Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Dissertation
Supervisor:
Univ.-Prof. DI Dr.techn. Lothar Fickert
Author:
DI Georg Achleitner
Acknowledgement
This thesis was written as part of my work as an assistant at the Institute for Electric
Power Systems at Graz University of Technology.
Many people assisted me in doing the work and writing this thesis. I especially would
like to thank the following persons:
Prof. Lothar Fickert has been my main supervisor and mentor. He gave me the first
idea about this topic. Over the years he helped me with ideas, worldly wisdoms and as
a very humanly head of the institute. Very often he just listened to me, gave me an idea
and brought me back on track of my work. He inspired me to try new approaches and
also allowed me to do this, without interrupting and correcting all the time.
Many thanks to Prof. Matti Lethonen, who accepted to review my thesis. I had the
chance to meet him on a conference in Estonia and he gave me some very important and
essential hints for this thesis.
Prof. Manfred Sakulin helped me with my first papers, gave me the ideas and discussed
the topics for hours. He helped me to understand earth faults better and better. Prof.
Herwig Renner, who often asked me only questions, which gave me new ideas to finish
this thesis.
Clemens Obkircher was a perfect colleague and a good friend. We worked together on
the same research areas and we visited a few conferences together. Discussing with him
was all the time very creative and productive. Together we made the first steps in the
area of patents and publications.
Many thanks also to Beti Trajanoski who was the quiet pole of the institute. She helped
me a lot at the institute with her intuition and also to finish the work.
Many thanks to Jasmine, our secretary. She was all the time cheerful and happy. She
helped me a lot in the first days at the institute and afterwards she was a real good
friend.
I want to thank the staff of the institute, specially Herbert for his assistance with electronics and computers, Erich for his help with everything which has to do with handcraft
work, for the office, for teachings, for experiments. Many thanks to Ulrike Mayer for
correcting my thesis.
Many thanks to all the other scientific staff who helped me during the years in my research as well as in lectures.
Many thanks to my friends, who helped me to free my mind after some very busy days.
Special thanks to Christian, Karli, Eniko, Elisabeth, Eva, Karin, Judith and the rest
from the sauna group. Without them it would have been very boring and lonesome in
Graz. Thank you.
Thanks to Paul, one of my oldest and best friends in Linz. Every time at home we met
it was great fun and diversified.
I also say thanks to my family for supporting me over the years and who gave me the
opportunity to study and who encouraged me to go abroad to get to know also other
countries and people. They also gave me the necessary peace and help to write this
thesis during several weekends.
ii
Abstract
Earth fault compensated networks improve power reliability, due to the reason that most
of the earth faults extinguish without interferences to the grid operation, thus allowing
uninterrupted power supply during the fault situation. However, this type of neutral
treatment implicates problems in the localization of earth faults. Finding the fault point
is from high interest also in combination with network expansion. Up to now, distance
protection relays measuring the distance between the point of their installation and fault
location are available only for direct grounded networks.
In this thesis it is shown that the classic algorithm of the distance protection relays
principally can be used also for compensated networks, however, the accuracy of the
distance calculation strongly depends on the network conditions. The main influence
parameters are described and investigated.
A new improved algorithm was developed and is shown in this thesis. To improve the
classic algorithm the fault transition impedance, the fault current and the grounding
impedance of the measurement station are included. For this purpose an exact 3-phase
mathematical simulation model of the investigated network is used and provided herein.
The simulations show, that this improved distance calculation provides good results up
to earth fault transitions impedances of 1 kOhm.
Furthermore, it is shown, that the classic algorithm can also be used in 2-phase networks.
With the improvements the algorithm can again be used up to earth fault transitions
impedances of 1 kOhm.
At the end the simulation results are validated with real test data of high and medium
voltage networks to verify the usability of this improved algorithm.
Keywords: Earth fault, distance protection, earth fault compensated networks, fault location, localization of earth faults, high ohmic earth faults
Kurzfassung
Geloschte Netze erhohen die Versorgungssicherheit weil ein Groteil der Erdschl
usse ohne
Auswirkungen auf den Netzbetrieb von selbst verloschen. Diese Art der Sternpunktsbehandlung birgt jedoch Schwierigkeiten bei der Erdschlusssuche. Die Fehlersuche ist
jedoch von grotem Interesse in Kombination mit Netzausbauten.
Bisher wurden Distanzschutzrelais, welche die Entfernung zwischen dem Messpunkt und
dem Fehlerort bestimmen nur in niederohmig oder starr geerdeten Netzen eingesetzt.
In dieser Arbeit wird gezeigt, dass der klassische Distanzschutzalgorithmus prinzipiell
auch f
ur geloschte Netze verwendet werden kann, jedoch ist die Genauigkeit der Distanzberechnung stark von den Netzwerkparametern abhangig. In dieser Arbeit werden
die wichtigsten Einflussparameter beschrieben und untersucht.
Eine Erweiterung des klassischen Algorithmus wird vorgestellt. Diese Erweiterung bein
haltet die Fehlerimpedanz, den Fehlerstrom und den Ubergangswiderstand
der Messstation. F
ur die Simulation wurde ein exaktes dreiphasiges Modell des untersuchten Netzes
aufgestellt.
Die Simulationen zeigen, dass es moglich ist, die Fehlerdistanz bis zu Fehlerwiderstanden
von 1 kOhm zu ermitteln.
Weiters wird die Anwendbarkeit des klassischen Algorithmus in zweiphasen Netzen
gezeigt. Mit den oben angef
uhrten Erweiterungen konnen ebenfalls Fehlerentfernungen
bei Fehlerwiderstanden bis zu 1 kOhm ermitteln werden.
Am Ende dieser Arbeit werden die Simulationen durch Erdschlussversuche in Hoch- und
Mittelspannungsnetzen verifiziert und die Anwendbarkeit des erweiterten Algorithmus
gezeigt.
Keywords: Erdschluss, Distanzschutz, geloschtes Netz, Fehlerlokalisierung, hochohmige
Erdschl
usse
Contents
List of Abbreviations
xi
1 Introduction
1.1 Research Theses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Research Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
2
3
2 General
2.1 General Network Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 Isolated Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2 Earth Fault Compensated Network . . . . . . .
2.1.3 Low Impedance Grounded Networks . . . . . .
2.1.4 Transient Middle Ohmic Compensated Network
2.2 Characteristic Parameters for Earth Faults . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Displacement Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Zero Sequence Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Zero Sequence Admittance . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4 Higher Harmonic for Detecting the faulty Line .
2.2.5 Transients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Earth Fault Transition Impedances . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 High ohmic earth faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Fault
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Contents
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Bibliography
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A Simulation Environment
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ix
List of Abbreviations
...................
...................
I 0ZE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I 1P , I 2P , I 0P . . . . . . . . . . .
I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I c1,c2,c3,c4 . . . . . . . . . . . .
I cap1,cap2,cap3,cap4,cap5 .
I ih . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I L1 , I L2 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I 1load , I 2load , I 0load . . . . .
ITR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
k0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
k 0 2phase . . . . . . . . . . . . .
U 0measreal . . . . . . . . . . . .
U 1, U 2, U 0 . . . . . . . . . .
U0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
U 1F , U 2F , U 0F . . . . . . . . .
U ih . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
U L1E , U L2E . . . . . . . . .
U net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
U NE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
U 0ZE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Z 0sys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0
0
0
z1 , z2 , z0 . . . . . . . . . .
Z 1sys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ZF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ZL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Z 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Z add . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Z Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ZE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Z F loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Z 1line , Z 2line , Z 0line . . . .
permeability constant
angular frequency
zero current over the grounding impedance
positive, negative and zero sequence current at the measuring
point
residual current at the measuring point
distributed line capacitive currents
capacitive current from feeder 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
current of the inter-harmonic signal
current in phase L1, L2
load current
positive, negative and zero sequence load current
neutral point current of the transformer
earth return path factor
earth return path factor for a two-phase network
real measured displacement voltage
positive, negative and zero sequence voltage at the measuring
point
displacement voltage
positive, negative and zero sequence voltage at the fault point
voltage of the inter-harmonic signal
line-to-earth voltage of phase L1, L2
network source voltage
displacement voltage
grounding impedance voltage
impedance of the zero sequence system
specific positive, negative and zero sequence impedance per km
impedance of the positive sequence system
fault impedance
line impedance
coupling Impedance
additional impedance
alternate earth impedance
grounding impedance of the measuring station
impedance of the failure loop
positive, negative and zero sequence line impedance
Contents
Z 1T R , Z 2T R , Z 0T R . . . . . .
Z xx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ax , Bx , Cx , Dx . . . . . .
AR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0
2
1
.....
, Cline
, Cline
Cline
0
2
1
......
, Cnet
, Cnet
Cnet
coef fxy . . . . . . . . . . . . .
coef fx . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
distx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E ...................
f ...................
GIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H ..................
I ...................
i(t) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iarc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
KX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
L ...................
l ....................
larc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
lcalculated . . . . . . . . . . . .
N ..................
Rf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rarc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
RStp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
S ...................
T ...................
t ....................
Uw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UL1Enominal . . . . . . . . .
V ...................
v(t) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
XT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Xarc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Xcoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
XkON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xii
Contents
xiii
1 Introduction
Earth fault compensated networks are a commonly used technology for operating medium
and high voltage grids. This kind of network has the advantage that earth fault currents
are quite small and influence (ohmic, inductive) problems can be minimised and danger,
especially for humans, can be reduced. Earth faults cause problems in networks with
overhead lines, such as faults like a broken line, trees falling into the line, because the
faults are sometimes difficult to locate. Due to the reason that the network mentioned
above can be operated during an earth fault without any interruption for customers,
the fault point has to be cleared as soon as possible. Therefore earth fault detection
methods are necessary and are being developed.
In this thesis earth faults are single line-to-earth faults. No cross country faults or double
line faults with ground contact are investigated.
In chapter 2 of the thesis in hand, general facts due to line-to-earth faults will be described and possible detection methods will be discussed.
In chapter 3 different earth fault localization methods will be presented. They are
based firstly on fundamental frequency and secondly on transients. Different existing
methods will be described.
Furthermore different algorithms for calculating the fault transition impedance will be
explained.
In chapter 4 the necessary basis for the simulation will be described and the simulation model will be presented.
In chapter 5 the basis of the earth fault distance protection, based on the simulation
model presented in chapter 4 will be explained and the algorithm for distance protection
is derived.
In chapter 6 the classic distance protection algorithm is derived and it will be shown that
this algorithm can also be used in compensated networks. Simulations and laboratory
tests, which have been done in the first stage of the investigations, will be presented and
described.
In chapter 7 a new improved distance protection algorithm which will be based on
the classic distance protection algorithm (see chapter 5), will be presented and it will be
shown that an estimation of the fault current at the fault point and the fault impedance
is possible and with the use of these both the accuracy of the distance protection can be
1 Introduction
increased.
Furthermore load distribution along a line will be simulated and the results of the improved distance protection algorithm will be presented. From that a method for correcting the aberrations will be derived.
In chapter 8 a sensitivity analysis and an investigation on influencing parameters will be
demonstrated. Different parameters such as the grounding impedance at the measuring
point, the fault transition impedance, the load factor, which are influencing the algorithm will be investigated and the results will be presented and the classic and improved
algorithm will be compared to each other.
In chapter 9 the distance protection in a two-phase network will be presented. It will
be shown that the classic and the improved algorithm (see chapter 5, 7, 8) can be used
in this kind of network. Additionally a sensitivity analysis will be done as presented in
chapter 8.
In chapter 10 the result of various earth fault tests will be presented. These tests have
been carried out in a compensated 110-kV-network, in several compensated medium
voltage networks (20-/30-kV-networks) and in a low ohmic grounded network.
In chapter 11 the results from applying the improved distance protection algorithm
will be presented. The results show that the algorithm gives very accurate and good
results even in the case of high ohmic earth faults and show the usability of the presented
approach.
Theorem 1 It is possible to use a classic distance protection relay for earth fault
distance protection in compensated networks.
Theorem 2 It is possible to estimate the fault impedance at the fault point.
Theorem 3 It is possible to estimate the fault current at the fault point.
Theorem 4 It is possible to reduce the influence of the grounding impedance at
the measuring station
Theorem 5 With Theorem 1 to 4 it is possible to get very high accurate results
even at high ohmic earth faults.
Question
Is it possible to calculate the fault impedance
with classic distance protection relays?
What are the influences on a classic distance
protection relay?
Can the fault transition impedance be determined?
Can the fault current be determined?
Can the influence of the grounding
impedance of the measuring station be
minimized?
Can the accuracy of the algorithm presented
in chapter 5 be increased?
What are the influences of loads along a line?
Can the accuracy still be high even if there
are loads along the line?
Can the algorithm also be used in a twophase network (railway)?
Chapter Title
5
Basis of Earth Fault Distance
Protection
8.1
Sensitivity Analysis of the Algorithm
7.1.1
Estimation
of
the
Fault
Impedance
7.1.2
Estimation of the Fault Current
7.2
Improved Earth Fault Distance
Algorithm
7.2
7.3
7.3.3
9
2 General
In this chapter different network types with their advantages and disadvantages will be
described. Furthermore the basic earth fault detection methods and detection possibilities will be explained.
At the end of the chapter a short essay about the influence of the fault impedance and
the neutral point treatment regarding earth fault with higher fault transition impedances
will be added.
ZL
XT
N
U NE
CE
E
line impedance
reactance of a transformer
neutral point
displacement voltage
line-to-earth capacitances
earth
In figure 2.1 the principle scheme of an isolated network is presented. The neutral point
of the transformer is isolated from the earth. In an ideal network without asymmetry,
2 General
the neutral point does not have any voltage against earth (neutral point displacement
voltage). Isolated networks are used in medium voltage networks of small expansion,
since a larger expansion of the networks causes higher capacitive fault currents. The
limit is not determined by the length of the lines, but by their current contribution to
the residual (uncompensated) ground fault current. Overhead lines have ten times lower
earth fault currents than cables.
In isolated networks the residual earth fault current depends on the phase-to-ground
capacities of the network. This means that networks with larger system lengths and
the use of cables instead of overhead lines lead to larger ground fault currents.
During
a continuous earth fault the voltage of the fault-free conductors increases by 3. In
overhead line networks self extinction of the arc can be expected, if the capacitive earth
Usage:
In medium voltage overhead line networks with small expansion
In small cable systems (e.g. networks for own needs, self supply power
plants, industrial networks)
Advantages:
Simple realization
Self-extinguishing of the lightning arc
Simple ground fault detection in the sin-phi-procedure in the zero sequence system is possible, if it can be guaranteed that sufficient zero
sequence current for the current measurement of the protection device is
available.
Disadvantages:
Inclination to intermittent ground faults
Increased overvoltage danger, in particular in the context of intermittent
ground faults
Continuous ground faults and thus danger of double earth faults
Fast reaching of the expansion limit given by too high earth fault currents
Economic remarks:
When exceeding the self extinguishing limits of the residual current the
network must be examined with regard to double earth faults and touch
voltages, and measures (network separation, rearrangement of the neutral
point treatment,...) will become necessary.
ZL
XT
N
U NE
CE
E
Xcoil
line impedance
reactance of a transformer
neutral point
displacement voltage
line-to-earth capacitances
earth
inductance of an arc suppressing coil
In 1916 Waldemar Petersen [Pet16] [Pet18] had the idea to connect a coil between the
transformer neutral point and the grounding system, to add an inductive component to
capacitive earth fault currents in case of a single line-to-earth fault.
In compensated networks one or more transformer neutral points or earthing transformers are grounded via one of those earth fault compensation coils, which inductivity is
adjustable. If the coil is perfectly adjusted to the line-to-earth capacitances of the network, the rest of the compensated current appears at the earth fault point (residual
current as ohmic, harmonics and detuning currents) [Obk04]. The fundamental harmonic earth fault current depends mainly on the size of the network, however a total
compensation by passive components is not possible because of the ohmic component.
The earth fault compensation reduces the fault current at the fault point to such a
degree that an electric arc extinguishes by itself even if the network is large. Because
of the slower recovering voltage of the faulty phase after the clearance of the fault in
the compensated network in contrast to an isolated network, the limit value of self
2 General
sections, and over 95% (according to the statistical data of the network carriers) of the
ground faults extinguish automatically, whereas the remaining 5% are persisting ground
faults. In the consequence these continuous ground faults can lead to double ground
faults or short-circuits, because the increase of the line-to-earth voltages in the fault-free
phases are a stress to the high-voltage equipment.
Usage:
In medium and high-voltage transmission networks of larger expansion
Advantages (selection):
During single phase faults the network can be temporarily further operated (no necessity of forced interruption of customers power supply)
Over 95 % of all ground faults they extinguish automatically (according
to the statistical data of the network operators [VDE91][VDE99])
Ground fault residual currents are small compared to rated currents
The recurring voltage rises substantially slower than in isolated networks
Disadvantages:
of 3
Economic remarks:
Additional effort by installation and regulation of the arc suppression
coils
Limitation of the network expansion by the ground fault residual current
Concerned transformer neutral points must be appropriate
When exceeding the self extinguishing limits of the residual current the
network must be examined with regard to double earth faults and touch
voltages, and measures (network separation, rearrangement of the neutral
point treatment,...) will become necessary.
ZL
XT
N
U NE
CE
E
RStp
line impedance
reactance of a transformer
neutral point
displacement voltage
line-to-earth capacitances
earth
grounding impedance of the neutral point
A low impedance grounded network is a network in which the neutral point of one ore
more transformers, neutral point builder or generators are grounded over current limiters
or low impedances.
With this kind of neutral point treatment the earth fault currents are limited essentially
through resistances. Thus the touch voltage and influences become smaller than during
solidly grounding. Voltage drops with magnitudes as with the solid grounding (see below)
cannot be observed. With low impedance grounding the earth fault currents are limited
2 General
to the range of 50 - 1000 A, and they can be switched off on the basis of a relatively
simple overcurrent time protection relay on zero sequence current bases [Pol88]. Voltage
drops, as they appear in solidly grounded networks will not be observed.
A special kind of low impedance grounded networks is the solidly grounded network. In
this case the neutral point of the transformer is solidly grounded. During an earth fault,
the voltages in the fault-free phases do not increase, on the contrary, for customers this
type of neutral point treatment leads to a voltage dip. Furthermore the fault currents
are rising to several kA, depending on the network. These currents can be detected by
protection devices and thus the line will be switched off. With an automatic reclosure
the line can be reconnected after the clearance of the fault.
Usage:
High-voltage transmission systems of larger expansion when the allowed
maximum residual earth fault currents are already exceeded.
Networks with predominant cables
Advantages:
Simple construction
In low impedance grounded networks smaller earth fault currents than
with solidly grounding
Almost no net expansion limit; if there occur adjusting difficulties things
can be put right with coordinated overcurrent zero sequence protection
relays
Slighter, but no significant voltage dips for the customers than with
solidly grounding
Transients in connection with a ground fault situation are damped
Touch voltages and influences are clearly smaller than with solidly
grounding, however they must be controlled.
Simple protection schemes
Disadvantages:
No self extinguishing, therefore automatic reclosure (AR )
Brief current flow in a necessary magnitude over earth (influence)
Higher fault currents at the earth fault point than in earth fault compensated networks and thus problems with the keeping of permissible touch
voltages, if the faulty line is not switched off fast enough.
Capacitive current contribution of long lines (cables), may require directional overcurrent zero sequence protection
10
ZL
XT
N
U NE
CE
line impedance
reactance of a transformer
neutral point
displacement voltage
line-to-earth capacitances
11
2 General
E
Xcoil
Z add
earth
inductance of an arc suppressing coil
additional impedance
Figure 2.4 shows the combination of earth fault compensated networks and middle ohmic
grounding. One has both the advantages of the earth fault extinction (the capacitive
currents are compensated by the arc suppressing currents) and the advantage of an
improved ground fault detection by an additionally (passive), short time injected earth
fault current [FAO07][Neu04]. The additional current is in the same level as the load
currents and does not reach
This network will in the following only be called middle ohmic network, instead of
Transient middle ohmic compensated network.
It must always be proven that the touch voltages are kept.
If the residual currents are high then the maximum allowed touch voltages ([CEN99])
can not be guaranteed. Therefor a permanent additional resistor in parallel to the arc
suppression coil is necessary. The advantages of this system are again smaller earth
currents than with solidly or low impedance grounding and possible selective earth fault
detection. Due to possible short switch off times the allowed touch voltages can be
guaranteed.
Advantages:
In the transitional phase earth faults usually extinguish themselves.
Fault currents in the network are in the range of load currents.
When injecting an earth fault current an improved ground fault detection is possible.
Touch voltages and influences are smaller than with low impedance neutral point treatment.
With appropriate adjustments, zero sequence over current relays can be
used for ground fault detection (section or branch detection).
With the use of appropriate distance protection relays a fault location is
possible.
Transients at the beginning of earth faults are damped.
Disadvantages:
An additional resistor is necessary.
Local grounding systems have to be examined and if necessary improved.
Higher earth fault currents than in earth fault compensated networks,
since additional earth fault currents will develop, which could result in
possible problems with the keeping of permissible touch voltages.
12
Earth fault compensated grids are favoured by many European grid operators, because
of their high reliability of supply. More than 90% of occurring faults in overhead line
networks are line-to-earth faults, which have no influences on power supply in these grids.
So the grid operators want to keep their hitherto existing reliability when changing the
neutral point treatment. One solution could be the use of the middle ohmic grounded
network. The idea is to be prepared for the future when the limits are exceeded through
upgrading the protective system in combination with additional resistances parallel to
the compensation coils. These resistances cause slightly higher earth fault currents which
can be detected more easily. Then the earth faults have to be switched off within short
13
2 General
14
[Ebe04]p. 13f
15
2 General
2.2.5 Transients
Fault transients of the voltage or current can be used to detect earth faults. As presented
in chapter 3, several detection algorithms, such as the differential equation method, the
wavelet algorithm or an artificial neural networks methods can be used.
Transients are used by transient earth-fault protection relays to detect transient or continuous earth faults.
16
From an operation point of view upon certain fault transition impedances the displacement voltage during an earth fault is under the starting level of the relays and the earth
fault will never be recognized. By using other detection methods, higher ohmic earth
faults can be detected up to several k [DB07] [Elk07].
The neutral zero sequence currents diminish with higher earth fault transition impedances,
therefore it is difficult to detect them, even if the transformer neutral point is solidly
grounded (see figure 2.5). Therefore solidly grounding is not the solution for all earth
fault problems despite common opinion.
For the simulation in figure 2.5 the simulation model in chapter 4.1.4 is used. The
nominal voltage for the simulation is 20-kV.
800
direct grounded network
middle ohmic grounded network
compensated grounded network
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
200
400
600
transition impedance in Ohm
800
1000
> 0.3
(2.1)
displacement voltage
nominal line-to-earth voltage
17
2 General
Common detection and alarm levels are set to 30% of the maximum displacement voltage.
Voltage levels lower than 30% are seen as high ohmic fault.
For the simulation in figure 2.6 the simulation model in chapter 4.1.4 is used. The
nominal voltage for the simulation is 20-kV.
100
compensated network
middle ohmic grounded network
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
100
200
300
400
500
600
transitions impedance ZF in Ohm
700
800
900
The following equation 2.2 describes a possible approach for high ohmic earth faults,
independent of the network system.
UF
UL1Enominal
UF
UL1Enominal
18
> 10%
(2.2)
voltage of faulty phase at fault point
nominal line-to-earth voltage
[Imr06] p. 9f
U L1
I L1 + k 0 I
positive sequence line impedance, fault distance impedance
line-to-earth voltage of phase L1
current in phase L1
earth return path factor
residual current at the measuring point
(3.1)
This algorithm is the classic algorithm for line-to-earth faults in low impedance grounded
systems [Tra02][Fog00]. In these networks and for fault transition impedances up to
several 100 this algorithm works well.
imag
(I 1 +I 2 )
I F
U 1, U 2, U 0
I1, I2, I0
Z 1sys
Z 0sys
IF
l
1sys
U 1 +U 2 +U 0
I F
+ imag
1+
I 0
2I F
0sys
(3.2)
The above algorithm can calculate the distance of earth faults up to fault transition
impedances of 1000 in networks with overhead lines, and up to 50 in cable networks.
The reason for this difference is that the algorithm does not consider the distribution
of the capacitances. In cable networks this distribution is of importance because of the
high capacitances in comparison to overhead lines.
20
1
3
U L1
IF
Rf
(z 00 + z 10 + z 20 ) +
imag
I Load 10
z
IF
=
1
3
U L1
IF
I Load 10
z
IF
(3.3)
z1 , z2 , z0
0
0
0
x1 , x2 , x0
I Load
l
Z F loop =
Z F loop
U ih
I ih
U ih
I ih
(3.4)
impedance of the failure loop
voltage of the inter-harmonic signal
current of the inter-harmonic signal
If only the imaginary part of the calculated fault loop impedance, the influence of the
fault impedance can be reduced. With the knowledge of the line parameters the fault
distance can be estimated. The influence of the line-to-earth capacitances is neglected.
21
L1 , L2 , L0
L
l
(3.5)
In [Imr06] a fault location program is proposed which includes different fault location
techniques as differential equation method, the wavelet algorithm and the extended
algorithm for detecting the earth fault.
For transient methods the transfer behaviour of the current and voltage transformers
have to be considered. If the transformers can not transfer higher frequencies, transient
methods may get into trouble with calculating the correct distance.
di(t)
dt
(3.6)
The equation can be solved with a numerical integration and the inductance of the fault
path can be calculated if three equally spaced pairs of phase currents and voltage samples
are available3 :
t (ik+1 + ik )(vk+2 + vk+1 ) (ik+2 + ik+1 )(vk+1 + vk )
L=
2 (ik+1 + ik )(ik+2 ik+1 ) (ik+2 + ik+1 )(ik+1 ik )
L
ik
vk
t
2
3
[Imr06] p. 14
[H
an01] p. 57
22
(3.7)
Iw (kt, f )
L
Uw
Iw
l
f
angular frequency
inductance of the fault path
wavelet coefficient for voltage
wavelet coefficient for current
fault distance
frequency
The algorithm first determines the maximum wavelet coefficient of the current including the amplitude, frequency and location of the wavelet. Using this frequency with
different time translations, the equivalent fault inductances can be calculated. The 2
ms inductance interval, corresponding to 10 subestimates, is then determined with the
smallest standard deviation. The mean value of the inductance, which is calculated in
this interval, is finally used to determine the fault distance.4
[H
an01] p. 59
23
1
RF =
3
U 1, U 2, U 0
I1, I2, I0
Z 1sys
Z 0sys
IF
RF
l
real
U 1 + U 2 + U 0
I F
!
I 1 + I 2
real
Z 1sys l
I F
I 0
0sys
real
1+
Z
l
(3.9)
2 I F
For the calculation of the fault impedance it is necessary to know Z 1sys and Z 0sys from
the faulty line, which can be taken from measurements. The fault distance l can be
calculated by using equation (3.2).
fault impedance
phase-to-ground voltage
displacement voltage
impedance of the zero sequence system
Therefore, it is necessary to know the zero impedance Z 0sys which can be determined by
calculating the equivalent circuit. This algorithm can be used to detect earth faults up
to 200 k.
24
For the simulation of earth faults in a radial network, a detailed model (figure 4.3) based
on figure 4.2 is developed. This model is used for simulations and the algorithms in the
following chapters are applied to the results.
The lines are modeled as a -equivalent network. The residual network is set into
the simulation as capacitance in the positive, negative and zero system; the load is
26
simulated as impedances. The impedance of the feeding network can be included into
the transformer impedance.
In figure 4.3 the simulation model is shown. Z E is the grounding impedance of the
measurement station. The reason for introducing this impedance Z E is that the lineto-earth voltages are measured to the grounding system of the measurement station.
Normally influence of the grounding system is negligible. In case of an earth fault, the
residual current causes a voltage drop at this grounding impedance which may lead to
inaccurate voltage measurement results (for example in mountain areas).
Z F is the transition impedance at the fault location. In this impedance also the grounding impedance of the fault point is included, because in reality it cannot be separated
[Fre07][Bre07].
Z add is the additional impedance, in parallel to the arc suppressing coil. The additional current increases the line current which makes it easier to detect the fault, the
trigger level is increased and the influence of the fault current is reduced (see chapter
2.1.4)[Imr06].
The line is divided into three sections (line1, line2, line3) for simulation purposes.
No loads were placed between the protection device and the fault in this simulation
model. For simulations with distributed loads along the line another model presented in
chapter 7.3 is used.
27
Zline11
IP1
UP1
Cline1 /2 Cline1 /2
Cnet
Zline21
1
Cline2 /2
Zline31
ILoad
1
Cline2 /2
UF1
Cline3 /2
Zload
Zload2
Cline3 /2
Znet1
negative sequence system
ZTR2
Zline12
2
P
I
2
Up
Cline1 /2 Cline1 /2
Zline22
2
Cline2 /2
Zline32
ILoad
2
Cline2 /2
UF2
Cline3 /2
Cline3 /2
IF0
2
Cnet
ZTR0
3Zpet
ITR
IP
3Zadd
Znet2
Up
Cline1 /2 Cline10/2
Cline2 /2
Cline2 /2
3ZF
UF
Zline30
ILoad
UF0
Cline3 /2
Cline3 /2
3ZE
0
Cnet
station
rest of the
network
line1
line2
fault
line3 + load
1 , C2 , C0
Cnet
net
net
1
2
0
Cline
, Cline
, Cline
1
2
Z line , Z line , Z 0line
Z 1T R , Z 2T R , Z 0T R
I 1P , I 2P , I 0P
U 1, U 2, U 0
U 1F , U 2F , U 0F
I 1load , I 2load , I 0load
IT R
IF
Z add
Z pet
ZF
ZE
U net
28
Network
Frequency
Transformer
Line length
Line Z1 / Z0 per km
Line cap C1 / C0 per km
Fault distance
Load
arc suppression coil
Additional resistance
Capacitive current of the Network
Load of the of the Network
These values of this reference network are chosen to investigate earth faults in a typical
medium voltage network. In middle ohmic networks earth faults are the most frequently
faults.
The nominal voltage of typical networks is between 10 and 30 kV.
Typical feeding transformers are assumed between 10 and 60 Mvar.
Maximum line lengths are up to 30 km.
A network with overhead lines is chosen because earth faults are problematic especially
in these kinds of networks. The line impedances are taken from the tables [FMR+ 05].
The additional resistance is chosen as 100 . This resistance adds around 100 Ampere
to the fault current during an earth fault. If the activation is kept sufficiently short,
additional 100 Ampere are no problem due to the standard HD637 [CEN99] and offer
the possibility for more secure fault detection.
The load is chosen with 100 0 because the load can be assumed as ohmic.
29
Z11
IL1
IL2
Z12
Z21
Z22
UL1E
UL2E
The values in figure 4.4 can be described using the following equations:
Z 11 Z 12
I
U L1E
=
L1
U L2E
Z 21 Z 22
I L2
U L1E , U L2E
I L1 , I L2
Z xx
(4.1)
transformation matrix
inverse transformation matrix
0
U
1 1
U L1E
=
1 1
U L2E
U1
30
(4.2)
(4.3)
S
U 1, U 0
U L1E , U L2E
transformation matrix
positive and negative sequence system voltage
line-to-earth voltage of phase L1, L2
0
Z 11 + Z 12
1 1 1
1 1
Z
Z 12
0
Z 11 Z 12 (4.4)
Z S = S ZP T =
=
11
1 1
Z 21 Z 22
2 1 1
ZS
In figure 4.5 an earth fault in symmetrical components is shown. Therefore, the positive
and zero sequence system have to be connected in series at the fault point.
31
UP1
ZTR0
ITR
Cline2 /2
Cline1 /2 Cline10/2
Cline2 /2
Zline3
ILoad1
1
Cline2 /2
Up
Zline2
Znet1
0
P
2Zadd
Cline1 /2 Cline1 /2
Cnet
2Zpet
Zline1
IP1
Cline2 /2
UF1
2ZF
Cline3 /2
Cline3 /2
IF0
UF
Zline30
ILoad
UF0
Cline3 /2
Cline3 /2
2ZE
Cnet
station
rest of the
network
line1
line2
fault
line3 + load
1 , C0
Cnet
net
1
0
Cline
, Cline
1
Z line , Z 0line
Z 1T R , Z 0T R
I 1P , I 0P
U 1, U 0
U 1F , U 0F
I 1load , I 0load
IF
Z add
Z pet
ZF
ZE
U net
32
Zload
Network
Frequency
Equivalent network impedance Z1 / Z0
Line length
Line Z1 / Z0 per km
Line cap C1 / C0 per km
Fault distance
Load
arc suppression coil
Additional resistance
Capacitive current of the Network
Load of the of the Network
These values of this reference network are chosen to investigate earth faults in a typical
two phase network.
The nominal line-to-earth voltage is 55 kV.
In this network 110-kV is the highest voltage level. Therefore, the equivalent network
impedance is used instead a transformer impedance.
Maximum line lengths are up to 60 km.
A network with overhead lines is chosen because earth faults are problematic especially
in these kinds of networks. The line impedances are taken from the tables [FMR+ 05].
The additional resistance is 400 . This resistance adds around 100 Ampere to the fault
current during an earth fault.
Because of the dimensions of such networks 500 Ampere is a realistic value for the
capacitive network currents.
33
U 1F + U 2F + U 0F = U F
(5.1)
1
1
, respective it is the same for the negative and
Z 1Line is the sum of unZLine1
and unZLine2
zero sequence system.
Inserting the measured voltages and the voltage drop along the line, equation (5.1) can
be written:
(5.3)
The measured voltages in symmetrical components can be summed up to the line voltage
of the faulty phase,
U L1 = U 1 + U 2 + U 0 = (I 1P + I 2P ) Z 1Line + I 0P Z 0Line + 3 I 0F Z F + 3 I 0T R Z E (5.4)
U L1 3 I 0F Z F
Z 0Line
1
2
0
=
I
+
I
+
I
P
P
P
Z 1Line 3 I 0T R Z E
Z 1Line
(5.5)
With I L1 = I 1P + I 2P + I 0P
0
U L1 3 I 0F Z F 3 I 0T R Z E
0
0 Z Line
=
I
I
+
I
L1
Z 1Line
Z 1Line
0
U L1 3 I 0F Z F 3 I 0T R Z E
Z Line
0
= I L1 + I
1
Z 1Line
Z 1Line
0
Z
with k 0 = 31 Z Line
1 and 3 I 0 = I and 3 I 0F = I F and 3 I 0T R = I T R
1
(5.6)
(5.7)
Line
U L1 I F Z F I T R Z E
= I L1 + I k 0
Z 1Line
Z 1Line =
U L1 I F Z F I T R Z E
0
= z1 l
I L1 + I k 0
(5.8)
(5.9)
Equation (5.9) is the basis for an algorithm in a fault distance calculation of a line-toearth fault. The influence of line-to-earth capacitances have been neglected, which leads
to partial deviations in cable networks. This algorithm also needs accurate setting of k 0
because a wrong setting can lead to miscalculations (see chapter 8.1.3). In this algorithm
the fault impedance Z F and the fault current I F are included, but both are unknown
and have to be calculated through separate algorithms (see chapter 7).
Generally in common literature Z E = Z E are set equal zero and are neglected (see
chapter 6)
36
As has been described above, distance protection relays have the possibility to locate
earth faults [Sie03], however, this system is only established in solid or low impedance
grounded networks.
This feature is blocked in classic distance protection devices for compensated networks,
because the relays generally use the line current level as trigger. In low and solidly
grounded networks, the line current is high enough to get a secure trigger level. However,
in compensated networks the current during an earth fault is just a little above the load
current. Settings around the load current are too insecure; it is recommended to reach
the level under all operating conditions.
The reason for choosing this type of detection algorithm is that has already been built in
modern distance protection relays. With some changes in the parameters or firmware this
technology can also used for earth fault detection in earth fault compensated networks.
An improved version could be easily set up on this platform, because the measurement
technique and logic have already been implemented.
The model for earth fault distance protection can be simplified as shown in figure 6.1
[AOFS06b].
ZTR1
Unet1
IP1
Zline11
Up1
ZTR2
3Zpet
Zload1
UF1
IP
Zline12
Up2
ZTR0
Zline21
Zline22
Zload2
UF2
IP
Up0
3Zadd
Zline10
Zline20
UF0
38
the reactive part of the calculated impedance. The fault transitions impedance is
dominantly ohmic and the influence can be reduced.
Low ohmic station grounding impedances
Stations or substations have grounding systems with impedances around 0.05 to
0.5 . These values can be neglected because the influence on the measured voltages is small.
With the assumptions above, equation (5.9) can be simplified to equation (6.1).
Z 1Line =
U L1
0
= z1 l
I L1 + I k 0
Z 1Line
U L1
I L1
k0
I
0
z1
l
(6.1)
Z F is seen as predominantly ohmic [Fre07]. If only the imaginary part of the equation
(6.1) is used, the ohmic influences can be reduced.
1
l = 10 imag
x
Z 1Line
0
x1
l
U L1
I L1 + I k 0
(6.2)
Equation (6.1) is already used in solid or low ohmic grounded networks with low ohmic
earth faults when the capacitive currents can be neglected.
With the classic algorithm the location of earth faults up to some 100 can be detected
in reality. Above these limit the deviation increases and the calculation results cannot
be used for an exact distance determination. Another problem is that higher ohmic
earth faults are often not detected at all, because the displacement voltage or the zero
sequence current are too small to reach any detectable starting limit for the protection
devices (see chapter 2.2).
In the following sections, the results of the classic algorithm will be presented.
39
Power supply
Transformer
Line (100%)
Load
110 V, 3, 50 Hz
1350 VA, uk 12%, YY0
3+j30 , equivalent to 100km @ 0,3 /km
120
For more tests, which should be independent from the network model, the data was
recorded and the fault recordings were saved. Afterwards, it was possible to replay these
recordings by using an OMICRON CMC 256-6[omi08]. This signal generator can replay
files in comtrade format [com99]. Different distance protection relays could be tested
with one and the same test file (see figure 6.2).
Comtrade file
Comtrade file
Comtrade file
Comtrade file
Comtrade file
Comtrade file
Comtrade file
Comtrade file
PC
CMC
Protection device
Due to the reason that the network model has only two possibilities to change the line
length, two different tests could be done: One at 0.5 and the other one at 30 . The
results are presented in table 6.2.
Table 6.2: Result of the laboratory tests
Distance X in
0.5
30
These laboratory tests have been the very first tests in autumn 2004 and have proven
the principle usability of the classic distance algorithm for earth fault location in a
compensated network.
40
35
30
25
20
X
15
10
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
X varied in Ohm
In figure 6.3, it can be seen that the calculated fault impedance increases linear to the
increasing real model fault distance in the simulation. These simulations and tests with
classic distance protection show that the classic algorithm is valid for earth faults in
compensated networks with low ohmic earth faults.
41
(7.1)
(7.2)
U L1 I L1
Z 1Line Z 12
I
I
Z 1line , Z 0line
I 1P , I 2P , I 0P
ZF
I
U L1
I L1
Z 12
(7.3)
Figure 7.1 shows the common used model for the fault loop impedance. The loop
impedance is divided into three parts, one is assigned to the lines (overhead) (Z 1Line ),
the second to the fault impedance (Z F ) and the third part to the earth return path
(underground) (Z Earth ).
As presented in [AOF+ 07] Z Earth is equal to the coupling impedance Z 12 . Equation (7.3)
can be written as:
ZF =
Z 1line
I1, I2, I0
ZF
I
U L1
I L1
Z Earth
44
U L1 I L1
Z 1Line Z Earth
I
I
positive sequence line impedance
positive, negative and zero sequence current at the measuring point
fault impedance
residual current at the measuring point
measured line-to-earth voltage in phase L1
measured current in phase L1
alternate earth impedance
(7.4)
The fault impedance can be calculated under the above mentioned restrictions by dividing the phase-to-earth voltage UL1E from the faulty phase at the measured residual
current I (figure 7.1). This estimation is acceptable because the fault impedance is
the dominant part of the faulted circuit impedance. If the fault impedance has a value
in the same amount as the line impedance, there is an aberration in the calculation,
because the influence of the line impedance is the same or even higher. In that case
the fault transition impedance is not dominating the faulted circuit impedance and the
aberration is caused by the dominant influence of the line impedance.
In addition, load currents in the same range as the fault current cause an aberration,
if the line and the fault impedance are the same. Therefore, an increase of the fault
current by use of an additional resistance is recommended [Imr06].
This estimation can be used if the calculated fault impedance is higher than 2 to 3 times
the line impedance.
Due to experiences, the fault impedance is approximated ohmic (see chapter 8.1.4)[Fre07].
It is also required, that the zero sequence current source is behind the measuring point
(Bauchsches paradox). [HAB+ 93a][HAB+ 93b]
RF = real
U L1
I
RF
U L1
I
(7.5)
line-to-earth voltage
residual current at the measuring point
fault resistance
45
(7.6)
I F = I + I cap1
(7.7)
I c1,c2,c3,c4
I cap1,cap2,cap3,cap4,cap5
I
IF
The residual current plus the capacitive current of the other feeders equals the current
I which is measured through the protection relay equation (7.7. The missing capacitive
current is the capacitive current of the faulty line.
For the determination of the fault current, the capacitive current of the faulty line is
necessary in conjunction with the measured residual current. The needed data for this
can be achieved by measuring the residual current during network operation or can be
46
taken from tables. As it is shown in equation (7.7), the capacitive current from the
line depends on the displacement voltage and the capacitive currents from the line.
These currents depend on the switching state of the network. For estimation it can be
assumed that the displacement voltage is the same in the whole network. If the capacitive
current from the faulty line is known, the current has to be multiplied with the ratio
from displacement voltage to nominal voltage, because with smaller displacement voltage
the capacitive currents get smaller. If the capacitive current of the observed section is
known, equation (7.7) can be extended by the measured displacement voltage and the
nominal line to earth voltage:
0
Umeas
(7.8)
I F = I + I cap1
UL1Enominal
IF
I cap1
I
UL1Enominal
U 0meas
fault current
capacitive current from feeder 1
residual current at the measuring point
nominal line-to-earth voltage
measured displacement voltage
Equation (7.8) the fault current at the earth fault point. This equation can only be used
in radial networks.
47
Z 1Line =
U L1 real
U L1
I
I + I cap
0
Umeas
UL1Enominal
IT R ZE
I L1 + I k 0
k0
I cap
I
0
Umeas
U L1
UL1Enominal
I L1
0
z1
1
Z Line
ZE
IT R
l
= z1 l
(7.9)
The fault distance is calculated by using the imaginary part of the calculated impedance
Z 1Line .
l=
1
imag
x10
U L1 real
U L1
I
I + I cap
0
(Umeas
)
UL1Enominal
I L1 + I k 0
IT R ZE
(7.10)
With equation (7.10) the fault distance can be calculated. The sensitivity analysis of
different influence parameters will be explained in chapter 8.
48
The fault point is varied from busbar 1 to busbar 5. The improved algorithm is again
applied to the simulation results.
49
30
30
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
20
15
10
25
Calculated distance in km
Calculated distance in km
25
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
20
15
10
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
transitions impedance ZF in Ohm
800
900
1000
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
transitions impedance ZF in Ohm
800
900
1000
As it can be seen, at low ohmic earth faults in the solidly grounded network the fault
detection is more accurate. At higher ohmic earth faults, solidly and middle ohmic
grounded networks become more and more similar. The reason is, that in solidly
grounded networks the fault current is higher than the load current and therefor the
load is negligible.
As experiences have shown in real networks the results of these simulations are the
same: With distributed load the calculated distance using the classic algorithm is always
decreasing at higher ohmic earth faults.
With the improved algorithm it is possible to locate a fault area.
50
30
30
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
25
caclulated fault distance in km
25
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
20
15
10
20
15
10
200
400
600
800
1000
ZF in Ohm
200
400
600
800
1000
ZF in Ohm
Figure 7.5: Simulations with random varied fault point and load distribution
In figure 7.5 the results of different load distributions are presented. The load distribution
is varied whereas the total line load is unchanged. It can be seen that different load
distribution offers several fault distances. For the first busbar the calculation works fine,
for the others the information about calculated area is not possible.
7.3.3.1 Correction coefficients
The idea is to use correction coefficients to improve the computed fault distance. Equation (7.11) tries to include these loads into this factor in order to correct the fault
impedance.
The loads (load1 - load4 ) are filled in percentage of the total load. The coefficients are
computed from several simulations/tests. The coefficients try to include the aberration
of the distance algorithm and combine it with the load factors.
A1
A2
A3
A4
B1
B2
B3
B4
Ax , B x , C x , D x
distx
coef fxy
C1
C2
C3
C4
dist1
coef f11
D1
D2
coef f12 = dist2
D3 coef f13 dist3
coef f14
dist4
D4
(7.11)
The coefficients coeffx are median values of coeffxy for the load at busbar x.
The coefficients matrix can be written: coef f T = coef f1 coef f2 coef f3 coef f4
The load matrix can be written as: loadsT = load1 load2 load3 load4 .
51
In this matrix the loads are inserted in percentage of the total line load.
4
coeff1
coeff2
coeff3
coeff4
3.5
correction factor
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
200
400
600
ZF fault transition impedance
800
1000
It is shown that it is possible to determine coefficients, which are able to correct and to
reduce the deviations (see figure 7.6).
The coefficients are likely to determine, however, only for one fault transition resistance
value and for one area between the measurement and the load. Therefore, coefficient
matrices must be determined which are nearly independent of load.
Best results can be achieved if the correction curves are calculated for faults at the end
of the line. A similar approach for including the loads can be found in [AW07].
7.3.3.2 Distance Calculation with Correction Coefficients
The matrix is dependent on the neutral point treatment. Therefore, it has to be estimated for separately for these networks.
Example:
For a compensated network and approximately 100 A additional resistance in parallel
to the arc suppressing coil, the coefficient matrix is presented at 50 fault resistance :
1.96
1.4
coef f =
1.24
0.99
The fault distance can be corrected using equation (7.12).
l = lcalculated coef f T loads
52
(7.12)
l
lcalculated
coef fx
fault distance
distance calculated by using the improved algorithm
correction coefficient at busbar x
The fault impedance can be estimated as presented in chapter 7.1.1. With the knowledge
of the fault impedance, the correcting coefficients are known and the calculated fault
distance can be corrected using equation (7.12).
30
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
25
20
15
10
200
400
600
ZF fault transition impedance
800
1000
.
In figure 7.7 the curves at all 5 error locations (see chapter 7.3.1) are shown, whereby
the distribution of load is varied accidentally as presented in chapter 7.3.3.1.
A practical realization could take place to that extent that the correction coefficients in
the relay are deposited and, depending on the neutral point treatment, are applied. A
suggestion for correcting the calculated distances is that only distance results which are
at the third or fourth busbar, are corrected, and the rest remains as it is. For shorter
distances the algorithm already works well.
Then the distribution of the load and the neutral point treatment has to be filled in
including the neutral point resistance. A higher accuracy could be attained via additional
curves, dependent on the line lengths between the loads.
53
8.1.1 Linearization
In this chapter the influences of separate parameters will be investigated. In one working
point the algorithm can be linearized. The classic algorithm (equation (6.1)) and the
improved algorithm (equation (7.10)) are linearized. The maximum aberration of each
parameter can be calculated using equation (8.4) and (8.2) and will conclude in an
aberration of the calculated fault distance smaller than 10% (0.1 p.u.).
Classic Algorithm
0
l = f (x1 , U L1 , I , k 0 , I L1 )
dl ai d xi 1
dai l = dxi l x10 imag I
(8.1)
U L1
0.1p.u.
L1 + I k 0
ai (x1 , U L1 , I , k 0 , I L1 )
(8.2)
Improved Algorithm
0
, UL1Enominal )
l = f (x1 , U L1 , I cap , I , k 0 , I T R , Z E , I L1 , Umeas
(8.3)
dl xi
dxi l =
0
U L1
)
(Umeas
real
I
+
I
Z
U
d ai 1
L1
cap UL1Enominal
TR
E
I
0
ai (x1 , U L1 , I cap , I , k 0 , I T R , Z E , I L1 , Umeas
, UL1Enominal )
If the differential equation is solved, the following maximum aberrations of the parameters can be calculated for the reference model (see chapter 4.1) with the fault point at
15 km and a fault transition impedance of 1 :
Table 8.1: Result of the linearization of some parameters
U L1
I L1
I
k0
simulation result
2432+j1092 V
196-j29 A
93.89 -j17.65 A
0.833
classic algorithm
|UL1 |= 270 V
|IL1 |= 27 A
|I |=34 A
|k0 | = 0.3
improved algorithm
|UL1 |= 266 V
|IL1 |= 27 A
|I |= 35 A
|k0 | =0.29
It can be seen that the influences on both algorithm are similar: 10 % aberration of
each parameter causes around 10 % aberrations in the calculated line length. The same
results will be seen in chapter 8.1.2.
56
result the quantization can lead to wrong calculation results due to granularity.
In this simulation the parameters U L1 , I L1 and I = 3I 0 are varied 10% from the
simulation result. This shows the influence of each parameter on the calculation result.
Sensitivity at 1 Ohm fault transition impedance
17
17
UL1
UL1
I0
IL1
16.5
I0
U0
IL1
16.5
nominal distance
nominal distance
16
calculated fault distance in km
16
15.5
15
15.5
15
14.5
14.5
14
14
13.5
10
0
Variation in %
10
13.5
10
0
Variation in %
10
Figure 8.1 shows that the line current and the line-to-earth voltage have the biggest
influence, however, in a complementary direction. The influence of I 0 is smaller than
the line current, because the residual current is smaller compared to the line current
which xxx the line current and wrong measured values can reach an aberration around
10%.
1
k0 =
3
Z 0Line
1
Z 1Line
(8.5)
57
Z 1Line
Z 0Line
k0
kE =
Z Eearth
Z 1Line
(8.6)
k 0k =
Z0
Z1
(8.7)
Conversions between the different k 0 -factor in equation (8.5) and equation (8.7)
are also possible using equation (8.8).
k 0k = 1 + 3 k 0
(8.8)
kE =
RE
1
XE
1
+
XL
RL
RL 1 + j R
XL 1 j X
L
(8.9)
Equation (8.6) can be converted into equation (8.9) by using the line angle (equation(8.10)).
tan =
XL
RL
(8.10)
In network practice the exact line parameters of the positive and zero sequence system
are very obvious known, however, the exact factor k 0 of a line can be achieved through
measurements[AOF+ 07].
A common practice is the setting of k 0 to 0.8..1..1.5 with an angle of 0 [FMR+ 05].
In the simulation k 0 is 0.830 .
58
Figure 8.2 shows the effect of a wrong setting of k 0 . The black plane in figure 8.2 shows
the area which covers the result of the ideal line length 10% error tolerance. If the
value of k 0 is chosen smaller than its real value, the measured fault impedance is higher,
because the earth return path is rated too low, and if k 0 is set higher, the measured
impedance is lower.
The angle has a smaller influence in overhead line networks than the value, as it is the
setup for the simulations.
59
U 0ZE = I 0ZE 3Z E
(8.11)
(8.12)
(8.13)
(8.14)
U 1, U 2, U 0
U 0measreal
I 0ZE
U L1
U 0ZE
H
L
I
V
1
H 2 dV = LI 2
2
(8.15)
permeability constant
magnetic field density
inductance
current
integration volume
Equation (8.15) shows that the grounding system at area V is inductive. The value
around 0.5 is proved by measurements [Fre07].
60
20
18
16
calculated distance in km
14
12
10
4
classic algorithm without resistance
classic algorithm with resistance
extended algorithm
nominal distance
0.5
1.5
2
2.5
3
grounding impedance ZE in Ohm
3.5
4.5
In figure 8.3 it can bee seen that the aberration is smaller using an additional resistance
in parallel to the arc suppressing coil the aberration is smaller. The reason is that Z E
is ohmic and the current is also more ohmic using an additional resistance. Therefore,
the voltage drop is more ohmic than inductive. In the algorithm, only the imaginary
part of the calculated impedance is used for the distance calculation and therefore ohmic
influences as Z E are reduced if the voltage drop is dominantly ohmic.
The improved algorithm reduces the influence of Z E and therefor the simulation result
is more accurate than in the classic algorithm.
61
Figure 8.4 shows a variation of Z E when the value of Z F is increased, and its reduced
influence. The black plane in figure 8.4 shows the area which covers the result of the ideal
line length 10% error tolerance. The simulations show that the aberration decreases
with the increase of Z F because the current over the grounding system decreases and
therefore the voltage drop along the grounding system decreases.
8.1.4.2 Variation of Z F
This impedance Z F is not known in reality and varies from 1 (solid and very low
ohmic earth fault), several 100 up to several k (trees, broken lines and dry ground).
For the simulation Z F is the sum of RF and j0.5 (see chapter 8.1.4.1). In the following
simulations the variation of Z F will be reduced to the variation of RF .
Impedance of the grounding at the fault point
In the simulation, this impedance is varied from 1 to 1000 . The grounding impedance
at the fault point is included into the fault transition impedance because, in reality, it is
also seen as one single impedance. The grounding impedance is taken into the transition
impedance by adding an inductive part of j0.5 (see chapter 8.1.4.1).
The fault impedance is often seen as purely ohmic. The reason is that, if the fault
transition impedance increases, the inductive part is so small that it can be neglected
because the ohmic part dominates the impedance.
Impedance of the arc resistance
Arcs are one of the most common fault types in electrical networks. The grounding system can be seen as predominantly ohmic, however, the arc has an inductive component
which might influence the distance calculation.
An estimation for the resistance of an arc can be done by using the Warrington formula
[War68]:
Rarc =
Rarc
larc
Iarc
28688
l
1.4 arc
Iarc
(8.16)
arc resistance
length in meter of the arc
arc current in Ampere
62
The arcs reactance which is valid for arc furnace ovens can be estimated as described in
[Ren02] (see equation (8.17))1 . (The reason is that the arc current shows a small phase
shift and therefore it can be seen as a reactance). Also, in [Mah85], it is shown that the
arc reactance is proportional to the arc resistance.
Xarc = 0.08 Rarc + KX
Rarc
Xarc
XkON
KX
R2
0.12 Rarc + 0.08 arc
XkON
(8.17)
arc resistance
arc reactance
real arc furnace oven short circuit reactance including the whole network
smelting constant
KX depends on the smelting. It varies from 0.9 at the beginning of the process to 0 at
the end. If a conservative approach is chosen, the KX factor is set to 0.9. The reactance
will reach values up to 10% of the arc resistance; however, the reactance of the arc is
in the same range of magnitude as the grounding impedance. Both are so small that
they can be neglected because they will not influence the distance calculation result. In
[SAA00], the fault reactance is small in comparison to the fault resistance.
20
18
16
calculated distance in km
14
12
10
4
classic without additional resistance
classis with additional resistance
improved algorithm
nominal distance
100
200
300
400
500
ZF in Ohm
600
700
800
900
In figure 8.5, the fault resistance is varied. It seems that the fault impedance has a small
influence on the calculated result of the classic algorithm. It can be seen that with the
additional resistor in parallel to the arc suppressing coil, the results are more accurate,
which compares to [Imr06].
The improved algorithm reduces the influences of the fault transition impedance, even
at high ohmic faults (see figure 8.5).
1
63
Figure 8.6 and also described in [Imr06] shows that the load has a significant influence
on the calculated result. The black plane in figure 8.6 shows again the area which covers
the result of the ideal line length 10% error tolerance.
64
30
30
25
25
calculated distance in km
calculated distance in km
20
15
10
isolated network
compensated network
middle ohmic grounded network
solidly grounded network
nominal distance
0.5
20
15
10
isolated network
compensated network
middle ohmic grounded network
solidly grounded network
nominal distance
1
value of k0
1.5
0.5
1
value of k0
1.5
20
20
18
18
16
16
calculated distance in km
calculated distance in km
Angle of k 0
14
12
10
8
6
isolated network
compensated network
middle ohmic grounded network
solidly grounded network
nominal distance
4
2
0
10
20
30
40
50
angle of k0 in
14
12
10
8
6
isolated network
compensated network
middle ohmic grounded network
solidly grounded network
nominal distance
4
2
60
70
80
90
10
20
30
40
50
angle of k0 in
60
70
80
90
If the factor k 0 is varied, the results certainly differ from each other. The reason is
that the zero sequence current is different from network to network. In solidly grounded
networks the zero sequence current has more influence because the amplitude is higher
than in networks with another neutral point treatment. In compensated networks the
current is low and therefore the influence of k 0 is low. In isolated networks the current
depends only on the capacitances and does not flow over the whole line length. For this
network type the simplified algorithm is not usable.
65
20
20
18
18
16
16
calculated distance in km
calculated distance in km
8.1.5.2 Influence of Z E
14
12
10
8
6
isolated network
compensated network
middle ohmic grounded network
solidly grounded network
nominal distance
4
2
0
2
3
grounding impedance ZE in Ohm
14
12
10
8
6
isolated network
compensated network
middle ohmic grounded network
solidly grounded network
nominal distance
4
2
4
2
3
grounding impedance ZE in Ohm
Z E has more influence if the current over the grounding station is increased. In a solidly
grounded network the measurement error is higher than in a middle ohmic or an earth
fault compensated network.
8.1.5.3 Influence of Z F
30
20
18
16
calculated distance in km
calculated distance in km
25
20
15
10
isolated network
compensated network
middle ohmic grounded network
solidly grounded network
nominal distance
200
400
600
transition impedance ZF in Ohm
14
12
10
8
6
isolated network
compensated network
middle ohmic grounded network
solidly grounded network
nominal distance
4
2
800
1000
200
400
600
transition impedance ZF in Ohm
800
1000
Figure 8.10 shows that the classic algorithm provides similar results as the improved
algorithm.
66
The obtained results in this chapter show that an increase of the zero sequence current
is necessary to achieve more accurate measurement results, independent from the parameter k 0 , Z E and Z F . It should be kept in mind that higher earth fault currents lead
or
to problems concerning the influence of a wrong k 0 , touch voltages [CEN99][OVE76]
other interferences.
The simulations show that the improved algorithm could principally be used in all networks, except the isolated one. The reason for this is that the algorithm neglects the
capacitive currents distribution along the line. However, in an isolated network, these
currents are the dominant parameter in case of an earth fault and must not be neglected.
In figure 8.11 the fault distance is varied from 0.1 km (close fault point) to 20 km. The
total line length is 20 km. As above the classic and the improved algorithm are applied
to this simulation. It can be seen that with higher fault impedance the classic algorithm
gets imprecise, whereas, the improved version keeps the calculated fault distance. It gets
even better due to the fact that the influence of the line impedance on the estimation of
the fault impedance decreases. Therefore, the calculation can be seen as more accurate.
67
Network
20-kV / overhead lines
Line length
20 km
Line Z1 / Z0 per km
0.0256 +j0.127 / 0.103 +j0.172
Line cap C1 / C0 per km 0.3 F / 0.3 F
arc suppression coil
4 + j 81
Additional resistance
100
Taking into account, typical values for earth faults in cable networks are a few ohms,
limited to 10 . Using the Warrington formula (equation (8.16)), assuming a fault
current of 200 A and a arc length of 10 cm the resistance can be calculated:
Rarc =
28688
0.1 = 1.7
2001.4
68
(a) Middle ohmic grounding with additional 100 A (b) Middle ohmic grounding with additional 200 A
As it can be seen in figure 8.13 it might be recommended to increase the residual current
up to 200 A for a short time [?]. The fault detection is higher even in mixed networks
and no problems due to interferences and touch voltages are expected.
69
protection device
line3
line1+2
load
ZF
ZE
18
16
calculated distance in km
14
12
10
4
classic algorithm
improved algorithm
nominal distance
100
200
300
400
500
ZF in Ohm
600
700
800
900
Figure 8.15: Simulation of the improved algorithm and comparison with the classic distance protection
algorithm in case of high ohmic fault impedances in low ohmic grounded networks
Figure 8.15 shows that the improved algorithm can also be used for high ohmic earth
faults in solid or low ohmic grounded networks. The algorithm for estimating the fault
impedance is still valid. Due to the reason, that the capacitances can be neglected in
70
low and solidly ground networks, it can be supposed that the fault current is the same
as the residual current at the measuring point
71
(9.1)
1
1
Z 1Line is the sum of unZLine1
and unZLine2
, respective it is the same for the zero sequence
system.
Inserting the measured voltages and the voltage drop along the line, equation (9.1) can
be written:
(9.2)
The measured voltages in symmetrical components can be summed up to the line voltage
of the phase,
U L1 = U 1 + U 0 = I 1P Z 1Line + I 0P Z 0Line + 2 I 0F Z F + 2 I 0T Stp Z E
U L1 2 I 0F Z F 2 I 0T Stp Z E
Z 1Line
= I 1P + I 0P
Z 0Line
Z 1Line
(9.3)
(9.4)
with I L1 = I 1P + I 0P
U L1 2 I 0F Z F 2 I 0T Stp Z E
Z 1Line
U L1 2 I 0F Z F 2 I 0T Stp Z E
Z 1Line
with k 0 2phase =
1
2
Z 0Line
Z 1Line
Z 1Line =
Z 1line , Z 0line
I 1P , I 0P
U 1, U 0
U 1F , U 0F
IF
ZF
I
k0 2phase
U L1
I L1
0
z1
ZE
I T Stp
l
(9.5)
= I L1 + I
Z 0Line
1
Z 1Line
(9.6)
1 and 2 I 0 = I and 2 I 0F = I F
U L1 I F Z F I T Stp Z E
Z 1Line
Z 0Line
Z 1Line
= I L1 I 0 + I 0
= I L1 + I k 0 2phase
U L1 I F Z F I T Stp Z E
0
= z1 l
I L1 + I k 0 2phase
(9.7)
(9.8)
From equation (9.8) an algorithm for fault distance calculation of a line-to-earth fault
can be derived. This algorithm also needs accurate setting of k 0 2phase because a wrong
setting can lead also to miscalculations (chapter 9.5.1.3).
As described before distance protection relays have the ability to locate earth faults
[Sie00] [Sie93], however, this technology is only used if the second phase during an earth
fault is solidly grounded.
With the assumption that high ohmic faults are not in the centre of attention, equation
(9.8) can be simplified to equation (9.9).
74
Z 1Line =
U L1
0
= z1 l
I L1 + I k 0 2phase
Z 1Line
U L1
I L1
k0 2phase
I
0
z1
l
(9.9)
If only the imaginary part of equation (9.9)is used, the ohmic influences can be reduced.
l=
imag(Z 1Line )
x10
Z 1Line
0
x1
l
(9.10)
positive sequence line impedance, fault distance impedance
specific positive sequence system line inductance
fault distance
75
The setup of the simulation is described in table 9.1. The values are the same, as those
inserted in the simulation model. The lines are modelled as -equivalents. All tests
scenarios were low ohmic earth faults.
Nominal voltage
110 kV
Frequency
16.7 Hz
Line 1
40 km / 3.2 +j4.6
Line 2
20 km / 1.6 +j2.3
Fault point
at 40 km, after the first line
Capacitive current of the network
150 A
Arc suppressing coil
120 A
The protection relays, which use the classic algorithm, were tested with different settings of the simulation environment. The load, the resistor Radd in parallel to the arc
E
E
suppressing coil and the earth return path ( R
and X
) were varied. Table 9.2 presents
RL
XL
the settings and the results.
76
Test:
Load
Radd
1 20 MW 100
2 60 MW 100
3 0 MW 100
4 0 MW 100
5 0 MW 100
6 0 MW 400
7 60 MW 400
RE
RL
XE
XL
1
1
1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
1
1
1
0.1
0.5
0.5
0.5
Result
Relay 1 Relay 2
40 km 42.3 km
40.9 km 42.4 km
41.5 km 42.4 km
41.5 km 42.1 km
41.5 km 42.6 km
41.5 km 42.2 km
41.5 km 40.1 km
The tests (table 9.2) show that the distance protection relay can be used for detecting
earth faults in a compensated two-phase network for low ohmic earth faults.
Z 1Line =
U L1 real
k0 2phase
I cap1
I
U 0meas
U L1
UL1Enominal
I L1
0
z1
1
Z Line
ZE
I T Stp
l
U L1
I
I + I cap
abs(U 0meas )
UL1Enominal
I T Stp Z E
I L1 + I k 0 2phase
= z1 l
(9.11)
77
l = f (x1 , U L1 , I , k 0 , I L1 )
dl ai d xi 1
dai l = dxi l x10 imag I
(9.12)
U L1
0.1p.u.
L1 + I k 0 2phase
ai (x1 , U L1 , I , k 0 , I L1 )
78
(9.13)
Improved Algorithm
0
l = f (x1 , U L1 , I cap , I , k 0 2phase , I T R , Z E , I L1 , Umeas
, UL1Enominal )
(9.14)
dl ai
dai l =
0
U L1
(Umeas
)
I
U
real
I
+
I
Z
d xi 1
L1
cap UL1Enominal
TR
E
I
dxi l x10 imag
I
+
I
k
L1
0 2phase
0.1p.u. (9.15)
with ai are the setting and measured parameters:
0
0
ai (x1 , U L1 , I cap , I , k 0 2phase , I T R , Z E , I L1 , Umeas
, UL1Enominal )
If the differential equation is solved, the following maximum aberrations of the parameters can be calculated for the reference model (see chapter 4.2) which works with a fault
point at 40 km and a fault transition impedance of 1 :
U L1
I L1
I
k 0 2phase
simulation result
2225+j1751 V
302-j73 A
167 -j54 A
0.57+j0.37
classic algorithm
|UL1 |= 315 V
|IL1 |= 55 A
|I |=52 A
|k0 | = 0.2
improved algorithm
|UL1 |= 270 V
|IL1 |= 41 A
|I |= 59 A
|k0 | =0.22
It can be seen that the influences on both algorithm are similar: The same results can
be seen in chapter 9.5.1.2.
9.5.1.2 Measurement Influences
As described in chapter 8.1.2 U L1 , I L1 and I = 3I 0 will be varied.
79
45
50
UL1
UL1
I0
IL1
44
I0
49
U0
IL1
dist nominal
48
43
42
41
40
39
dist nominal
47
46
45
44
43
38
42
37
36
10
41
0
Variation in %
10
40
10
0
Variation in %
10
Figure 9.2 shows that the line current and the line-to-earth voltage have the biggest
influence on the fault distance algorithm, however, in a complementary direction. The
influence of I 0 is smaller than the line current, because the residual current is smaller
compared to the line current, which the load current and wrong measured values can
reach an aberration around 10%.
k 0 2phase
Z 1Line
Z 0Line
k0 2phase
1
=
2
Z 0Line
1
Z 1Line
positive sequence system line impedance
zero sequence system line impedance
earth return path factor
80
(9.16)
Figure 9.3 shows the effect of a wrong setting of k 0 2phase . The black plane in figure 9.3
shows the area which covers the result of the ideal line length 10% error tolerance. If
the value of k 0 2phase is chosen smaller than its real value, the measured fault impedance
is higher, because the earth return path is rated to low, and if k 0 2phase is set higher, the
measured impedance is lower.
These parameters are varied in the simulation environment and the algorithm is applied
to the results as described in chapter 8.1.4.
Variation of Z E
Figure 9.4 shows the influence of the impedance Z E . The values are chosen at 0.01+j0.5
for the starting point, the resistant part is varied and the inductive part is chosen at
0.5 due to practical experiences [Fre07].
81
50
45
40
calculated distance in km
35
30
25
20
15
10
classic algorithm without resistance
classic algorithm with resistance
extended algorithm
nominal distance
0.5
1.5
2
2.5
3
grounding impedance ZE in Ohm
3.5
4.5
In figure 9.4 it can bee seen that the aberration is smaller using an additional resistance in
parallel to the arc suppressing coil. The reason is that Z E is ohmic and the current is also
more ohmic using an additional resistance. Therefore, the voltage drop is more ohmic
than inductive. In the algorithm, only the imaginary part of the calculated impedance
is used for the distance calculation and therefore ohmic influences as Z E will be reduced
if the voltage drop is dominantly ohmic.
The improved algorithm reduces the influence of Z E and therefore the simulation result
is more accurate than in the classic algorithm.
Figure 9.5 shows a variation of Z E when the value of Z F is increased and its reduced
82
influence. The black plane in figure 9.5 shows the area which covers the result of the ideal
line length 10% error tolerance. The simulations show that the aberration decreases
with the increase of Z F because the current over the grounding system decreases and
therefore the voltage drop along the grounding system decreases.
Variation of RF
60
60
50
50
40
40
calculated distance in km
calculated distance in km
30
20
10
100
200
300
400
500
600
transitions impedance ZF in Ohm
700
800
900
30
20
10
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
transitions impedance ZF in Ohm
80
90
100
In figure 9.6 the fault transition impedance is varied. Without the additional resistance,
the fault current is too small in comparison to the load current at higher fault impedances
and therefore the calculated fault distance is too high. It can be seen that with the
additional resistor in parallel to the arc suppressing coil, the results get better, which
compares to [Imr06]
Due to the reason that according to experiences in a 110-kV-network faults are mostly
low ohmic faults, figure 9.6b shows a zoom of the first sector of figure 9.6a which presents
fault impedances from 1 to 10 .
The improved algorithm reduces the influences of the fault transition impedance even
at high ohmic faults.
Variation of the Load Factor
In previous simulations the load has always been set to a cos = 1. It is assumed that
different load factors might have an influence on the fault calculation. In this chapter
83
Figure 9.7 shows that the load has a significant influence on the calculated result. The
black plane in figure 9.7 shows the area which covers the result of the ideal line length
10% error tolerance.
84
The improved algorithm reduces the influence of the fault impedance, independent from
the fault distance. The classic algorithm works well for low ohmic earth faults, as
described in 6, however, it cannot be used for high impedance fault. The same problem
has already been presented in chapter 7.
85
Fault point
Measurement
Various tests with different network situations (additional cables see figure 10.1) have
been carried out. The reason for these tests was to find the influence of different capacitances and detuning of the coils in the network on the earth fault current at the fault
point as described in [OAFS06].
Nr.
1
2
3
4
The measurements were done using a two step procedure (for replay at any time) (see
figure 6.2):
The first step was to record the data. This was done with an OMICRON CMC 256-6
with a sampling rate of 9 kHz.
The second step was to verify the classic algorithm. With the recorded data and the
test system, the distance protection device was tested in the laboratory.
The results from all four experiments are shown in table 10.2. The values are the
fault impedances in Ohm calculated by the distance protection device using the classic
algorithm.
Table 10.2: Results of the calculation of the relay of the field test 110 kV
1
2
3
4
k 0 =0.68 0
Fault Distance R
X
km
4.4 km
0.3 1.8 4.7
4.4 km
0.3 1.6 4.2
4.4 km
0.1 1.9 4.9
4.4 km
0.2 1.9 4.9
Compared to the real distance of 4.4 km, the results of the tests with k0=0.68 gave fault
distances between 4.2 and 4.9 km. The relative error is -5% and +11% respectively.
These tests prove the usability of the classic algorithm for compensated 110-kV-networks
for low ohmic earth faults. Even it was a meshed network with decentralized arc suppressing coils, the classic algorithm was working very well in case of low ohmic earth
faults.
88
The results showed possible zones of high electrical field in the area of the upper electrode,
but no critical point.
1
http://www.igte.tugraz.at/de/elefant/elefant.html
89
Furthermore, high voltage tests were considered for the use in the test network. The
resistor was tested in the high voltage laboratory at the Institute of High Voltage Engineering and System Management 2 . The insulation coordination level was tested due to
the recommendations [ABB99].
A measurement system according to IEC 60060-1 was used [IEC94].
The insulation level was tested according to EN 60071-1, table 2 [IEC06]. The standard
impulse withstand voltage tests was tested according to the highest pollution level. The
standard short-duration power-frequency withstand voltage tests was tested according
to EN 60071-1, paragraph 6.2 and 6.3.
All tests were successful.
http://www.hspt.tugraz.at/
90
Station
Measurement
Fault point 1
Fault point 1
91
rest of network
EIN
Resistor
AUS
EIN
Earth fault
AUS
Zcoil
t=0
EF ON
t=200ms
Resistor ON
t=500ms
Resistor OFF
EF
Zadd
t=1s
EF OFF
The tests, which have been carried out, will be described in 10.4.
92
93
Nr Fault Distance
1
0.8 km
2
0.8 km
3
0.8 km
4
0.8 km
5
0.8 km
R
0.37
0.37
0.36
0.33
0.17
k 0 =0.6
X
0.44
0.45
0.45
0.42
0.51
0
km
1.59
1.62
1.62
1.52
1.84
km
0.79
0.82
0.82
0.72
1.04
R
0.34
0.33
0.32
0.31
0.16
k 0 =0.8
X
0.39
0.40
0.39
0.38
0.43
0
km
1.41
1.44
1.41
1.37
1.55
km
0.61
0.64
0.61
0.57
0.75
Table 10.6: Results of the calculation of the relay of the field test 20kV by using the classic
algorithm at fault point 2
Nr Fault Distance
6
14.7 km
7
14.7 km
8
14.7 km
R
4.09
3.86
4.07
k 0 =0.6
X
5.72
4.36
5.71
0
km
20.5
15.6
20.4
km
5.80
0.90
5.70
R
3.35
3.33
3.36
k 0 =0.8
X
5.18
4.07
5.22
0
km
km
18.5 3.80
14.5 0.20
18.71 4.01
94
1
2
3
4
Fault Distance
3.33 +j4.96
3.33 +j4.96
3.33 +j4.96
3.33 +j4.96
k 0 2phase = 0.4 42
R
X
3.86
4.96
5.00
4.60
3.90
4.82
4.61
5.10
95
network 1
This network was a network with mainly overhead lines. The fault distance was 12,19 +j6.81 .
The capacitive current of this feeder was 11 A.
Nr: Xdistance
1
6.81
2
6.81
3
6.81
Xclassic
7.95
8
7.95
Ximproved
7.49
7.45
6.91
RFnom
40
60
100
RFcalculated
52.79
65.91
93.79
Icap Iadditional
11 A 600 A
11 A 600 A
11 A 600 A
network 2
This network was a network with mainly overhead lines. The fault distance was 5.59 +j4.7 .
The capacitive current of this feeder was 30 A.
Nr: Xdistance
1
4.7
2
4.7
3
4.7
4
4.7
5
4.7
6
4.7
7
4.7
8
4.7
9
4.7
10
4.7
Xclassic
4.91
4.60
4.94
4.84
4.84
3.86
5.34
6.25
6.47
6.77
Ximproved
4.62
4.50
4.80
4.74
4.76
3.84
5.33
4.73
5.11
5.66
RFnom
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
100
100
100
RFcalculated
19.53
16.95
19.7
12.21
12.22
12.21
15.44
62.53
75.46
72.43
Icap Iadditional
30 A 600 A
30 A 600 A
30 A 600 A
30 A 600 A
30 A 600 A
30 A 600 A
30 A 600 A
30 A 600 A
30 A 600 A
30 A 600 A
network 3
This network was a network with mainly overhead lines. The fault distance was 0.12 +j0.13 .
The capacitive current of this feeder was 27 A.
Table 11.3: Results of earth fault tests in network 3
Nr: Xdistance
1
0.13
2
0.13
3
0.13
4
0.13
5
0.13
Xclassic
0.13
0.10
0.68
1.59
1.67
Ximproved
0.13
0.10
0.33
1.07
0.40
RFnom
0.4
0.4
17
80
80
RFcalculated
0.44
0.37
17.09
35.39
39.01
Icap Iadditional
27 A 600 A
27 A 600 A
27 A 600 A
27 A 600 A
27 A 600 A
network 4
This network was a network with mainly overhead lines. The fault distance was 1.78 +j0.89 .
The capacitive current of this feeder was 11 A.
Table 11.4: Results of earth fault tests in network 4
Nr: Xdistance
1
0.89
2
0.89
3
0.89
98
Xclassic
1.03
1.25
2.25
Ximproved
1.02
0.82
1.19
RFnom
2
35
100
RFcalculated
2.4
35.05
67.37
Icap Iadditional
11 A 600 A
11 A 600 A
11 A 600 A
The results of the tests in the 30-kV-networks show that the improved algorithm increases
the accuracy significantly. Especially at high ohmic earth faults the improved algorithm
provides good results.
Nr: Xdistance
1 0.221
2 0.221
3 0.221
4 0.221
Xclassic
0.3
0.4
0.39
0.4
Ximproved
0.3
0.4
0.27
0.33
RFnom
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
RFcalculated
0.95
0.94
0.92
1.03
Icap Iadditional
0.5 A 100 A
0.5 A 100 A
0.5 A 100 A
0.5 A 100 A
In table 11.6 the results of the earth fault tests at fault point 2 are presented.
Nr: Xdistance
1 4.109
2 4.109
Xclassic
5.42
5.39
Ximproved
5.07
4.44
RFnom
2
2
RFcalculated
14.72
13.71
Icap Iadditional
36 A 100 A
36 A 100 A
The result of the simulation show, that the improved algorithm provides good results in
comparison to the classic algorithm.
99
Nr: Xdistance
1
0.17
2
0.17
3
0.17
4
0.17
Xclassic
22
2.11
1.79
0.12
Ximproved
0.8
0.4
0.4
0.1
Icap
8A
8A
8A
8A
Iadditional
100 A
100 A
800 A
500 A
In table 11.7 it can be seen, that the improved algorithm provides better results than
the classic algorithm, however, the aberration in a cable network is higher than in an
overhead line network which is according to chapter 8.3.
Another problem in this network is the short fault distance. Even with 800 A additional
current, the voltage in the faulty phase is only 160 V. This level is in the lowest range
of the voltage measurement system of the relays and causes inaccuracy of the A/D
converter.
100
Table 11.8: Results of earth fault tests in a low impedance grounded network at measurement
point 1
Nr: Xdistance
1
0.6
2
0.6
3
0.6
4
0.6
5
0.6
6
0.6
Xclassic
10.2
3.22
2.01
0.73
0.35
0.2
Ximproved
0.63
0.5
0.79
0.55
0.22
0.24
RFnom
RFcalculated
tree
3823.37
tree
4099.69
wire on earth
120.22
low fault point impedance
19.24
low fault point impedance
14.64
low fault point impedance
70.87
Icap
8A
8A
8A
8A
8A
8A
Iadditional
300 A
300 A
300 A
300 A
300 A
300 A
In table 11.9 the fault point 2, which was in a distance of 6.6 is presented.
Table 11.9: Results of earth fault tests in a low impedance grounded network at measurement
point 2
Nr: Xdistance
1
6.6
2
6.6
3
6.6
Xclassic
6.6
5.74
6.07
Ximproved
7.38
6.08
6.63
RFnom
RFcalculated
low fault point impedance
30.01
low fault point impedance
35.72
low fault point impedance
23.56
Icap
8A
8A
8A
Iadditional
300 A
300 A
300 A
The classic distance algorithm gave good results when the fault impedances were low
but the results were of no use if the fault impedance was too high. Some of the earth
fault tests, when the fault impedance was much higher (a fresh tree), did not trigger the
relay and no fault data was recorded.
The results show that also in low impedance grounded networks the improved algorithm
increases the accuracy and offers the ability for earth fault distance location at higher
ohmic earth faults.
101
500,00
400,00
300,00
Abberation in %
200,00
Classic Algorithm
Improved Algorithm
100,00
0,00
0
-100,00
-200,00
-300,00
Fault distance in Ohm
500,00
400,00
Aberration in %
300,00
200,00
Classic Algorithm
Improved Algorithm
100,00
0,00
0,00
20,00
40,00
60,00
80,00
100,00
120,00
140,00
-100,00
-200,00
Transition impedance in Ohm
Figure 11.1 and 11.2 show the comparison of the classic and the improved algorithm.
It can be seen that the accuracy increases with the increase of the fault distance. The
accuracy, if the improved algorithm is used, is constant in comparison to the classic
algorithm.
The accuracy of faults close to the measurement point is widely ranged because small
aberrations in the calculation combined with the short fault distance give high aberrations in the fault distance.
102
12 Conclusion
Earth fault compensated networks are a common used technology for operating high
and medium voltage grids. These kinds of networks have the advantage that earth fault
currents are quite small, influence (ohmic, inductive) problems can be minimised and
danger for human body can be reduced. Earth faults cause problems in networks with
overhead line, for example a broken line or trees falling into the line. Due to the reason that this network can be operated during an earth fault without interruption for
customers, the fault point has to be cleared as soon as possible. Therefore earth fault
detection methods are necessary and are being developed.
It is shown that it is possible, in principle, also to locate ground faults in compensated
networks using the classic distance protection algorithm.
The reason for choosing this type of detection algorithm is that it has already been
built into modern distance protection relays. So it would be easy to use this technology
also for earth fault detection in earth fault compensated networks. An improved version
could be easily set up on this platform because the measurement technique and logic is
already implemented.
Nowadays, this function is deactivated for compensated networks in protection devices
because the setting of the trigger level is difficult.
For low impedance faults (up to approx. 100 ) this algorithm is applicable in low
impedance or solidly grounded networks as well as in compensated networks.
In cable networks it is problematic, since this algorithm neglects the cable capacitances
completely, which would not be problematic in solidly grounded networks, however, in
compensated networks it would lead to large deviations in the computation.
More accurate distance localization can be achieved by the parallel connection of a
resistance to the arc suppressing coi., Thereby an additional zero sequence current is
added, which not only increases the accuracy but also the response threshold.
An improvement of the algorithm can be obtained by the inclusion of the fault resistance
and the knowledge of the fault current at fault location. The classic algorithm can be
extended and thus its accuracy improvement, also at high impedance ground faults can
be obtained by the estimation of I F and RF .
This improvement increases the accuracy of the calculated fault distance significantly.
Independent of the variation of the fault impedance, the load factor or the influence of
the grounding impedance, the improved algorithm gives results with deviations around
approx. 10 %.
12 Conclusion
With distributed loads along the line the detection accuracy decreases, since the current
gets lost. An idea for the improvement would be the inclusion of the distribution of
load to reach better results; additional data must be deposited in the relay.
In networks with various branches it can be difficult to detect the fault location because
there is no explicit solution. But this problem does not only exist in case of an earth
fault but also in case of a short circuit. This problem can be solved by using global
information systems (GIS) to detect the fault location and reliability methods to find
the possible fault point.
Earth fault tests proved the usability and obtained good results even with high impedance
ground faults.
Attempts in solidly grounded networks also showed, particularly in the case of high
impedance fault that, the improved algorithm also in these networks gives a relatively
exact result.
Further research is necessary regarding:
kE -factor
The knowledge of this factor is little, however, it is essential for a precise fault
location to know the value of the earth return path factor. The only and exact
way to get this value is to measure it [KF07] [AOF+ 07].
Further research is necessary regarding the variation of the factor k 0 over the year
and the influence of weather and environment.
Use of higher harmonics
During an earth fault higher harmonics can be very dominant [Obk08]. Investigations are necessary, if higher harmonics can provide additional informations for
the earth fault distance calculation.
Influence of the distributed loads
As shown in chapter 7.3, the influence of distributed loads have to be taken into
account because theses loads lead to a too short value of the fault impedance.
Including theses distribution in the algorithm can increase the accuracy of the
fault estimation.
Influence of distributed capacitances
In cable networks the line-to-earth capacitances are 10 to 20 times higher than in
networks with overhead lines [FMR+ 05]. These distributed capacitances can lead
to miscalculations [Ebe04]. Additional simulations are necessary to identify the
influence of these capacitances on the distance algorithm.
Practical implementation
To get real measurement and experience, this kind of distance protection relays
should be installed as additional devices. With these relays not only tests about
104
the usability of the algorithm under different conditions could be done but also the
implementation in the control system can be tested.
The goal is that relays which are already on the market are used and that the
extended algorithm is included to get much better and exactly results.
105
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[ABB99]
[ABB03]
[Ach03]
[AF07]
[AJ96]
[ALS02]
[And07]
[AOF+ 07]
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oger, Gerhard: Neuorientierung der Mittelspannungsnetze in landlichen
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anninen, Seppo ; Lehtonen, Matti: Method for Detection and Location
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1455-0849
[hor08]
[ibm08]
[IEC94]
IEC: IEC 60060-1 High-Voltage Test Techniques Part 1: General Definitions and Test Requirements. Ed. 2.0. Geneva, 1994
[IEC06]
[IGT03]
IGTE:
EleFAnT2D.
http://www.igte.tugraz.at/de/elefant/
elefant.html. Version: 2003
[Imr06]
[KF07]
110
Bibliography
[LH96]
[LO07]
Leikermoser, Albert ; Ortolani, Francesco: New techniques for compensated networks: tuning the petersen coil, determining the network parameters and performing earth fault current prediction and reconstruction.
In: 19th International Conference and Exhibition on Electricity Distribution, Conference Proceedings Part 1, CIRED, 2007, S. 14
[LSW07]
Leitner, Wolfgang ;
Str
ucker, A ; Wurzer, Wolfgang:
Leitungsimpedanzmessung und Kurzschlussversuche im resonanzgeerdeten
110-kV-Netz der Energie AG, Fehlerortung bei Doppelerdschl
ussen. In: e
& i, elektrotechnik und informationstechnik Heft 3.2007 (2007), S. 6872
[Mah85]
[mat08]
[Muc78]
[Neu04]
Neuwirth, Wolfgang: Grundlegende Untersuchungen zur mittelohmiginduktiven Sternpunktbehandlung. Graz, Austria, Graz University of Technology, Diplomarbeit, 2004
[nor08]
[OAFS06]
[Obk04]
[Obk08]
[omi08]
[OO04]
111
Bibliography
[OSFR08]
[Pet16]
[Pet18]
[Pol88]
[PT88]
[Pun63]
[Ren02]
Renner, Herwig: Netztechnische Analysen zur Beurteilung der Spannungsqualitat. Graz, Austria, 2002. Habilitation
[SAA00]
[Sch89]
[SE95]
[SE03]
Schegner, Peter ; Eberl, Gerit: Method for calculating the fault point
distance to a single-pole earth fault within an electric power network. 2003.
Patent EP1304580
[Sie93]
[Sie00]
[Sie03]
112
Bibliography
[TP08]
[Tra02]
Trattnig, Uwe:
Alternative Sternpunktbehandlung f
ur Mittelspannungsverteilnetze mit gemischtem Freileitungs-/Kabelanteil. Graz, Austria,
TU Graz, Diss., 2002
[upa08]
[VDE91]
[VDE99]
[OVE76]
OVE
; OVE
(Hrsg.): Beeinflussung von Fernmeldeanlagen durch Wechsel
stromanlagen mit Nennspannungen u
1976.
ber 1kV. Vienna, Austria: OVE,
Fachausschuss B Beeinflussungsfragen
[Wan36]
[War68]
[WG098]
[Wil36]
Willheim, R. ; Springer (Hrsg.): Das Erdschluproblem in Hochspannungsnetzen. Berlin, Germany : Julius Springer, 1936
113
A Simulation Environment
In chapter 4 the simulation model, which is mainly used, is presented. In this appendix
the detailed description is explained.
The detailed test data is presented in table A.1.
Source
Transformer
Line length
Arc suppressing coil
Additional resistor
Grounding impedance
USource
Yn
Z1
Z2
Z0
Z1
Z2
Z0
C1
C2
C0
line 1
line 2
line 3
Zpet
Plosses
Rwater
C1
C2
C0
Z1
Z2
ZE
20000 V
j1.375
j0.96
j0.96
j0.96
0.306+j0.355
0.306+j0.355
1.071+j1.2425
10 nF
10 nF
6 nF
10 km
5 km
5 km
j142
100 kW
100
4.4 F
4.4 F
7.4 F
40
40
0.5+j0.5
A Simulation Environment
Zline11
IP1
UP1
Cline1 /2 Cline1 /2
Cnet
Zline21
1
Cline2 /2
Zline31
ILoad
1
Cline2 /2
UF1
Cline3 /2
Zload
Zload2
Cline3 /2
Znet1
negative sequence system
ZTR2
Zline12
2
P
I
2
Up
Cline1 /2 Cline1 /2
Zline22
2
Cline2 /2
ILoad
2
Cline2 /2
UF2
Zline32
Cline3 /2
Cline3 /2
IF0
2
Cnet
ZTR
3Zpet
0
0
ITR
IP
3Zadd
Znet2
Up
Cline1 /2 Cline10/2
Cline2 /2
Cline2 /2
3ZF
UF
ILoad
UF0
Zline30
Cline3 /2
Cline3 /2
3ZE
0
Cnet
station
rest of the
network
line1
line2
fault
line3 + load
In figure A.2 the detailed model is presented, which is used for building up the matrices
(see matrix A.2) of the simulation environment.
116
In the following table the elements of the simulation model are described.
Nr.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Element
Yn
1
1
Cnet
+ Ynet
C1
C2
C4
1
Yload
Y5
Ymess
Y6
Y7
Nr.
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Element
C7
Y8
2
Yload
1
Zpd +Z9
Ymess
Y10
Y11
1
C12 +Z12
Y1
Ymess
Nr.
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Element
Y2
Y3
Y4
C3
2
2
Cnet
+ Ynet
C5
C6
C8
0
Cnet
Nr.
31
32
33
34
Element
C9
C10
C11
1
3ZF +3ZE2
1
ZE
Matrix A.1 is the element matrix. In this matrix all elements are number with 1 to 34.
Only the main diagonal is used, the rest of the matrix is zero.
117
A Simulation Environment
1
0
..
.
.
Y =
..
.
..
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
..
.
..
..
.
.
..
..
.
.
0 0 0 30 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 31 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 32 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 33 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 34
0
0
3
0
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
4
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
0
5
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
0
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
0
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
0
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
0
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
(A.1)
C=
118
1
00
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
(A.2)
The voltage source is element 1 and therefore in the voltage vector as position 1, the
rest is 0, because no other sources are in the model.
U0 = Usource
(A.3)
In the following the algorithm, which is used for the network simulation is presented
[Muc78].
Z = inv(Y )
(A.4)
Z [] = C T Z C
(A.5)
[]
U0 = C T U0
(A.6)
[]
I [] = inv(Z [] ) U0
(A.7)
I = C I []
(A.8)
U = U0 Z I
(A.9)
a=e
2i
3
1 1 1
T = 1 a2 a
1 a a2
(A.10)
(A.11)
The voltages Usym are taken at the elements 14(zero sequence system), 2(positive sequence system) and 25(negative sequence system). The current Isym is measured at
the elements 15(zero sequence system), 20(positive sequence system) and 8(negative
sequence system).
U = T Usym and I = T Isym
119
0
Source
Equivalent network
impedance
Line parameters per km
Line length
Arc suppressing coil
Additional resistor
Rest of the network
Grounding impedance
USource
Yn
Z1
Z0
Z1
Z0
C1
C0
line 1
line 2
line 3
Zpet
Plosses
Rwater
C1
C0
Z1
ZE
110000 V
j1.375
j12
j12
0.12+j0.13
0.16+j0.37
2.2 nF
2.2 nF
20 km
20 km
20 km
0.1 +j109
100 kW
400
43 F
43 F
121
0.5+j0.5
ZTR
Unet1
UP1
ZTR0
ITR
Cline2 /2
Cline1 /2 Cline10/2
Cline2 /2
Zline3
ILoad1
1
Cline2 /2
Up
Zline2
Znet1
IP
2Zadd
Cline1 /2 Cline1 /2
Cnet
2Zpet
Zline1
IP1
Cline2 /2
UF1
2ZF
Cline3 /2
Cline3 /2
Zload
IF0
UF
Zline30
ILoad
UF0
Cline3 /2
Cline3 /2
2ZE
Cnet
station
rest of the
network
line1
line2
fault
line3 + load
In figure B.2 the detailed model is presented, which is used for building up the matrices
(see matrix B.2) of the simulation environment.
In the following table the elements of the simulation model are described.
122
Nr.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Element
Yn
1
1
+ Ynet
Cnet
C1
C2
C4
1
Yload
Nr.
7
8
9
10
11
12
Element
1
Zpd +Z9
Ymess
Y10
Y11
1
C12 +Z12
1
2ZF +2ZE2
Nr.
13
14
15
16
17
18
Element
Y1
Ymess
Y2
Y3
Y4
C3
Nr.
19
20
21
22
23
Element
1
2ZE1
Cnet
C9
C10
C11
Matrix B.1 is the element matrix. In this matrix all elements are number with 1 to 23.
Only the main diagonal is used, the rest of the matrix is zero.
1
0
..
.
.
Y =
..
.
..
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
..
.
..
..
.
.
..
..
.
.
0 0 0 19 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 20 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 21 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 22 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 23
0
0
3
0
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
4
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
0
5
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
0
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
0
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
0
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
0
0
0
0
0
..
.
..
.
..
.
(B.1)
123
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
C=
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
(B.2)
The voltage source is element 1 and therefore in the voltage vector as position 1, the
rest is 0, because no other sources are in the model.
U0 = Usource
(B.3)
In the following the algorithm, which is used for the network simulation is presented
[Muc78].
Z = inv(Y )
(B.4)
Z [] = C T Z C
(B.5)
[]
U0 = C T U0
(B.6)
[]
124
I [] = inv(Z [] ) U0
(B.7)
I = C I []
(B.8)
U = U0 Z I
(B.9)
1 1
T =
1 1
(B.10)
The voltages Usym are taken at the elements 7(zero sequence system) and 2(positive
sequence system). The current Isym is measured at the elements 8(zero sequence system)
and 14(positive sequence system).
U = T Usym and I = T Isym
125
128
129
130
131
300
250
200
150
100
100
Calculated distance in % of the nominal distance
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
50
80
60
40
20
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
transitions impedance ZF in Ohm
800
900
100
200
300
1000
400
500
600
700
transitions impedance ZF in Ohm
800
900
1000
30
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
25
30
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
Calculated distance in km
Calculated distance in km
25
20
15
10
20
15
10
5
5
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
transitions impedance ZF in Ohm
800
900
1000
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
transitions impedance ZF in Ohm
800
900
1000
Figure C.10 and C.12 show that the the influence of the loads along the line leads to a
too short calculated distance. The reason for this is that the current at the measuring
point is too high in relation to the voltage at the measuring point.
132
300
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
100
Calculated distance in % of the nominal distance
250
200
150
100
50
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
80
60
40
20
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
transitions impedance ZF in Ohm
800
900
1000
300
400
500
600
700
transitions impedance ZF in Ohm
800
900
1000
30
30
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
25
20
15
10
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
25
Calculated distance in km
Calculated distance in km
200
100
20
15
10
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
transitions impedance ZF in Ohm
800
900
1000
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
transitions impedance ZF in Ohm
800
900
1000
The results in a solidly grounded network show that the common algorithm can be used.
It will not measure with that accuracy than the improved algorithm. The calculated
fault distance is always lower than fault distance (which is according to experiences
in real networks). The improved algorithm is more accurate, however it has the same
problem with distributed loads as in the compensated network.
133
300
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
100
Calculated distance in % of the nominal distance
250
200
150
100
50
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
80
60
40
20
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
transitions impedance ZF in Ohm
800
900
1000
300
400
500
600
700
transitions impedance ZF in Ohm
800
900
1000
30
30
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
25
20
15
10
fault at busbar 1
fault at busbar 2
fault at busbar 3
fault at busbar 4
fault at busbar 5
25
Calculated distance in km
Calculated distance in km
200
100
20
15
10
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
transitions impedance ZF in Ohm
800
900
1000
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
transitions impedance ZF in Ohm
800
900
1000
The result is very similar to the solidly grounded network. The accuracy of the common
algorithm is worse. The measured distance will always decrease higher fault impedances.
The improved algorithm is more accurate, however the calculated distances are smaller
than the real fault distance.
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