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171
Gary P. Merkley
For trapezoidal cross sections, the inverse side slope (H:V) is usually
between zero and 2.0
Common inverse side slopes are zero (rectangular section), 1.0 and 1.5
There are tradeoffs between low and high values of side slope:
1. canals with low inverse side slopes occupy less land area
2. high inverse side slopes are more stable and may require
less maintenance
3. high inverse side slopes are safer, if animals or people could
fall into the canal, because it is easier to climb out
4. rectangular cross sections can be simpler to build, when lined
with concrete (especially for small cross sections)
5. it may be easier to build and install structures and transitions
for rectangular sections
6. medium-range side slopes correspond to greater hydraulic
efficiency
Gary P. Merkley
172
Freeboard means the extra depth of a canal section, above the water surface for
100% flow rate capacity, usually for uniform-flow conditions
A freeboard value should be added to the maximum expected depth to allow for:
1. deviations between design and construction (these are
ubiquitous, only varying in magnitude from place to place)
2. post-construction, non-uniform land settlement
3. operational flexibility (including operator mistakes)
4. accommodate transient flow conditions
5. provide a more conservative design (in terms of flow
capacity)
6. increase in hydraulic roughness due to lining deterioration,
weed growth, and for other reasons
7. wind loading
8. other reasons
Thus, with freeboard, under maximum flow conditions (full supply level, FSL),
canal overflow is not impending
If the canal starts to overflow, enormous erosive damage can occur in just a few
minutes
According to Murphys Law, these things usually happen about 3:00 am, when no
one is around. Then, everyone finds out at about 6:30 am after it has been
spilling for hours.
Many reaches of canal in many countries are routinely operated with virtually no
freeboard, and disasters often occur
173
Gary P. Merkley
174
Traditional wisdom says that the minimum design freeboard for small canals is
1 ft (0.3048 m), so this would be the minimum for most any canal, but for very
small canals it would certainly be excessive
For canals with flow rates up to 3,000 cfs (85 m3/s), the freeboard should be up
to 4 ft (1.2 m), and for intermediate flow rates, the freeboard should be 1 ft plus
25% of the maximum expected water depth
However, the design freeboard can extend above the lined portion of a concretelined canal, and it often does (the berm of a lined canal is almost always higher
than the top of the lining)
Also, considerable judgment is required to know what the required freeboard
might actually be, including knowledge of the operational modes in the canal
(these will help determine the need for freeboard)
Special analysis should go into the determination of required freeboard for canals
with capacities exceeding 3,000 cfs, but such analysis can also be included for
any size canal
The analysis should also include economic criteria, because on large and or long
canals, a difference of a few centimeters in freeboard is likely to mean a
difference of millions of dollars in construction costs
Nevertheless, the USBR published data on freeboard guidelines for up to 20,000
cfs (560 m3/s) capacities, and these are found in the plots below
To put things in perspective, note that very few irrigation canals exceed a
capacity of 100 m3/s; most main canals have a capacity of less than 20 m3/s
175
Gary P. Merkley
Gary P. Merkley
A = h ( b + mh )
(16)
T = b + 2mh
(17)
Wp = b + 2h m2 + 1
(18)
176
w = h m2 + 1
m=
(19)
T b
4w 2 (T b)2
(20)
h2
2hm
b +
2A
3
(21)
h2
4hm
h=
b +
2A
3
(22)
hc =
where h is the depth from the bottom (or invert) of the cross section up to the
centroid of the cross-sectional area; and hc is the depth from the water surface
down to the area centroid:
hc = h h
(23)
A = h [b + 0.5(m1 + m2 )h]
(24)
T = b + h ( m1 + m2 )
(25)
Wp = b + h m12 + 1 + m22 + 1
(26)
w = h m12 + 1 or h m22 + 1
(27)
177
Gary P. Merkley
h2
h
hc =
b + ( m1 + m2 )
2A
3
(28)
h2
2h
+
b
m1 + m2 )
(
2A
3
(29)
h=
V. Circular Cross Section
hc
h
2h
= 2cos 1 1
D
(30)
D2
A=
( sin )
8
(31)
or,
hr
A = (h r) 2hr h2 + r 2 sin1
+
r
Gary P. Merkley
178
(32)
BIE 5300/6300 Lectures
where r = D/2
2h
T = D sin = D 1 1
2
Wp =
(33)
D
2
(34)
1 cos
2
2
h=
h=
(35)
D 2
(hD h2 )3 / 2
2 3A
(36)
hc = h h
(37)
0.50
beta
Top Width
Area
Wetted Perimeter
Hydraulic Radius
Depth to Centroid
Beta, T, A, Wp
5.0
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
4.0
0.25
3.0
0.20
0.15
2.0
0.10
6.0
1.0
0.05
0.0
0.00
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Depth
179
Gary P. Merkley
r/2
h3
h2
h1
1 + 7
h1 = r 1
4
(38)
then,
h2 =
r
h1
2
(39)
r
2
(40)
and,
h3 =
Gary P. Merkley
180
h
T = 2r 1 1
r
(41)
r
r
r
r
2
2
T = r h r h +
2
2
2
2
(42)
or,
2
T = 2 r h r
2
(43)
2h
T = r 1 1
(44)
and T = 0 when h = 0 or h = r
Cross-sectional area:
For 0 h h1:
hr
A = (h r) h ( 2r h ) + r 2 sin1
+
r
(45)
A = r 2 2 1 [cot (1 ) cot ( 2 )] A a + A b + A1
4
(46)
181
Gary P. Merkley
r 2 h22
1 =
(47)
h2
r h
2
2 =
r
h
2
(48)
1 = tan1 ( 1 )
(49)
2 = tan1 ( 2 )
(50)
2
1 2 r
r
Aa =
r h
2
2
2
(51)
and,
1
r
Ab = r 2 h22
2
1
(52)
A = 2
y2
y1
x dy + A1 = 2
y2
y1
r
2
2
+ r y dy + A1
2
(53)
1 y
2
2
2
A = r y + y r y + r sin + A1
r y1
(54)
Gary P. Merkley
182
y2 = h
y1 =
r
2
(55)
r C1
2
(56)
where,
1+ 7
C1 = 1
(57)
and,
C1
C12
C2 =
1 1
2
4
sin1 C1
(58)
r
r
2
A = r C2 + sin
h r r h + A1
2r
2
2
1 2h r
(59)
Equation 59 is preferred over Eq. 46 because it is simpler and yields the same
result for h1 < h r/2
r
r2
2h r
A = h h ( r h ) + sin1
+ A2
2
4
r
(60)
For 0 h h1:
r3
h=
A
h
1
2 sin 1 r
h(2r h)
hr 2h2 + 3r 2
3A
183
(61)
Gary P. Merkley
where A is as calculated by Eq. 45; and h is the depth measured from the area
centroid to the bottom of the cross section
Mx = ( yx ) dy = y r + 2 r 2 y 2 dy
Mx = r y dy + 2 y r 2 y 2 dy
ry 2 2 2
r y2
Mx =
2 3
3/2
(62)
y2
y
1
where y1 and y2 are integration limits, exactly as defined above for crosssectional area. Applying the integration limits:
2
2
r
2
r
Mx = r C3 h r 2 h r
2
3
2
3/2
(63)
where,
C12 2 C12
+ 1
C3 =
8 3
4
3/2
(64)
hx =
r Mx
+
2 Ax
(65)
r
r
2
A x = r C2 + sin
h r r h
2
2
2r
1 2h r
(66)
184
The composite value of h must account for the calculations up to h = h1, so for
depths from h1 to r/2, the following area-weighted relationship is used to obtain
the exact depth to the area centroid:
r M
A x + x + A1h1
2 Ax
h=
A x + A1
(67)
r3 2
3/2
Mx =
[h(r h)]
12 3
(68)
r
2h r
r
A x = h h(r h) + sin1
2
r
(69)
The composite value of h must account for the calculations up to h = r/2, so for
depths from r/2 to r, the following area-weighted relationship is used to obtain the
exact depth to the area centroid:
r M
A x + x + A 2h2
2 Ax
h=
A x + A2
(70)
where A2 and h 2 are the values corresponding to h = r/2 (Eqs. 59 and 67)
Wetted perimeter:
For 0 h h1:
h
Wp = 2r cos1 1
r
(71)
185
Gary P. Merkley
r 2h
1 C1
Wp = 2r cos1
cos
+ Wp1
2
2r
(72)
where C1 is as defined in Eq. 57; and Wp1 is the wetted perimeter corresponding
to h = h1 (Eq. 71)
2h
Wp = r cos1 1
2 + Wp 2
r
(73)
5.0
0.9
4.5
0.8
4.0
Top width
Area
Centroid depth
Wetted perimeter
0.6
3.5
3.0
2.5
0.4
2.0
0.3
1.5
0.2
1.0
0.1
0.5
0.5
0.0
Wp/r
0.7
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Depth, h/r
The increase in area with the standard horseshoe cross section (compared to a
circular section with a diameter of r) is only about 5.6% for a full section
Gary P. Merkley
186
A = h(b + mh)
(1)
Wp = b + 2h m2 + 1
(2)
b=
Wp =
A
mh
h
(3)
A
mh + 2h m2 + 1
h
(4)
Wp
h
A
2
m + 2 m2 + 1 = 0
187
(5)
Gary P. Merkley
A = h2 2 m2 + 1 m
(6)
h2 2 m2 + 1 m
R=
b + 2h m2 + 1
(7)
R=
bh + 2h2 m2 + 1 bh mh2
(8)
b + 2h m + 1
h b + 2h m2 + 1 h ( b + mh )
R=
b + 2h m2 + 1
R=
hWp A
Wp
(9)
= hR
(10)
R=
h
2
(11)
You could also directly manipulate Eq. 6 to get the same result: 2A = hWp
7. For the most efficient rectangular section,
R=
A
bh
h
=
=
Wp b + 2h 2
(12)
188
h = Kx 2
A = x dh =
(13)
h
2h3 / 2
dh =
K
3 K
(14)
x 0
Wp = lim
f ( x + x ) f ( x ) + ( x )
(15)
or,
Wp =
1/ 2
df + 1
dx
dx
(16)
189
Gary P. Merkley
s f ( x + x ) f ( x ) + ( x )
(17)
df
2 2
= 4K x
dx
(18)
Then,
h/K
Wp =
4K 2 x 2 + 1 dx
(19)
After integration (using integration tables), the wetted perimeter for half of the
parabolic section is:
Wp = K
hh
1
1 h
h
1
+
+
+
+
ln
2K
K K 4K 2 4K K
K 4K 2
(20)
An analysis of the hydraulic radius for such a parabolic section shows that the
hydraulic radius decreases monotonically as K increases from an infinitesimally
small value, so there is no most efficient value of K
Chow (1959) has some equations (exact and approximate) for various channel
section shapes, including the parabola defined in this case
distribution networks. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 44, Rome, Italy. 247 pp.
USBR. 1963. Linings for irrigation canals. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 149 pp.
Gary P. Merkley
190