk (dried and ash), orange
peel, and sugarcane bagasse. The result revealed that dried rice husk possessed a
higher efciency for chromium adsorption than the other used adsorbents. The
documented sorption capabilities happen to be; dehydrated rice husk (16.94 mg/g),
lemon skins (12.65 mg/g), grain husk ashes (11.11 mg/g), sugarcane bagasse
(5.12 mg/g), saw dust (4.56 mg/g) almost all during room temperatures.
This indicates that rice husk can be applied as adsorbent in a large scale
application for the treatment of different heavy metals in aqueous solution in order
to replace the commercial activated carbon in terms of economical perspective,
since its application on biological studies has shown an improvement of the
treatment plant but still not efcient than the frequently used carbon.

2.3 Banana Peels

Banana plants are considered to belong to the family of Musaceae. It is among the
most valuable crop after corn, wheat and rice. It has a reasonable amount of
vitamins in it especially vitamins B and C and also some mineral elements of the
kind of calcium and potassium. It has a higher level of starch normally during its
premature period [28]. This plant is mainly grown specically for its fruits and to a
lesser degree for the development of bre and ornamental plants. The peel is waste

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material that contains abundant carbohydrate along with additional standard

nutrients which might assist microbial development. The prospective nancial
advantages that can be derived through the utilization of banana peel low cost
natural material as a substrate for the generation of useful micro fungal biomass and
also as a source of mycological medium for investigation have increased the
assessment of the development efciency and generation of biomass regarding the
two species on banana peels substrate [29]. Depending upon the type of specie
some can grow up to a height of 8 m. Averagely each fruit weigh about 125 g with
its 25 % being dry matter and the remaining is water. Banana qualies to be one of
the most consume fruit in the world but at the same time tends to produce waste of
peels that becomes a solid waste problem to the living environment. The production
of banana was estimated to be roughly around 72.5 million tons in the world and in
which Thailand alone contributes 10.4 million tons [30]. This huge production
tends to create large amount of garbage from market places and households that
leads to environmental nuisance and disposal problem. The presence of different
chemical toxins of hydroxyl, carboxyl and amide group have been proven to play a
vital role during the sorption process [31]. Due to this some investigation were
carried out by different researchers in trying to convert this solid waste to a
renewable waste especially in the treatment of wastewater. The peels are mainly
converted into low cost adsorbents [32].
The used of banana peels for the treatment of biologically treated palm oil mill
effluent (POME) was evaluated by [33]. The peels were modied through chemical
and thermal treatment. Perfect elimination effectiveness with regards to coloration,
TSS, COD, BOD as well as tan plus lignin had been identied being (95.96, 100,
100, 97.41 and 76.74 %) within the stability situation of pH of 2.0, contact time
30 h and adsorbent dose of 30 g/100 mL. The sorption removal enhanced with the
use of acidied methanol and potassium hydroxide as well for the adsorbent
modication. The intense action of the used chemical on the adsorbent has
increased the pore size as well as the porosity of the adsorbent.
In a similar study by Abdulfatai et al. [34] using banana peel as an adsorbent on the
remediation of heavy metals of Pb, Zn and Cr in wastewater. The potentiality of
treated and untreated adsorbent was compared; the activation was achieved using
0.5 M sulphuric acids and gave a better removal efciency of about 88.9 % in terms of
chromium. Adsorbent particle showed negative influence on the adsorption of zinc
and also reduced the efciency of removal of lead and chromium with an increasing
adsorbent particle size. The biochemical oxygen demand as well as the chemical
oxygen demand of the wastewater increase when untreated adsorbent was employed.
Also, Krishni et al. [35] investigated into the use of banana leaves as low cost
adsorbent for the removal of methyl blue in aqueous solution. Adsorption parameters such as initial metal concentration, contact time and solution pH were
examined, methyl blue removal efciency is directly proportional to the initial metal
concentration and solution pH, the efciency of methyl blue removal increases with
an increase in metal concentration and pH. Optimum monolayer adsorption was
found to be 109.89 mg/g.

Biomass as Low-Cost Adsorbents for Removal of Heavy Metals

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Cr (VI) removal from aqueous solution using banana peel was also examined by
[36]. Sorption efciency increases with an increase in equilibrium metal concentration. 77 % removal efciency was achieved when metal concentration in the solution
is 100 mg/L but when the concentration level was decrease to a lower level of 20 mg/
L the percentage removal was found to be 95 % with adsorbent dosage of 1.5 g.
Banana peels as an adsorbent exhibit the property to remove heavy metals from
aqueous solution and can also be employed in a large scale treatment especially in
biological treatment system.

2.4 Water Treatment Sludge

Drinking-water treatment sludge is actually a by-product created through the processing of standard water in which aluminum as well as iron based mostly salts are
usually utilized as coagulants in order to get rid of colour, turbidity and also humic
substances. Existing legislation classied water treatment sludge as waste materials
in most cases this is usually chemically conditioned as well as mechanically
dewatered before disposal in landlls [37]. A lot of option for its disposal, re-use as
well as its regeneration has been explored in the past [38]. The quest for cost efcient
as well as eco-friendly disposable alternative offers a sudden precedence as a result
of more restrictive environmental legislation, decreasing general public approval
regarding landll options, escalating disposal expenses and decrease in landll
capability [37]. Characteristics of the sludge depends largely upon the source of the
drinking water (ground or surface) as well as the type of treatment the water
undergoes, it mainly consist of alum hydroxides and colloidal irons, dissolved or
colloidal organic matter, silt, clay and microorganisms [39]. In general it falls into
kaolinite type of waste generated by industries and in the recent time many
researchers have focused on the use of kaolinite based industrial waste into a useful
material especially its conversion into pozzolanic material when it undergo thermal
activation process [40]. A drinking water treatment plant having a capacity of 1 m3/s
volume normally generates a waste sludge amounting to 8300 kg/day [39]. The
presence of sludge generated by drinking water treatment at wastewater treatment
plant is very vital as the efciency of the residual coagulating might be utilized to
assist the phosphorus abatement, to enhance the sludge dehydration stage as well as
to speed up its settling effectiveness. The combined sludge from wastewater and
drinking water treatment plant can be utilized for agricultural purposes. At present
time there is no limitation on the application of drinking water treatment sludge for
ecological purposes.
The use of the produced sludge as an adsorbent for the treatment of wastewater
in biological treatment system has also been explored by a number of researchers in
order to investigate the effectives of the sludge in the treatment system.
The elimination of chemical oxygen demand from leachate using adsorbent
prepared from sewage sludge was investigated by [41]. The adsorbent was mixed
with corn stalk and pyrolysed with zinc chloride. End result unveils how the

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inclusion of corn stalk to sewer gunged get boosted the surface area regarding the
adsorbent that improved its sorption ability. Removal efciency in terms of chemical
oxygen demand reached almost 85 % at pH of 4.0, adsorbent dosage of 2 g/mL and
at a contact time of 40 min. The result also tted well into Langmuir and Freudlich
isotherm models.
In similar study by Bousba and Meniai [42] adsorbent prepared from sewage
sludge was utilized for the removal of 2-chlorophenol from aqueous solution. In the
study, the adsorbent was triggered with sulphuric acid in a ration of 1:1 and
pyrolysed at 650 C for a period of one hour. Batch adsorption parameters considered were pH, contact time, adsorbent dosage and concentration of 2-chlorophenol. The result shows that maximum sorption capacity was 47.98 mg/g at a
temperature of 20 C. The datas obtained tted well into Freudlich isotherm model
and also follows pseudo-second order kinetic model.
Untreated anaerobically digested sludge was used by Hawari [43], for the
removal of phenol from aqueous solution. The outcome demonstrates the sorption
potential involving the adsorbent is denitely relied on the actual pH associated
with the aqueous solution as well as the best possible elimination performance had
been identied being ninety percent during 2 h connected with get in touch with
time. 1.8 g/L of adsorbent dosage indicates optimum dosage for removal of phenol.
The result tted well into Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm model as well as
pseudo-second order kinetic model.
Zaini et al. [44] in his study used palm oil effluent sludge ash for the elimination
of methyl blue dye from aqueous solution. The ash adsorbent was impregnated with
hydrochloric acid and was found to possess a surface area of about 218 m2/g and
optimum adsorption was 50.7 mg/g at an initial concentration of 200 mg/L at a pH
of 5.8. The result tted into pseudo-second order kinetic model.
This shows that activated sludge possess the ability to remove heavy metals ion
in aqueous solution and their performance is mainly attributed to the pH of the
aqueous solution.

2.5 Citrus Peel off

Citrus fruit are members of Rutaceae group such as Lemon or lime berries reticulate
(sugary mandarin), Citrus fruit sinensis (sugary lemon), Citrus fruit paradisi (a
melon), as well as Citrus fruit limon (lemon), every one of these have a tendency
among the majority of broadly utilized fresh fruits upon earth especially in tropical
as well as sub-tropical nations [45]. Signicant kinds of citrus fruit are generally
produced in lots of countries inside Southeast Asia [45]. Citrus is denitely the
greatest pure origin of Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) and folic acid, apart from being the
superb source of ber [46]. The primary objective of citrus fruits is to generate
citrus juice; nevertheless, the particular waste materials from the citrus industry
including peel, seeds and pulps tend to be also a prospective origin of by-products
[45]. Citrus contain high polyphenolic compounds with 96 % of the fruit harvested

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981

is being process into drinking juice [47]. The existence of some active dietary bers
as well as antioxidants makes it possible to be utilized as food processing material
[47]. The major set-back on the use of citrus peel off is the excessive time commitment required to gather hundreds and thousands of specie for applications that
require a particular plant type [48]. Due to this waste generated by the citrus
industry, some investigation on the conversion of the waste by product especially
the peel has been carried out by some researchers.
Gnen and Serin [49] have completed a study about the utilization of lemon stem
just as inexpensive adsorbent with regard to the therapy involving Nickel (II) ions
via aqueous solution. The optimum removal pH was found to be 5.0 and the
percentage of removal was observed to increase with decrease in initial metal ion
concentration. The information xed nicely into Langmuir as well as Freundlich
isotherm models, kinetics research have also been performed and discovered that
this adheres to pseudo-second order kinetic mode having a relationship in excess of
0.99. It was concluded that orange peel can be used as a low cost adsorbent for the
removal of Nickel (II) from aqueous solution.
In another study by Mohamed, on the removal of Uranium (VI) from aqueous
solution also employed the use of orange peel as an adsorbent [50]. The performance of the orange peel is mainly dependent on pH, contact time, initial metal ion
concentration as well as adsorbent dosage. Uranium (VI) optimal adsorption was
achieved at a pH of 4.0 with a contact time of 60 min. The result also revealed that
Langmuir model tted well into adsorption data than Freundlich isotherm model. It
also indicates that an adsorbent prepared using orange peel is a good material for
the elimination of Uranium (VI) from aqueous solution.
Mafra et al. [51] in their study also prepared a novel orange peel adsorbent
obtained from agricultural waste material and was used for the elimination of
Remazol Brillant blue from a synthetic solution of textile-dye effluent. The result
indicates that the capacity of adsorbing Remazol Brillant decreased with the
increase in temperature from 9.7 mg/L at 20 C to 5.0 mg/L at 60 C. Langmuir and
Freudlich isotherm models tted well into the adsorption data and the nature of
adsorption showed that it is endothermic and spontaneous. The prepared adsorbent
was also found to be able to absorb Remazol Brillant blue from synthetic solution.

2.6 Coconut
The coconut palm, Cocoas nucifera L. (Arecales: Arecaceae), is amongst the
twenty most signicant plant varieties [52]. Presently, it is actually in a commercial
sense cultivated within more than ninety nations, masking an overall area of
roughly twelve million hectares. South America along with Brazil tends to be the
main producers of coconut in the Americas [53]. Most of the waste materials that
are produced after the utilization of coconut tends to become source pollution to the
environment and triggers environmental sustainability. Coconut shell consists of
mainly 6575 % moisture and volatile matter that are often removed during the

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process of carbonization. With the increased in the cost of natural gas, oil and
electricity, coconut shell has become a source of energy rather than disposable
waste. It has been proven to be an outstanding material for its application for the
treatment of odor, taste and dissolved organic chemical from water containing
suspended matter. For this reason, the waste produced is being utilized for many
different applications including preparation of low cost adsorbent for the removal of
heavy metals from wastewater. The potentiality of the coconut waste and its
applicability has been investigated under different conditions.
A study by Ong et al. [54] on the use of treated coconut coir for the adsorption of
cationic and Anionic dye from aqueous solution has been investigated and the
outcome of the result revealed that coconut coir treated with acid exhibits better
adsorption capacity on cationic dye MB than its counterpart Anionic dye A07.
Adsorption data is well dened by both Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models.
An optimum adsorption capacity was found to be 121 and 10 mg/g for MB and A07
respectively. Pseudo second order and rst order Langaren models described the
adsorption behavior. Coconut coir was found to be a good adsorbent of cationic dye
MB and Anionic dye A07.
Ahmad et al. [55] has used a desiccated coconut waste sorbent (DCWS) which is
a byproduct of coconut milk processing an produce a sorbent out of it. The adsorbent
was used for the sorption of Hg (II). Maximum sorption capacity was found to be
500 mg/g and the kinetic study followed pseudo-second order kinetic model. Also,
column sorption experiment showed that as sorption capacity improves the breakthrough time decreases with an increase in initial Hg (II) concentrations. It also
reveals that the regeneration as well as the reused of DCWS is possible. Hence,
DCWS can be used as an adsorbent for the removal of Hg (II) from aqueous solution.
The adsorption of lead from aqueous solution by coir-pith activated carbon was
also studied by [56]. The coir pith was impregnated with sulphuric acid and the
optimum sorption capacity was attained at pH 5.0, dosage 1 g/L, lead concentration
of 200 mg/L and a contact time of 4 h. The adsorption data follows pseudo-second
order kinetic models.
This indicates that coir-pith impregnated with acid tends to have higher
adsorption capacity than its original form and can be employed successfully in the
treatment of lead from aqueous solution.
Subha and Namasivayam [57, 58] investigated into the potential application of
zinc chloride activated coir pith carbon for the adsorption of phenol from aqueous
solution. The adsorption capacity using Langmuir was found to be 92.58 mg/g of
the used adsorbent. Adsorption also indicates physical process and endothermic.

2.7 Moringa Oleifere

Moringa oleifere falls within the family of shrub and trees; it is believed to have its
origin from North West India, around mountain of Himalaya to the south. The
Indians have the possesses lots of values; they usually used it for medicinal purposes.

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All parts of Moringa tree is found to be edible and has since being consumed by
human for many centuries. It can grow in a hot dry land or humid region with a mean
height ranging between 5 to 10 m; It might as well grow in a harsh climatic condition
and is not being affected by drought [59]. It can withstand a high amount of rainfall
ranging from 250 up to 3000 mm at a pH of 5.0 to 9.0 [60].
However, Moringa according to Meneghel et al. has being used by different
means which in include: biogas (from leaves), honey- and sugar cane juice-clarier
(powdered alley cropping (biomass generation), blue dye (wood), foliar nutrient
(juice expressed from the leaves), fencing (living trees), gum (from tree trunks),
honey (flower nectar), medicine (all plant parts), ornamental plantings, biopesticides (soil incorporation of leaves to prevent seedling damping off), pulp (wood),
rope (bark), tannin for tanning hides (bark and gum), and water purication
(powdered seeds) [61]. Apart from the mentioned uses it is also been applied both
in domestic and industrial wastewater treatment especially for the removal of heavy
metals coming from industrial wastewater. The disadvantages of using Moringa
oleifere in water treatment is the increase in the growth of bacteria wherever the
seed is in water or solution, minimum temperature for decantation tends to be
difcult and higher dosage is required than the normal aluminium sulphate during
the process of coagulation. Water with poor bacteriological quality has to be treated
with further addition of chlorine instead.
A study on the adsorption of lead (II) using Moringa oleifere Lam seed was
investigated by [62]. It was found out that maximum adsorption capacity was
12.24 mg/g. For effectiveness, a comparative study was conducted in parallel with
commercial activated carbon under the same optimal sorption parametric condition.
The result reveals that though the adsorption behavior of Moringa is less compared
with activated carbon but was concluded that Moringa can be considered as an
effective and feasible adsorbent for the biosorption of lead (II) in aqueous solution.
Meneghel et al. [63] used Moringa oleifere Lam seeds as low cost adsorbent for
the removal of Cadmium (Cd) from polluted water. Optimum adsorption conditions
were attained at pH 7.0, contact time of 160 min and 400 mg of adsorbent dosage.
The result tted well into Freundlich and D-R models for Cd adsorption. Optimum
adsorption was found to be 7.864 mg/g. A comparative study was also carried out
using activated carbon under the same tested conditions and its capacity was found
to be 32.884 mg/g.
Also in a similar study by Marques et al. [64] Moringa oleifere seed was used for
the removal of manganese ions from aqueous solution. The seed was initially
treated with 0.1 M NaoH. A monolayer sorption capacity of 5.61 mg/g was
achieved by applying Langmuir model using 3 g of adsorbent dosage in 50 mL
solution and 95 % removal efciency was realized (Table 1).

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Table 1 Comparison of adsorption capacity of the adsorbents

S/N

Performances
Biosorbent

Removal capacity (mg/g)

References

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Sugarcane bagasse
Rice husk
Banana peels
Water treatment sludge
Citrus peel off
Coconut
Moringa oleifera

22.1
16.94
109.89
50.7
62.3
500
12.24

[15]
[27]
[35]
[44]
[49]
[55]
[61]

3 Conclusion
Economical, productive, easily accessible resources work extremely well in
preference to activated carbon with regard to the elimination involving heavy
metals coming from aqueous solution. An array of low-cost sorbents has long been
researched. Evaluations regarding the sorbents tend to be challenging because of
disparities with data demonstration. Nevertheless, among the few literature
reviewed on sorbents most has shown a great potentiality of adsorption and also
exhibits a greater capacity of removal which can be employed to be used in a larger
use. As a result of deciency regarding reliable expense information and facts,
expense evaluations tend to be complicated to generate. Despite the fact that very
much continues to be achieved within the subject regarding low-cost sorbents, great
efforts are essential to improve to comprehend low-cost adsorption techniques as
well as in order to show the technological know-how.
Acknowledgments The authors acknowledge the research grant provided by Fundamental
Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) that leads to the realization of this article and also Universiti of
Teknologi PETRONAS (UTP) for supporting this work. Moreover, we are thankful to Dr.
Amirhossein Malakahmad for his guidance.

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