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CHAPTER II

THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK

A. TEACHING SPEAKING
Speaking skill is an important skill needs to be taught in language class.
However, it does not mean the other skills such as listening, reading, and writing
are less important rather than speaking skill. Those skills are sustaining each
other, for instance; speaking skill preceded by listening. Through listening people
know vocabulary they do not know before. Never theless, in fact some english
language classes only emphasize on the importance of mastering writing and
reading rather than speaking, that it brings inadequate time to practice to speak
about students. As the result, students poor in spoken language knowledge
neither formally nor informally.
Before discussing more about teaching speaking, firstly it is better to know
what speaking is ? Which will be discussed in following point.

1. Nature of speaking
Speaking in linguistics term has various definitions. In oxford advanced
learners dictionary, speak means saying something to express ideas and opinions.
Kushartanti defines speaking as set of voices uttered by one and understood
by someone else. it means to deliver thought or opinion. While florez defines
speaking

as

an

interactive

process

of

constructing

meaning involves

producing, receiving, and processing information.


In other definitions, Harmer defines speaking as a form of communication,
a so speaker must convey what he/she is saying effectively. In line with these

definitions, carter defines it as one of the types of composing language, the type
that is swift, complicated, frequent and primary, because the language itself is
Simbolic used by communicators to construct and to convey information.
From those definitions, the writer infers speaking as activities by which
human beings try to express thought, feeling, opinion, and to exchange
information by using utterances in the form of communication. Therefore, as a
tool of communication, it is necessary for people to have a good speaking skill.
Speaking skill is the ability to produce sounds articulation and to produce
words, to express, to state, and to deliver thought, ideas and feeling. In this case,
speaker not only has to know what to be delivered but also knows how to deliver
it speaking skill is not an instant skill to be acquired. It needs a long process.
Furthermore, language is a complex system, and each system is different and
requires reorganization of students thinking with lots of exposure, so it needs
Tremendous amount of practice to be more successful language learner. In short, it
can be said that, speaking skill is the ability to produce utterance (or utterances) to
express though and to convey meaning.
1. Element of speaking
To be a good speaker, the ability to produce utterance (utterances) is not
enough. There is much linguistics to be mastered by languages learners in order
to be able to express their feelings and ideas appropriately. Here are elements of
speaking according to harmer in his book the practice of english language
teaching that speakers have to be competent in the speaking skill, those are:
language features in which contains 4 points. They are:
1. connected speech is the sounds modifying in producing utterance when
people speak. In which includes modifying (assimilation), omitting
(elision), adding (linking r), or weakening (through contraction and stress
patterning).
2. expressive devices is the stress and pitch variation in producing utterance
in order to convey the truth meaning of the messages meant by the

speaker. It includes the variation of the volume and speed of the speech.
By using these devices people will be able to show what and how they are
feeling to whom they are talking to.
3. grammar and lexis. People live in different ways, places, and environments
causing different mind set too. Therefore, teachers need to supply their
student with various phrases for different function in their speaking
classroom activities. For instance, how to express agreement and
disagreement, surprise expression, and etc., so when students have an
occasion which demand them to use those expression in different stage of
an interaction, they know what expression they have to use appropriately.
4. negotiation language. This is the speech clarification. It is the use of
language of how to clarify and to show of what a speaker means.
Sometimes, people do not hear or understand what other peoples saying.
Therefore, it is necessary to have an appropriate language of how to clarify
to avoid mistakes between the speaker and the listener.
In addition, harmer states concerning with other elements of speaking that is
necessary to be mastered by a successful speaker. Those are: mental/social
processing and the rapid processing skill that involves language processing,
interaction, and information processing;
1. language processing: effective speakers need to be able to process
language in their own head and put it into coherent order, so that it comes
Out in forms that are not only comprehensible, but also convey the
meanings that are intended.
2. interaction: most speaking involves interaction with one or more
participants. This means that effective speaking also involves a good deal
of listening, an understanding of how the other participants are feeling,
and a knowledge of how linguistically to take turns or allow others to do
so.
3. information processing: quite apart from our response to others feelings,
we need also to be able to process the information they take us the moment
we get it. The longer it takes for the penny to drop the less effective we

are as instant communicators. However, it should be remembered that this


instant response is very culture-specific, and is not prized by speaker in
many other language communities.
In line with these elements, the writer concludes that, speaker who wishes to
say anything has to consider two things; first, the language feature by which
people know the use of language such as; how to modify the sound and how to
use appropriate expression. Second, people also know how to arrange words into
the right order. Therefore, the intended massages are sent. In this case, people not
only hope to be understood by someone else solely, but also they have to
understand of what participants are feeling. Here, people are demanded to know
when they have to take turn on the conversation and to allow the others to do so.
Such those elements mentioned above are basically relevant to hymes statement
concerns with communication as the main goal of language teaching9, so
speaker must be communicatively competence in the language he uses. As it is
stated by walter in her book about communicative competence that it defines as
the ability to use language appropriately in variety of context 10 which involves:

grammatical competence is a competency that focuses on the accuracy and


correctness of using language code such as vocabulary, spelling, grammar,
pronunciation and so on in the language skill especially speaking and

writing.
sociolinguistics competence is a competency that focuses on the use of
appropriate language in variety social setting. Here, the target language
Speaker is demanded to know how, where, and when the language will be
uttered by him in appropriate situation, such as how to invite, to refuse

someone else invitation, and to ask for information and etc.


discourse competence is a competency that focuses on the appropriateness
of combining and connecting phrases and sentences in engaging

conversation.
strategic competence is a competency that focuses on the manipulation of
language in achieving the communication goals. This competency involves
the use of both verbal and nonverbal, such as changing the voice tone,
using the body language, and emphasizing the specific word.

Apparently, it can be seen in following figure about communicative


competence and its elements.
Figure 2.1 the elements of communicative competence
(adapted from the how-to handbook teaching english language learners and
modified by the writer)

Sosial linguistic
competence

Gramatical competence

Comunicative competence

Discourse competence

strategic competence

From those elements and competencies mentioned above, it can be


concluded that, to be a good speaker, he/she has to master language elements. On
the other hand, it is not enough to have lots of vocabulary without other
knowledges.
3. Reasons of teaching speaking
Teaching speaking seems so difficult and challenging for english teacher,
many activities are implemented in order to increase student ability in spoken
english language. The question now is, why does english teacher has to teach
speaking in the classroom? For this question, actually there are some reasons, they
are; firstly, speaking activities provide rehearsal opportunity chance to practice
real life speaking in the safety of classroom. Furthermore, getting students to

have a free discussion gives them a chance to rehearse having discussion outside
the classroom. As the result, students will feel as if talk in a real situation.
Secondly, speaking activities provide feedback for both teacher and
learner. It is known that giving feedback to students not only motivates them to do
their best in their classroom and to help the teacher to know how well the students
get the lesson, but also to know the students problem during the learning process.
Thirdly, speaking activities help students to activate the various language elements
they have learned and stored up to their brain. The more students practice the
target language, the autonomous learner they will be. As the result, students will
be able to speak without very much thought. Finally, the use of good activities is
intrinsically enjoyable that it will stimulate students to do the task in the
classroom.
4. Classroom speaking activities
For many years english teachers have been faced toward crucial problem
that their students cannot speak english in the classroom. Several endeavors are
accomplished by the teachers in order to encourage students to perform their
english. Commonly english teachers utilize traditional techniques in teaching
english, such as drilling in which the teacher reads a dialogue, and then students
altogether repeat after the teacher. By using drilling students are supposed to
speak english well by memorizing the given sentences. It may work for some
students, but for the others it may be unsuitable. Therefore, it is necessary to make
students understand that provokes students to use the target language as in real
communication.
The aim of teaching English at present is to develop students ability to
communicate freely and spontaneously in English. It means, when students speak,
they do not have to think what they wish to say, because are spontaneously
understand the use of words and expressions. While, the listener will
automatically catch what the speaker is saying. More over , communication will
not be achieved, unless both speaker and listener have similar senses and

understanding of what they are talking about. Here is the process of encoding and
decoding for communication.
Figure 2.2 communication process

GAMBAR DEWE AYAH ORA ISO


To have such purposes mentioned above, communication activities such as
games may become a good solution to help students achieving the target language.
The utilization of the games may be proper to engage students to be active in
teaching and learning process. Here are activities suggested by doff:
A. Guessing games in which involves;
I.
Guess the picture: here teacher has a set of flashcard with simple
pictures. The teacher chooses one card, but does not show to the
class, students role is guessing it is in the picture by asking
II.

questions.
Guess the sentence: it similar with the guess the picture game,
something that differs in is the material or the resource if the first

III.

game utilizes pictures, in this game teacher uses sentences.


Mime: in this game, teacher calls a student to come forward and
secretly the teacher gives her a sentence written on pieces of paper
Which describe a simple activity. The students then mime the activity

B.

and the other try to guess the situation mimed.


Information-gap: an activity in which students have different information.
They have to ask questions to each other for the information to obtain their

partners information by using the target language fully.


C. Information personal exchanging: this activity refers to real communication
in which students talk to their friends and ask about the other personalities
such as their friends identity, their daily activities; for instance, what time do
you usually wake up in the morning?, how do you go to school?, and etc.

Those are speaking activities proposed by doff. From those activities mentioned
above, the writer infers that games are effective to be used in teaching english to
provoke students to be more communicative people.
B. Communication games activitiy
Learning english can be a difficult journey for students. Therefore, it has to
be fun, interactive, and exciting. To create those situations, games are considered
as the suitable activities to do. It refers to agoestyowatis statement that; the use
of games in a learning environment will not only change the dynamic of the class,
but it will also rejuvenate students and help the brain to learn more effectively.
Games allow students to work co-operatively, to compete with each other, to think
in different way, to work in less stressful, and to allow people to have fun.
Relevant to those statements above, in the following item the writer will explain a
bit detail concerning with games that will be used in the implementation of action
research to improve students speaking skill.

1. Nature of communication games activity


Communication game consists of two content words communication and
game. Communication is defined as a process whereby information is enclosed
in a package and is channeled and imparted by a sender to a receiver via some
medium. Mean while, game is defined as an activity that is entertaining,
engaging, often challenging for learners in which the learner plays and interacts
with others. If both words are combined into one, communication game defines as
a set of games that is designed to help students learning english with joy ful
activity or activities and is aimed to get learners talk as quickly and fluently as
possible.
These games are very useful to help teachers remain their teaching goals
especially in speaking. Furthermore, games are considered as the effective activity
to be used in teaching and learning process. It not only makes students feel fun

and learns with pleasant, but also it motivates and builds students social
interaction among students. Other reasons are; games encourage students to
stimulate their interesting and their work, in view of language learning as hard
work that students have to effort to understand to and repeat the lesson accurately.
Therefore, it is important for english teacher in teaching english to use games.
Games provide one way of helping the learners to experience language rather than
merely study it. More over, certain games can make students feel comfort in
learning; reducing students frustration and stimulating students interaction
among other, so they are not only learning the language but also socialize their
selves.
2. Kinds of communication games activity
According to harmer, there are two particular categories of communication
games, they are:
information-gap games: games that involves solving a puzzle, drawing a
picture (describe and draw), putting things in the right order (describe and
arrange), and finding similarities and differences between pictures. These
games are commonly accomplished in pairs. Student has to talk to his/her
partner in order to obtain the task.
television and radio games: this game activity is accomplished in grouping
or team work. Each team has to ask yes/no question to the chairperson
from the other team. The chair person has to think of an object that is
either animal, vegetables or mineral or combination of two or three of
these by giving opportunities to other team to ask about 20 questions and
each team must guess what object is being imagined by the chairperson.
The team will get points if they guess the answer correctly in fewer.
Other games are also suggested by harmer such as first; just a minute in
which each participant has to speak for 60 seconds on the subject that is given by
the chairperson without hesitation, repetition, or deviation. If another contestant
hears any mistakes, he or she has to interrupt, by which she/he gets a point. The

person who is speaking at the end of 60 seconds gets two points. Second; call my
bluff it is a game that consists of two teams. Team a is given a word that
members of the other team are unlikely to know. Team a finds a correct dictionary
definition of the word and then makes up two false one. They read out their
definitions and team b has to guess which is the correct. Now team b is given a
word and reads out three definition of their word (one correct and two false) and
team a has to guess. Each team will get point if the answer correct, in contrast, if
their answer is false the other team will take the point.
From the three-game suggested by harmer, as for the writer the television and
radio games are considered the suitable one for teaching speaking. In view of
students limited vocabulary and expressions, that to play the game they only have
to ask question in the form of simple sentence. So these games will not force them
to do what they can not do.
3. Implementation of communication games in teaching speaking
Communication games theoretically have been a bit explained in previous
point as well as kinds of communication games that suggested by harmer and doff
(see point 1-2). These games are supposed to be useful for teacher in encouraging
students to be more successful language learner especially speaking. In
communication games, the teacher gives materials such as expressions,
vocabulary, pictures, realias, and other media which are enable learners to expose
their english through the activities. For instance, information gaps, it is a
classroom activity where the teacher chooses two students student a and student
b, and then the teacher gives them different pictures to play the game. From those
different pictures, evidently they have different informations too. Each student has
to find information regarding their partners picture by asking questions and by
using the target language as of they obtain the expected information. Sometimes
within the activity students get lost or cannot think of what to say causing the lost
of idea the teacher expected for them. Therefore, it is teachers role to help them

by giving some suggestions that students will not feel dead end of idea and
language. It is relevant to wrights statement in following:
In most appropriately seen as communicative interaction involving all the
participants in the learning and including the various material resources on which
the learning is exercised. Therefore, language learning may be seen as a process
which grows out of the interaction between learners, teachers, texts and activities.
Good materials would be useless without any cooperative work among other
(learner, teacher, and activities).
4. Advantages of using communication games activities in teaching speaking.
According to harmer and other experts such as rivalcury, mcdonough,
richards, and khan teaching english by using games have several advantages, they
are:
I.

Communication games can make students to be more creative and


communicative.

II.

Games provide more opportunities for student to express their opinions


and feelings.

III.

Games give positive effect on the students interest and motivation in


studying english as well as to increase their speaking ability.

IV.

Games can provoke students interaction between student to another


student and also students to the teacher because communication derives
essentially from interaction.

V.
VI.

Games give students valuable practice where students are involved.


Games promote students to interact and in interacting they develop their
english language skills.

From those advantages; the writer can conclude that teaching english by using
games have several benefits not only make students to learn with joyful activity
but also stimulate them to speak by which students unconsciously practice their
speaking skill. As it is stated by harmer that games provoke students to

communicate frequently, the more student practice their english, the better they
will be.

C. Classroom Action Research (Car)


1. Nature of action research
According to calhoun (2002) action research is a way teachers can
develop an expanded understanding of their practice and critically analyze a
particular approach to a problem or teaching and learning scenario in which
requires continual disciplined inquiry. While nunan (1990) defines action
research as a method that formalizes reflection by engaging the practitioners in a
critical and reflective attitude. Another expert such as farrel assumes that action
research is a type of professional development that focused on teachers practices
to increase student learning. From those definitions, the writer concludes that
action research is a kind of educational research that aims to increase teaching and
learning through problem solving. Action research tempts to answer questions
relate to some aspects of educational practice. Here, the teacher can reflect on
what they discover, and then apply it to their professional practice.
2. Action researches design
There are many kinds of action research exists at present. Those are: kurt
lewins design, kemmis and mctaggarts design, dave ebbutt design, john elliot
design, hopkins design, mckernan design, and many more. However, here the
writer will focuses on kurt lewin and kemis & mctaggart designs.
Firstly is kurt lewins design. He is the expert who introduces action
research for the first time. His design becomes the host and the main basic of
other further action research especially classroom action research. The concept of
kurt lewins action research design contains of four components; planning, acting,
observing, and reflecting.

figure 2.3 kurt lewins design


(adapted from kusumah book and modified by the writer34)
PLANNING

REFLECTING

ACTING

OBSERVING

Planning; in planning phase, there are two types of planning that have to
be planned by the researcher. First is general planning which organizes the
aspect of action research such as; the what, why, when, where, by whom,
and how the research will be conducted. Second is specific planning which
organizes the aspect of what to do in acting phase such as: the lesson plan,
the material, and the media that would be used in teaching process.
Acting; this phase is the implementation of the plan that has been formed
by the researcher in planning phase. In this case, the researcher has to
attempt to obey the planning she/he made.
Observing; in this case, the observer observes everything that happen in
the classroom during the learning process. She/he notices what is being
observed in observation sheet that has been formed and prepared by the
researcher.
Reflecting; is the last component of action research. In this phase, the
researcher reflects all activities include the actions that conducted by the
teachers. The aim of reflection is to evaluate and to know the final result
within the cycle in action research.

Secondly is kemmis and mctaggart design. This design is a basic concept


development of kurt lewins. Both designs are commonly used-design, because
these designs are easy to be conducted. As a research that is aimed to improve and
to solve teaching and learning problem, it is better to be done collaboratively, in
order to be obviously identified the problem and the weaknesses that happens
within the research. In detail the writer presents in the following figure:
Figure. 2.4 kemis and mctaggart design (modified by the writer)
PLANNING

REFLECTING

ACTING
OBSERVING

Both kurt lewins and mctaggarts design basically are as the same in
purpose, that is to say improvement. An improvement which is derived from
teachers practice reflection concerning with the problems happened in the
education field.

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