Soc Indic Res (2014) 119:473481

DOI 10.1007/s11205-013-0497-2

The Subjective Happiness Scale: Translation

and Preliminary Psychometric Evaluation
of a Spanish Version
Natalio Extremera Pablo Fernandez-Berrocal

Accepted: 28 October 2013 / Published online: 7 November 2013

Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013

Abstract The aim of the present study was to investigate the psychometric properties of
the Spanish version of the Subjective Happiness Scale (Lyubomirsky and Lepper in Soc
Indic Res 46:137155, 1999) in a wide sample of 1,155 participants (448 men, 707
women) from three different groups (high school students, college students, and community adult participants). The participants completed the following measures: the Spanish
version of SHS, the Satisfaction with Life Scale, the Beck Depression Inventory and the
Spielberger Trait Anxiety Inventory. The results revealed preliminary evidence of adequate
internal consistency, appropriate testretest reliability and convergent validity for research
purposes. Also, results from confirmatory factor analyses showed a clear one-factor
structure, identical with the English version. No significant sex effects were evidenced,
although differences between the high school student group and the undergraduate university group were found. In general, our findings add empirical evidence of the usefulness
of such a brief measure for the assessment of subjective happiness in large-scale national
and international studies with native Spanish-speaking populations. Finally, practical
recommendations and future lines of research are suggested.
Keywords

Subjective happiness
Spanish validation
Measurement
Well-being

1 Introduction
Most people believe that happiness is the basis of a meaningful life. In fact, it is seems to
be an ultimate desired goal for most societies (Diener et al. 2003). Diener and colleagues
definition of happiness has become widely accepted within the scientific community, who
prefer to use the label subjective well-being, defining it as a combination of three components: infrequent instances of negative affect, frequent instances of positive affect, and a

N. Extremera (&)
P. Fernandez-Berrocal

Faculty of Psychology, University of Malaga, Campus de Teatinos s/n, 29071 Malaga, Spain
e-mail: nextremera@uma.es

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N. Extremera, P. Fernandez-Berrocal

high level of life satisfaction (Diener et al. 1999). In this sense, positive affect, negative
affect, and life satisfaction are considered as indicators of the same underlying construct,
highly correlated, and typically yield a single dimension to be closely related to happiness,
because they involve evaluative judgments based on individuals life experiences.
According to this subjectivist definition, happiness might be conceptualized as a subjective
state, with the consequence that self-reporting instruments are the standard way of
determining how happy an individual is. Most individuals are capable of reporting their
degree of happiness or unhappiness, this judgment not being equivalent to a simple sum of
their recent affective reactions. Operationally, happiness is defined as a more enduring and
chronic state than momentary or daily moods, but is somewhat malleable over time and,
thus, amenable to meaningful pursuit (Lyubomirsky et al. 2005). Notably, the authors have
underlined that individuals with similar chronic happiness levels might differ in their
relative levels of hedonic patterns because this judgment is not equivalent to a simple sum
of their recent affective reactions or to their life satisfaction (Lyubomirsky et al. 2005).
In this sense, Lyubomirsky and Lepper (1999) have suggested the need for broader
approaches that tap the persons chronic happiness level. In order to achieve a measure of
overall subjective happiness, these authors have designed the Subjective Happiness
Scale (SHS) to measure the levels of happiness in a comprehensive and global sense. This
measure is a subjective assessment of whether a person is happy or unhappy. Using 14
subsamples from the United States and Russia, the authors found that the SHS presented
adequate internal consistency in samples of different ages and cultures (r = .79 to
r = .93), good testretest reliability in intervals ranging from 3 weeks (r = .61) to 1 year
(r = .55), as well as satisfying indicators of convergent validity ranging from .52 to .72
between SHS and other happiness instruments and dispositional constructs which should
be theoretically related, such as optimism, positive and negative affect, neuroticism or
disphoria (Lyubomirsky and Lepper 1999). Thus, happiness has been shown to be different
from other similar self-evaluative constructs such as self-esteem (Lyubomirsky et al.
2006).
Recent works have confirmed the psychometric properties of the English version of the
scale (Mattei and Schaefer 2004). In addition to the original English and Russian versions
(Lyubomirsky and Lepper 1999), there is also a German version (Swami et al. 2009), a
Japanese translation (Shimai et al. 2004), an Arabic adaptation (Moghnie and Kazarian
2012), a Portuguese version (Spagnoli et al. 2012), and a Malaysian adaptation (Swami
2008). These adaptations have provided evidence of the construct validity of the scale in
various cultural groups, in all cases finding acceptable indicators of temporal stability and
adequate levels of internal consistency. Likewise, all the translations have confirmed the
unitary structure of the original SHS.
The SHS is a 4-item instrument rated on a 17 Likert-type scale that measures global
subjective happiness by means of statements with which participants either self-rate
themselves or compare themselves to others. Two items request the individuals to describe
themselves using either absolute valuation criteria of their lives or else valuation criteria
with regard to others, whereas the other two items present brief descriptions of happy or
unhappy individuals and the interviewees are asked to indicate the degree to which these
descriptions fit them.
In this work, our goal is to examine and expand the evidence of validity of this
instrument in the Spanish-speaking population. To our knowledge, there is no version
validated in Spanish, and confirmation of the psychometric properties in this language
would provide evidence of the suitability of the scale in cultural groups other than the
English, Asian, or North European. Likewise, the validation of the SHS for use in Spanish-

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N. Extremera, P. Fernandez-Berrocal

high level of life satisfaction (Diener et al. 1999). In this sense, positive affect, negative
affect, and life satisfaction are considered as indicators of the same underlying construct,
highly correlated, and typically yield a single dimension to be closely related to happiness,
because they involve evaluative judgments based on individuals life experiences.
According to this subjectivist definition, happiness might be conceptualized as a subjective
state, with the consequence that self-reporting instruments are the standard way of
determining how happy an individual is. Most individuals are capable of reporting their
degree of happiness or unhappiness, this judgment not being equivalent to a simple sum of
their recent affective reactions. Operationally, happiness is defined as a more enduring and
chronic state than momentary or daily moods, but is somewhat malleable over time and,
thus, amenable to meaningful pursuit (Lyubomirsky et al. 2005). Notably, the authors have
underlined that individuals with similar chronic happiness levels might differ in their
relative levels of hedonic patterns because this judgment is not equivalent to a simple sum
of their recent affective reactions or to their life satisfaction (Lyubomirsky et al. 2005).
In this sense, Lyubomirsky and Lepper (1999) have suggested the need for broader
approaches that tap the persons chronic happiness level. In order to achieve a measure of
overall subjective happiness, these authors have designed the Subjective Happiness
Scale (SHS) to measure the levels of happiness in a comprehensive and global sense. This
measure is a subjective assessment of whether a person is happy or unhappy. Using 14
subsamples from the United States and Russia, the authors found that the SHS presented
adequate internal consistency in samples of different ages and cultures (r = .79 to
r = .93), good testretest reliability in intervals ranging from 3 weeks (r = .61) to 1 year
(r = .55), as well as satisfying indicators of convergent validity ranging from .52 to .72
between SHS and other happiness instruments and dispositional constructs which should
be theoretically related, such as optimism, positive and negative affect, neuroticism or
disphoria (Lyubomirsky and Lepper 1999). Thus, happiness has been shown to be different
from other similar self-evaluative constructs such as self-esteem (Lyubomirsky et al.
2006).
Recent works have confirmed the psychometric properties of the English version of the
scale (Mattei and Schaefer 2004). In addition to the original English and Russian versions
(Lyubomirsky and Lepper 1999), there is also a German version (Swami et al. 2009), a
Japanese translation (Shimai et al. 2004), an Arabic adaptation (Moghnie and Kazarian
2012), a Portuguese version (Spagnoli et al. 2012), and a Malaysian adaptation (Swami
2008). These adaptations have provided evidence of the construct validity of the scale in
various cultural groups, in all cases finding acceptable indicators of temporal stability and
adequate levels of internal consistency. Likewise, all the translations have confirmed the
unitary structure of the original SHS.
The SHS is a 4-item instrument rated on a 17 Likert-type scale that measures global
subjective happiness by means of statements with which participants either self-rate
themselves or compare themselves to others. Two items request the individuals to describe
themselves using either absolute valuation criteria of their lives or else valuation criteria
with regard to others, whereas the other two items present brief descriptions of happy or
unhappy individuals and the interviewees are asked to indicate the degree to which these
descriptions fit them.
In this work, our goal is to examine and expand the evidence of validity of this
instrument in the Spanish-speaking population. To our knowledge, there is no version
validated in Spanish, and confirmation of the psychometric properties in this language
would provide evidence of the suitability of the scale in cultural groups other than the
English, Asian, or North European. Likewise, the validation of the SHS for use in Spanish-

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475

speaking groups would help cross-cultural research on well-being and happiness, particularly, to determine the cultural differences assigned to the meaning of happiness and the
differential antecedents associated with each Spanish-speaking country (Diener and Suh
2000). The goal of this work, therefore, is to provide evidence of the psychometric
properties of the Spanish version of the SHS in a large sample of Spanish high school and
university students and community adults.

2 Method
2.1 Participants
The total sample comprised 1,155 participants (448 men and 707 women), composed of
three different groups: high school students (N = 428; 169 men and 259 women, mean
age = 16.69, SD = 0.66), college students (N = 466; 153 men and 313 women, mean
age = 22.07, SD = 1.94) and adult participants recruited from the community (N = 261;
126 men and 135 women, mean age = 48.93, SD = 9.44). The mean age for the total
sample ranged from 16 to 80 years (M = 26.21, SD = 13.43). To calculate testretest
reliability, we used groups of 155 university students (26 men and 129 women). Their age
ranged from 20 to 50 years (M = 23.34, SD = 5.05). They completed the scale twice at an
interval of 68 weeks.
2.2 Instruments
2.2.1 Socio-demographic Data
All the participants provided basic socio-demographic data about their age and sex.
Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS; Lyubomirsky and Lepper 1999). The SHS was
translated into Spanish by the first author of this work and the back-translation was carried
out by a bilingual person. This 4-item Likert-type scale measures global subjective happiness by means of statements with which participants either self-rate themselves or
compare themselves to others (see Appendix). The scale has an adequate unitary
structure and temporal stability confirmed in 14 samples, showing moderate correlations
with constructs such as self-esteem, depression, satisfaction, or neuroticism (Lyubomirsky
and Lepper 1999; Schwartz et al. 2002).
Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Diener et al. 1985). This scale comprises 5 selfreferencing statements on perceived global life satisfaction. Participants completed the
Spanish version of the SWLS (Atienza et al. 2003). Both English and Spanish versions
have shown evidence for discriminant validity and appropriate internal consistency (Atienza et al. 2003; Diener et al. 1985).
Beck Depression Inventory (BDI; Beck et al. 1979). The BDI is a popular scale used for
the assessment of the intensity of depressive symptoms within both psychiatric and normal
populations. The BDI consists of 21 items that assess the intensity of depressive symptomatology, such as negative mood, pessimism, guilt, sense of failure, suicidal thoughts,
fatigue, and weight loss. For each item, respondents are asked to indicate which of four
statements best describes the way they were feeling during the past week. The statements
are scored according to the severity of the symptomatology they reflect (0 = symptom is
absent; 3 = symptom is present and severe). The BDI is a reliable and well-validated
measure of depressive symptoms, discriminates sub-types of depression, and differentiates

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depression from anxiety (e.g., Beck et al. 1988). A total depression score is obtained by
summing the rating of the 21 items, yielding scores that range from 0 to 63. We used the
Spanish adaptation (Sanz and Vazquez 1998). The Spanish version has also shown adequate psychometric properties (a = .83).
Trait subscale of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-T; Spielberger et al. 1983).
The 20-item STAI-T instrument was used to measure stable anxiety symptoms. The
STAI-T is one of the more popular measures of general anxiety proneness currently in
use. It consists of 20 statements in which respondents are asked to rate their level of
agreement on 4-point scales (1 = almost never, 4 = almost always). Participants are
asked to indicate the extent to which they generally felt what was described in the
statement (e.g., I feel nervous and restless). The validity of the STAI scales is
reasonably strong; studies have demonstrated that the scale correlates highly with selfreport, behavioural, and physiological measures of anxiety (Spielberger et al. 1983).
Scores range between 20 and 80, with higher scores on a sub-scale indicating more
anxious responses in the individual. We used the Spanish adaptation (Spielberger et al.
1994). The internal consistency of the STAI subscales is adequate, ranging from .83 to
.92.
2.3 Procedure
The sample of high school and college students voluntarily completed the questionnaires in
their classrooms, as part of a more extensive investigation of emotional aspects and wellbeing. After receiving brief instructions, they completed the questionnaires during a study
session and in the presence of the experimenter. In the case of the community adult
participants, the completed questionnaires were obtained by means of the snowball
methodology (Hendricks and Blanken 1992), which consists of participants locating and
assessing other participants, and is often used to collect data from samples that are
otherwise difficult to contact (Thompson 2002). Thus, using this method, we collected a
sample of community adult participants with the aid of the undergraduate students. The
students were instructed to find two participants over 30 years of age from the general
population and ask them to complete the questionnaire in a single session. To avoid
possible bias, in all the groups, the questionnaires were anonymous and confidential, and
none of the participants received any incentive for their participation.

3 Results
3.1 Descriptive Statistics
The mean score in total score in SHS for the present sample was 5.09 (SD = 1.03). Mean
total scores in all measured variables for three groups (high school students, college
students, and community adult participants) are presented in Table 1. The mean score in
Spanish SHS is in accordance with those obtained in other countries. For example, it is
higher than that of Malaysia (M = 4.42) (Swami 2008), Russia (M = 4.02) (Lyubomirsky
and Lepper 1999), the Philippines (M = 4.85) (Swami et al. 2009), and lower than that of
countries like Austria (M = 5.18) (Swami et al. 2009), England (M = 5.22) (Swami et al.
2009), or the United States (M = 5.62) (Lyubomirsky and Lepper 1999).

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Table 1 Mean total scores in all measured variables

Total sample
N = 1,155
M (SD)

High school students

N = 428
M (SD)

College students
N = 466
M (SD)

Community adults
N = 261
M (SD)

SHS

5.09 (1.03)

4.98 (1.04)

5.17 (1.02)

5.12 (1.03)

SWLS

4.86 (1.16)

4.75 (1.19)

4.91 (1.11)

4.98 (1.18)

BDI
STAI-T

6.71 (6.98)

6.99 (7.37)

6.50 (6.46)

6.63 (7.22)

42.64 (9.50)

44.05 (8.81)

42.37 (9.47)

40.81 (10.30)

3.2 Internal Consistency

The internal consistency coefficient (Cronbachs a) for the Spanish version of the SHS was
.81 for the total sample (Cronbachs a = .80 and .82 for men and women, respectively).
Additionally, Cronbachs a for the high school students, college students and community
adults samples were adequate, and item-total correlation range of .43.76 (see Table 2).
These findings are in accordance with the Cronbachs alphas found in the adaptations of
the scale carried out in other languages (Lyubomirsky and Lepper 1999; Mattei and
Schaefer 2004; Shimai et al. 2004; Swami 2008; Swami et al. 2009).
3.3 TestRetest Reliability
To assess the scales testretest reliability, a sub-sample of 155 college students (total
college students sample = 463) who were enrolled on a psychology course and volunteered to participate also in the testretest study was given the Spanish SHS to complete
about 68 weeks after their first response. This size sub-sample for testretest study was
similar to original testretest studies by Lyubomirsky and Lepper (1999). Students were
asked to use a unique identifier on both occasions so that data collected at time 1 could be
matched to data collected at time 2.
At the first administration, Cronbachs alpha for this subgroup was also .81, and it
remained high in the retest phase (a = .82). The correlations between the means of the
testretest phase was .72, suggesting that testretest reliability is within adequate levels for
the Spanish version of the SHS, and in line with the mean testretest reliability (M = .72)
of the original version of the scale (Lyubomirsky and Lepper 1999).
3.4 Confirmatory Factor Analysis
In order to confirm the one-dimensional nature of the Spanish SHS, a confirmatory factor
analysis was also conducted using EQS (Bentler 1995). A one-factor model was found for
the hypothesized model. Following the recommendations by Schweizer (2010), we used
the normed v2 due to the number of dependencies (Bentler 2007). A normed v2 below 2
suggests a good model fit and below 3 an acceptable model fit (Bollen 1989). Our normed
v2 = 6.79 indicated an insufficient degree of fit; however, Schweizer (2010) suggests that
in large samples the selection of larger limits may be necessary. The rest of the statistics,
indeed, showed an acceptable fit. In this sense, root mean square error of approximation
(RMSEA) values\0.05 indicate a good model fit and\0.08 an acceptable model fit. Based
on this criterion, the RMSEA was found to be .07, which was equal to the proposed
acceptable value. The comparative fit index (CFI) was used to assess the goodness-of-fit.

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478

Table 2 Cronbachs a and item-total correlation for the different samples

High school students

College students

Community adults

Item 1

.75

.69

.76

Item 2

.64

.63

.71

Item 3

.55

.72

.66

Item 4

.43

.57

.49

.79

.83

.83

Cronbachs a
Total

All rs are significant at the p \ .001 level

By this criterion, the one factor solution (CFI = 0.99) fits the data adequately. Similarly
the goodness-of-fit index (GFI) was found to be satisfactory (GFI = .99). The standardized
root mean square residual (SRMSR) was also used to assess the fit of the model. The
SRMSR value was smaller than .05 (SRMSR = 0.02) and indicated a good fit of the
proposed model to the observed data. In conclusion, adequate goodness-of-fit indices were
found for the original one-factor structure proposed by Lyubomirsky and Lepper (1999)
(CFI = .99; GFI = .99; RMSEA = .06; SRMSR = .02), which indicated that a one-factor
structure of the Spanish SHS was also a good-fitting model. Similarly, the loading factors
of all the four items were statistically significant. Their loadings were for item 1 = .86; for
item 2 = 0.78; for item 3: 0.72; and for item 4: 0.54.
3.5 Convergent Validity
As evidence of convergent validity, the SHS scores correlated positively and significantly
with the SWLS (r = .67) in the total sample. Also, the mean SHS scores displayed significant and negative relations with the BDI (r = -.52) and STAI scores (r = -.60).
Similar correlations between SHS scores with SWLS, BDI and STAI scores were observed
in the high school students, college students and community adult sample (see Table 3).
These data are consistent with the findings of Lyubomirsky and Lepper (1999), Swami
(2008) and Spagnoli et al. (2012) and suggest that the Spanish version of the SHS exhibits
promising evidences of convergent validity.
3.6 Differences by Sex and Group
A two-way ANCOVA was calculated in order to examine main and interaction effects
between sex (men and women) and groups (high school, college students, and community
adults), and age as a covariate. The results showed that neither the main effect of sex nor
the Sex 9 Group interaction was significant, indicating that scores in happiness did not
differ significantly between men and women in the two groups. However, a significant
main effect of group was found, F(2, 1,149) = 3.87, p \ .05, g2 = .007. Post-hoc, a
TukeyKramer test showed that high school student group reported lower scores in happiness scores (p \ .05) than college student group (M = 4.97 vs. M = 5.19), but there
were no such group differences with the adult community sample. That is, the adult sample
did not significantly differ in their happiness scores (M = 5.13) from the other two groups.

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Table 3 Zero-order correlations between SHS and other variables in the study for the different samples
High school students
SWLS

College students

Community adults

.65

.65

.73

BDI

-.53

-.48

-.59

STAI

-.53

-.61

-.61

All rs are significant at the p \ .001 level

4 Discussion
This work presents a short, useful, and internationally acknowledged measure to assess
happiness in Spanish-speaking collectives. Our results show that the Spanish translation of
the SHS (Lyubomirsky and Lepper 1999) is a reliable and valid measure to be used in
Spanish samples. Likewise, this scale could also be used in other societies where the
maternal language is Spanish, such as Latin American countries. Despite being a relatively
brief measure, this characteristic makes it a desirable instrument, especially when
researchers have time limits or they need to administer an extensive battery of instruments.
Moreover, despite its briefness, the Spanish SHS, in consonance with the original version,
has shown good levels of internal consistency and an unitary factor structure. Also, an
adequate temporal stability at 68 weeks was found in this study, suggesting that happiness
might have a stable value over time, but also that happiness might itself have a modifiable
component as a consequence of peoples life events and intentional activities (Lyubomirsky et al. 2005).
Moreover, the scale presented the expected significant correlations with life satisfaction,
although they were not high enough to be considered the same construct, suggesting
adequate convergent validity. Also, the scale was negatively and significantly associated
with symptoms of depression and anxiety. In all, the Spanish version of the SHS has shown
clear evidence of convergent validity, contributing to provide empirical evidence to the
construct validity of this tool developed by Lyubomirsky and Lepper (1999).
Likewise, the mean scores in our sample are within the ranges achieved by other
cultural groups and the instrument could therefore be employed to carry out cross-cultural
studies (Swami et al. 2009). Future research should examine possible cultural differences
in the values associated with well-being in the diverse Spanish-speaking countries, the
criteria used by such societies to define fulfilment in their lives, and whether or not there
are really differences in these individuals levels of happiness in their respective nations as
a consequence of achieving the predetermined social values (Diener and Suh 2000).
In accordance with other versions of the scale, the results of our study found no
significant group differences in happiness as a function of sex, although modest differences
as a function of group were observed between the sample of high school students and the
sample of university students. In contrast, no differences were found between the sample of
community adults and the rest of the groups. The differences among the groups may be a
function of age, although Diener and Suh (1998) are cautious about such statements and
propose the possibility that another series of personal variables (i.e., health problems,
income, work, marriage, children, etc.) may affect the onset of negative affect at certain
ages. In any case, international studies show that well-being does not decline with age and
suffers few changes over the life span (Diener et al. 1999). Future research should select
samples that are more extensive and heterogeneous in age and carry out longitudinal
studies to examine these issues in depth.

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480

With regard to the limitations, our study used a sample of university and high school
students to validate the instrument, which, logically enough, does not represent the entire
population. Similarly, the non-representativeness of sample due to the use of non-random
sampling technique limits the generalization of our results. Other limitation of the study
concern its small sample size used for the testretest. Future research should include heterogeneous and larger samples that allow broader generalization of the results. For a more
complete validation process, it would be interesting for future works to provide data about
its factor invariance across age or gender groups or using more innovative techniques such
as differential item functioning in validating the scale. Likewise, future research should also
include other published instruments of happiness or subjective well-being in order to
examine the degree of association of the SHS with these scales. As was carried out with the
original version, dispositional constructs with which happiness has been theoretically and
empirically associated in past investigations, such as self-esteem, positive affect, negative
emotionality, optimism, extraversion, etc., should also be included in order to establish the
discriminant validity of the scale with regard to these dimensions (Lyubomirsky et al. 2006).
Ultimately, our results suggest that the Spanish version of the SHS is a reliable and valid
measure of happiness in Spanish samples. Although more research is needed to confirm our
preliminary findings, the contribution of this tool to the field of psychological assessment may
be a noteworthy step for researchers who are interested in subjective well-being. Besides,
within the incipient field of positive psychology, our findings allows us to expand the list of
available instruments for measuring the levels of happiness in Spanish speaker population.

Appendix
Spanish Subjective Happiness Scale
Escala espaola de Felicidad Subjetiva
Instrucciones para los participantes: Por favor, para cada una de las siguientes afirmaciones y/o preguntas rodee
con un crculo el nmero que cree que le describe de forma ms apropiada.
1. En general, me considero:
1
2
una persona
no muy feliz

7
una persona
muy feliz

2. Comparado con la mayora de la gente que me rodea, me considero:

1
menos
feliz

7
ms
feliz

3. Algunas personas suelen ser muy felices. Disfrutan la vida a pesar de lo que ocurra, afrontando la
mayora de las cosas. En qu medida te consideras una persona as?
1
nada en
absoluto

7
en gran
medida

4. Algunas personas suelen ser muy poco felices. Aunque no estn deprimidas, no parecen tan felices
como ellas quisieran. En qu medida te consideras una persona as?
1
nada en
absoluto

123

7
en gran
medida

Spanish Subjective Happiness Scale

481

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